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li21d dational Research Conseil national
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FIRE RESISTANCE OF REINFORCED

CONCRETE COLUMNS AND WALLS

by David E. Allen and Tiam T. Lie

Reprinted, with permission, from

Proceedings of the Canadian Structural Concrete Conference
Held in Ottawa, Canada, June 1977
-
p. 17 33

DBR Paper No. 784

Division of Building Research

Price 25 cents OTTAWA NRCC 16818

 SOMMAIRE

Des immeubles d e g r a n d e h a u t e u r e n bEton d e c o n s t r u c t i o n

r 6 c e n t e comportent d e s murs p o r t e u r s e t d e s poteaux
r e c t a n g u l a i r e s en b g t o n pouvant c t r e expos6s a u f e u s u r
p l u s d ' u n cCt6. Les degrEs d e r g s i s t a n c e a u f e u de c e s
Elsments, 6 t a b l i s 2 p a r t i r de p o t e a u x p o r t e u r s c a r r S s e t
exposgs aux flammes s u r t o u s l e u r s co^tEs semblent main-
t e n a n t c t r e b e a u c o u p t r o p modgr6s. Des 6 t u d e s a n a l y t i q u e s
s u r l e s propri6t6s des matsriaux influencges par l a
t e m p g r a t u r e peuvent s e r v i r a u c a l c u l d e l a t e m p g r a t u r e ,
d e s c o n t r a i n t e s , d e s mouvements e t d e l a r 6 s i s t a n c e d ' u n e
s t r u c t u r e d u r a n t un i n c e n d i e ; c e s 6 t u d e s peuvent a u s s i
remplacer l e s e s s a i s c o d t e u x d e t e n u e a u f e u . On a
e f f e c t u 6 une t e l l e 6 t u d e dans l e c a s de poteaux e t d e
murs en b g t o n arm6 e t on a 6 t a b l i d e nouveaux degrEs d e
r g s i s t a n c e a u f e u . L ' a r t i c l e t r a i t e d e s e f f e t s de
l ' i n t e r a c t i o n s t r u c t u r a l e e t d e l ' e f f r i t e m e n t du b6ton
s u r l a r g s i s t a n c e a u f e u a i n s i que d e l a r e l a t i o n e n t r e
l e s e x i g e n c e s de r 6 s i s t a n c e a u f e u e t l a p r o t e c t i o n e n
cas d ' i n c e n d i e , e n p a r t i c u l i e r dans l e s immeubles d e
grande hauteur.

-- -
-
 FIRE RESISTANCE OF REINFORCED CONCRETE

COLUMNS AND WALLS

BY David E . Allen and Tiam T . Lie

SYPNOSIS

Recent h i g h - r i s e concrete b u i l d i n g s c o n t a i n load-bearing w a l l s

and r e c t a n g u l a r c o n c r e t e columns t h a t may b e s u b j e c t e d t o f i r e on
more than one s i d e . E x i s t i n g f i r e r a t i n g s f o r t h e s e members, based
on a f u l l y loaded square column exposed t o f i r e on a l l s i d e s , a p p e a r
to be excessively conservative.

A n a l y t i c a l s t u d i e s based on temperature-dependent m a t e r i a l
p r o p e r t i e s can b e used t o c a l c u l a t e temperature, s t r e s s e s , movements,
c o n s t r a i n t f o r c e s and s t r e n g t h of a s t r u c t u r e during f i r e and t o
r e p l a c e c o s t l y f i r e t e s t s f o r determining f i r e r e s i s t a n c e . Such a
s t u d y was c a r r i e d o u t f o r r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e columns and w a l l s and
new f i r e r a t i n g s determined. The paper d i s c u s s e s t h e e f f e c t o f
s t r u c t u r a l i n t e r a c t i o n and s p a l l i n g on f i r e r e s i s t a n c e and t h e
r e l a t i o n o f f i r e r e s i s t a n c e requirements t o t h e g e n e r a l problem o f
f i r e safety, particularly for high-rise buildings.

KEYWORDS

f i r e r e s i s t a n c e ; c o n c r e t e ; columns; w a l l s ; s t r u c t u r a l i n t e r a c t i o n ;
s p a l l i n g ; design c r i t e r i a .
D . E . Allen and T.T. Lie a r e r e s e a r c h o f f i c e r s with t h e Division o f
Building Research, National Research Council o f Canada. D. E. A l l e n
h a s been engaged i n s t r u c t u r a l e n g i n e e r i n g r e s e a r c h i n t h e a r e a s o f
s t r u c t u r a l s a f e t y and l i m i t s t a t e s d e s i g n , f l o o r v i b r a t i o n and f i r e
r e s i s t a n c e of c o n c r e t e s t r u c t u r e s . T.T. Lie has been engaged i n
f i r e r e s e a r c h i n the a r e a s o f s t r u c t u r a l f i r e r e s i s t a n c e and
structural f i r e safety.

With t h e i n c r e a s i n g use o f s t r u c t u r a l c o n c r e t e i n h i g h - r i s e
b u i l d i n g s t h e r e i s a need f o r c l o s e r s t u d y o f t h e problem o f
s t r u c t u r a l f i r e r e s i s t a n c e : what i s r e q u i r e d ? ; what do c o n c r e t e
s t r u c t u r e s a c t u a l l y provide? T h i s paper d i s c u s s e s t h e q u e s t i o n with
p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e t o l o a d - b e a r i n g columns and w a l l s .

As i n t r o d u c t i o n a b r i e f review f o l l o w s o f how s t r u c t u r a l f i r e
r e s i s t a n c e r e l a t e s t o t h e g e n e r a l problem o f f i r e s a f e t y i n
buildings, especially high-rise buildings.

STRUCTURAL FIRE RESISTANCE AND FIRE SAFETY OF BUILDINGS

Of fundamental concern i s human s a f e t y - occupants may b e

k i l l e d o r i n j u r e d d u r i n g f i r e from a s p h y x i a t i o n , h e a t , b u r n s ,
s t r u c t u r a l collapse o r possibly as a r e s u l t o f a panic s i t u a t i o n .
Although t h e death r a t e from f i r e i n Canada (Table I ) i s about an
o r d e r o f magnitude lower t h a n t h a t f o r c a r a c c i d e n t s , i t i s about
two o r d e r s o f magnitude h i g h e r t h a n t h a t f o r s t r u c t u r a l c o l l a p s e i f
c o n s t r u c t i o n a c c i d e n t s a r e excluded. The p r e s e n t f i g u r e f o r f i r e ,
however, r e p r e s e n t s f a t a l i t i e s caused mainly by a s p h y x i a t i o n and
burns, and t h e s e a r e c o n t r o l l e d more by measures such a s f i r e
d e t e c t i o n , smoke c o n t r o l and s p r i n k l e r s than by s t r u c t u r a l f i r e
r e s i s t a n c e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , human s a f e t y i n h i g h - r i s e b u i l d i n g s i s
c l o s e l y l i n k e d with s t r u c t u r a l f i r e r e s i s t a n c e .

A second c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s economics; f i n a n c i a l l o s s e s from f i r e

damage can b e very l a r g e . Such l o s s e s i n c l u d e c o n t e n t s , production
and b u i l d i n g r e p a i r o r replacement. The economic goal i s t o
minimize t h e t o t a l f i r e c o s t , which i n c l u d e s t h e c o s t o f f i r e
p r o t e c t i o n p l u s expected l o s s , expected l o s s b e i n g equal t o t h e
p r o b a b i l i t y o f f i r e t i m e s t h e f i r e l o s s . Because t h e p o t e n t i a l l y
large f i r e l o s s also represents a considerable expenditure o f
energy, t h e c o s t o f t h a t energy may a l s o have t o b e c o n s i d e r e d i n
the future.

F i r e p r o t e c t i o n i s t h e means of c o n t r o l l i n g t h e above-mentioned
hazards. Appropriate measures include: f i r e prevention; f i r e
d e t e c t i o n ; f i r e suppression ( i n c l u d i n g s p r i n k l e r s and f i r e
f i g h t i n g ) ; communication; e v a c u a t i o n , refuge o r rescue; u s e of
b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s with a low c o n t r i b u t i o n t o f i r e growth; smoke
c o n t r o l { p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r h i g h - r i s e b u i l d i n g s ) ; f i r e containment;
s t r u c t u r a l s t a b i l i t y . With t h e p o s s i b l e exception of t h e f i r s t two,
a l l o f t h e s e a r e involved i n b u i l d i n g d e s i g n . Design f o r f i r e
safety i s therefore a multi-disciplinary a c t i v i t y . Structural
e n g i n e e r s should concern themselves p r i m a r i l y w i t h f i r e containment
and s t r u c t u r a l s t a b i l i t y , o r s t r u c t u r a l f i r e r e s i s t a n c e .

F i r e containment o r compartmentation i s a fundamental p r i n c i p l e

o f f i r e c o n t r o l and f i r e s a f e t y . The b a s i c idea i s t o c o n t r o l t h e
spread o f f i r e o r t o prevent f i r e from e n t e r i n g refuge a r e a s such
a s f i r e s t a i r s . F i r e containment r e q u i r e s n o t o n l y t h a t t h e r e be
no gaps through which f i r e can spread, b u t a l s o t h a t a d j a c e n t
compartments n o t h e a t t o i g n i t i o n temperature. S t r u c t u r a l c o l l a p s e
o b v i o u s l y means l o s s o f f i r e containment, and t h i s i s why s t r u c t u r a l
f i r e r e s i s t a n c e and f i r e containment a r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d . Figure 1
i n d i c a t e s how f i r e containment reduces f i r e h a z a r d s f o r l a r g e
b u i l d i n g s . Without f i r e containment t h e expected l o s s goes up
roughly a s t h e square o f t h e f l o o r a r e a .

F i r e containment i s r e g u l a t e d in b u i l d i n g codes by s p e c i f y i n g
minimum f i r e r e s i s t a n c e r a t i n g s f o r t h e components between compart-
ments and f o r t h e s t r u c t u r e supporting them. The f i r e r e s i s t a n c e
r a t i n g f o r any component i s t h e number o f hours o f s a t i s f a c t o r y
performance during a standard f i r e t e s t . The r e q u i r e d r a t i n g s a r e
r e l a t e d t o t h e f i r e loads (combustible c o n t e n t k ) l i k e l y to occur
and t o t h e r i s k s and hazards involved i n case o f f a i l u r e ; i n t h e
National Building Code o f Canada (1) they range from 1 / 3 t o 4 hours,
w i t h 2 hours s p e c i f i e d f o r h i g h - r i s e o f f i c e and r e s i d e n t i a l
b u i l d i n g s . To achieve f i r e containment, however, i t i s n o t
s u f f i c i e n t t h a t w a l l s and f l o o r s between compartments have a minimum
f i r e r a t i n g . The f i r e may f i n d some o t h e r r o u t e , f o r example, from
s t o r e y t o s t o r e y v i a windows.

S t r u c t u r a l f i r e r e s i s t a n c e i s a l s o d e f i n e d i n b u i l d i n g codes i n
terms o f hours o f s a t i s f a c t o r y performance during t h e s t a n d a r d f i r e
t e s t and t h e requirements a r e t h e same a s f o r f i r e containment;
e . g . , 2 hours f o r most h i g h - r i s e b u i l d i n g s .

Another d e f i n i t i o n o f s t r u c t u r a l f i r e r e s i s t a n c e i s i n terms
o f f i r e l o a d . During any f i r e t h e s t r u c t u r e weakens u n t i l a
minimum load-bearing c a p a c i t y ( s t r e n g t h ) i s reached a f t e r burn-out
o f t h e f i r e l o a d . This minimum s t r e n g t h d e c r e a s e s with i n c r e a s e i n
f i r e load and t h e c r i t i c a l f i r e load i s t h a t f o r which t h e a s s o c i a -
t e d minimum s t r e n g t h i s equal t o t h e a p p l i e d s t r u c t u r a l l o a d . I t i s
t h e f i r e load (combustible c o n t e n t s ) j u s t s u f f i c i e n t t o cause
s t r u c t u r a l c o l l a p s e . The f i r e r e s i s t a n c e s a f e t y f a c t o r i s defined
a s t h e r a t i o o f t h e c r i t i c a l f i r e l o a d t o t h e expected f i r e l o a d .
This d e f i n i t i o n i s more c l e a r l y r e l a t e d t o t h e l i m i t s t a t e of
s t r u c t u r a l c o l l a p s e and may e v e n t u a l l y r e p l a c e t h e conventional
definition.
 REQUIRED STRUCTURAL FIRE RESISTANCE

How much s t r u c t u r a l f i r e r e s i s t a n c e i s n e c e s s a r y ? The answer

t o t h i s q u e s t i o n r e q u i r e s a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f human s a f e t y and
economics (and energy c o n s e r v a t i o n ) .

With regard t o t h e economic a s p e c t , r e s u l t s o f an economic-

r i s k s t u d y f o r a t y p i c a l b u i l d i n g (2) a r e shown i n Figure 2. They
indicate that, i n general, s t r u c t u r a l f i r e r e s i s t a n c e i s not
economic f o r normal small b u i l d i n g s , although i t i s f o r medium o r
l a r g e b u i l d i n g s o r f o r b u i l d i n g s w i t h v a l u a b l e c o n t e n t s . The
economic f i r e r e s i s t a n c e s a f e t y f a c t o r should, i n f a c t , i n c r e a s e
with t h e s i z e o f t h e b u i l d i n g t o compensate f o r t h e g r e a t l y
increased probable f i r e l o s s i n l a r g e buildings (Figure 1 ) .
Incidentally, the c o s t of providing f i r e r e s i s t a n c e i n concrete
s t r u c t u r e s i s very s m a l l compared t o t h a t f o r o t h e r f i r e p r o t e c t i o n
measures.

How much s t r u c t u r a l f i r e r e s i s t a n c e i s needed f o r human s a f e t y ?

For low b u i l d i n g s , t h e s t r u c t u r a l f i r e r e s i s t a n c e r e q u i r e d f o r
human s a f e t y need o n l y b e o f t h e o r d e r o f 1/2 hour, o r enough time
t o c l e a r t h e b u i l d i n g completely. This assumes, o f c o u r s e , t h a t
during t h i s time t h e r e a r e s t a i r s and e x i t s a d e q u a t e l y f r e e o f f i r e
and smoke. For t a l l b u i l d i n g s , however, t h e s i t u a t i o n i s q u i t e
d i f f e r e n t . Evacuation time i n c r e a s e s c o n s i d e r a b l y i n v e r y t a l l ,
h e a v i l y p o p u l a t e d b u i l d i n g s . In a d d i t i o n , t h e r e a r e p e o p l e who may
n o t b e capable o f descending many s t a i r s under emergency c o n d i t i o n s .
Furthermore, firemen r e q u i r e s a f e a c c e s s f o r f i r e f i g h t i n g and
r e s c u e . F i n a l l y , i t may b e p r e f e r a b l e t o u s e r e f u g e a r e a s r a t h e r
t h a t a t t e m p t t o e v a c u a t e t h e b u i l d i n g . For t h e s e r e a s o n s t h e r e
should b e a low r i s k o f c o l l a p s e , assuming complete b u r n - o u t o f any
compartment. I t appears t h a t s t r u c t u r a l f i r e r e s i s t a n c e o f v e r y
t a l l s t r u c t u r e s should b e g r e a t e r than t h a t r e q u i r e d f o r f i r e
containment a l o n e . Before any changes i n e x i s t i n g requirements can
b e proposed, however, more s t u d i e s a r e r e q u i r e d .

STRUCTURAL FIRE RESISTANCE OF REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMNS AND WALLS

E x i s t i n g f i r e r e s i s t a n c e r a t i n g s f o r c o n c r e t e columns and w a l l s
given i n Supplement No. 2, National B u i l d i n g Code o f Canada ( 3 ) ~
r e q u i r e a minimum t h i c k n e s s f o r members f u l l y exposed t o f i r e o f
about 12 inches t o p a s s t h e 2-hour requirement f o r most t a l l b u i l d -
i n g s . This i s u s u a l l y e a s i l y met by columns, b u t i t m y be a
problem f o r unprotected w a l l s l o c a t e d w i t h i n a f i r e compartment.

F i r e r e s i s t a n c e h a s t r a d i t i o n a l l y been determined by s t a n d a r d
f i r e t e s t s of i s o l a t e d members c a r r y i n g s p e c i f i e d l o a d s . I t can
a l s o b e determined by s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s , i n t h e same way a s f o r
normal s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n . Using t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f h e a t t r a n s f e r , a
temperature a n a l y s i s o f t h e member c r o s s - s e c t i o n under s t a n d a r d
f i r e c o n d i t i o n s i s c a r r i e d o u t . T h i s is followed by a s t r e s s
a n a l y s i s o f t h e s e c t i o n , t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t temperature s t r a i n s ,
a p p l i e d l o a d s and s t r e s s - s t r a i n p r o p e r t i e s of c o n c r e t e ( F i g u r e 3)
and s t e e l (Figure 4) a t high t e m p e r a t u r e . As may b e s e e n i n
F i g u r e 5, a column o r wall s e c t i o n i s h i g h l y s t r e s s e d n e a r t h e o u t -
s i d e d u r i n g f i r e and cracked i n t h e c e n t r e . As t h e f i r e p r o g r e s s e s ,
t h e o u t e r c o n c r e t e weakens, t h e s t r e s s e s a r e r e d i s t r i b u t e d toward
t h e c e n t r e , and t h e s e c t i o n f a i l s when t h e u l t i m a t e s t r e s s d i s t r i b u -
t i o n i s r e a c h e d . Ultimate s e c t i o n s t r e n g t h can t h e r e f o r e b e c a l c u -
l a t e d f o r any temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n and p l o t t e d a s a f u n c t i o n o f
time of f i r e . The f i r e r e s i s t a n c e i s t h e time it t a k e s f o r s t r e n g t h
t o b e reduced t o t h e l e v e l o f t h e a p p l i e d l o a d . Figure 6 shows
s t r e n g t h i n t e r a c t i o n curves d u r i n g f i r e f o r a t y p i c a l column, f i r e
r e s i s t a n c e being of t h e o r d e r o f 2 h o u r s . (The f i r e r e s i s t a n c e i n
F i g u r e 6 i s g r e a t e r i n compression than i n bending because t h e
c o n c r e t e c o r e h e a t s more slowly than t h e r e i n f o r c i n g . )

Buck1 i n g e f f e c t s become more important d u r i n g f i r e because t h e

o u t e r l a y e r s weaken f i r s t , e f f e c t i v e l y i n c r e a s i n g t h e s l e n d e r n e s s
o f t h e column o r w a l l . The i n i t i a l c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r square columns
(4) took b u c k l i n g i n t o account by t h e ACI method, which involved
c a l c u l a t i n g .the Euler buckling l o a d from an i n t e g r a t e d s e c t i o n
s t i f f n e s s and magnifying the moment o r e c c e n t r i c i t y . This method
was used i n determining t h e r a t i n g s i n Supplement No. 2 .

I n more r e c e n t c a l c u l a t i o n s o f w a l l s and t h i n r e c t a n g u l a r
columns (5) t h e somewhat e m p i r i c a l ACI approach was abandoned i n
f a v o u r o f a more r a t i o n a l l o a d - d e f l e c t i o n b u c k l i n g a n a l y s i s ( s e e
Figure 7 ) . End r e s t r a i n t i s taken i n t o account by a buckling l e n g t h
f a c t o r k and i m p e r f e c t i o n s such a s c o n s t r u c t i o n t o l e r a n c e s and
honeycombing a r e t a k e n i n t o account by a n i n i t i a l d e f l e c t i o n yo.
The r e s u l t s o f such l o a d - d e f l e c t i o n a n a l y s e s a r e shown i n Figure 8
f o r d i f f e r e n t f i r e times, and s t r e n g t h s a r e picked o f f a s t h e
maximum l o a d s . I n t h i s way s t a n d a r d curves of s t r e n g t h v e r s u s time
a r e c a l c u l a t e d ( F i g u r e s 9 and 101 and t h e f i r e r e s i s t a n c e r a t i n g i s
the time a t which s t r e n g t h becomes l e s s than a p p l i e d l o a d . For
example, Figure 10 i n d i c a t e s t h a t a f u l l y - l o a d e d 8 - i n c h wall 9 f e e t
high, s u b j e c t e d t o f i r e on both s i d e s , h a s a f i r e r e s i s t a n c e o f
about 2 hours compared t o t h e p r e s e n t r a t i n g o f 1 hour. More
e x t e n s i v e r e s u l t s a r e c o n t a i n e d i n Reference ( 5 ) . TO check t h e s e
c a l c u l a t e d r a t i n g s , a r e s e a r c h program o f column t e s t i n g w i l l b e
c a r r i e d o u t i n cooperation with P o r t l a n d Cement A s s o c i a t i o n i n a
new f a c i l i t y b e i n g i n s t a l l e d a t t h e National Research Council.

S t r u c t u r a l f i r e r e s i s t a n c e can a l s o b e c a l c u l a t e d i n terms o f
f i r e l o a d by r e p l a c i n g t h e s t a n d a r d f i r e temperature c u l v e by more
r e a l i s t i c c u r v e s t h a t depend on f i r e load and v e n t i l a t i o n
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( 6 ) . Figure 11 shows t h e r e s u l t s o f such an inves-
t i g a t i o n , where t h e c r i t i c a l f i r e l o a d (one t h a t j u s t c a u s e s f a i l u r e )
ranges from 22 t o 32 kg/m2 o f wood, depending on v e n t i l a t i o n
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , Such an approach, which i s of s p e c i a l importance
f o r t h e s a f e t y o f v e r y t a l l b u i l d i n g s , needs f u r t h e r development.

Not o n l y i s i t p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e t h e f i r e r e s i s t a n c e o f
i s o l a t e d members b u t a complete frame a n a l y s i s can b e c a r r i e d o u t
by determining member p r o p e r t i e s and t h e i r i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n during
f i r e . Some c a l c u l a t e d s t r u c t u r a l i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t s (5, 6) w i l l
b e discussed b r i e f l y .
 Figure 12 shows t h e e f f e c t o f end c o n d i t i o n s and imperfecti,ons
by v a r y i n g k and yo f o r a 6 - i n c h w a l l . Wall end c o n d i t i o n s a r e
seen t o b e very s i g n i f i c a n t w i t h f i r e r e s i s t a n c e ranging from 1 / 2
hour f o r pinned s u p p o r t s t o 1 1 / 2 h o u r s f o r f i x e d s u p p o r t s . For
s t a n d a r d f i r e r e s i s t a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n s i t was assumed t h a t k = 0 . 7
and yo = 0.4 inch, which corresponds roughly t o t h e s t a n d a r d f i r e
t e s t with some allowance f o r i m p e r f e c t i o n s . The e f f e c t o f end
c o n d i t i o n s i s even more important f o r w a l l s h e a t e d on one s i d e o n l y ;
a s shown i n Figure 1 3 a pin-ended w a l l h a s a very low f i r e r e s i s -
tance because o f t h e l a r g e warping d e f l e c t i o n (about 1 / 2 f o o t ) ,
whereas a r e s t r a i n e d w a l l h a s a l a r g e f i r e r e s i s t a n c e , g r e a t e r t h a n
t h a t necessary f o r h e a t containment. F o r t u n a t e l y most c o n c r e t e
s t r u c t u r e s a r e g e n e r a l l y w e l l r e s t r a i n e d , b u t poorly connected
p r e f a b r i c a t e d b u i l d i n g s may n o t b e .

Thermal movements a r e l a r g e d u r i n g a f i r e and g i v e r i s e t o

l a r g e r e s t r a i n t f o r c e s t h a t a r e sometimes d e t r i m e n t a l . Figure 14
i n d i c a t e s what happens when r e s t r a i n t t o column expansion i s t a k e n
i n t o account; t h e a p p l i e d l o a d i s i n c r e a s e d , t h e r e b y d e c r e a s i n g t h e
f i r e r e s i s t a n c e assumed f o r an i s o l a t e d member. Large a x i a l
r e s t r a i n t , however, i s u s u a l l y accompanied by l a r g e bending
r e s t r a i n t , and a s shown i n F i g u r e 14 a more r e a l i s t i c assumption
f o r end c o n d i t i o n s can make up t h e d i f f e r e n c e . Another d e t r i m e n t a l
e f f e c t i s l a t e r a l displacement r e s u l t i n g from expansion o f t h e
f l o o r s l a b above t h e f i r e . This i s u s u a l l y n o t s e r i o u s f o r bending
f a i l u r e s because o f d u c t i l i t y and f o r c e r e d i s t r i b u t i o n ( S ) , b u t i t
can b e s e r i o u s f o r s h e a r f a i l u r e . A s h e a r f a i l u r e does n o t
n e c e s s a r i l y mean s t r u c t u r a l c o l l a p s e , b u t a c l o s e r examination
should b e made o f t h e p o s s i b l e consequences when a row of lower-
s t o r e y columns i s s h e a r e d .

These i n t e r a c t i o n s t u d i e s c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e t h e importance t h a t
s t r u c t u r a l c o n t i n u i t y and indeterminacy p l a y i n f i r e r e s i s t a n c e ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r h i g h - r i s e b u i l d i n g s . Without c o n t i n u i t y , f i r e
r e s i s t a n c e can b e c o n s i d e r a b l y lowered owing t o t h e l a r g e warping
e c c e n t r i c i t i e s t h a t can develop i n a f i r e . Without s t r u c t u r a l
indeterminacy ( i . e . , s t r u c t u r a l i n t e g r i t y ) t h e r e i s a ' s i g n i f i c a n t
r i s k o f p r o g r e s s i v e c o l l a p s e i f any member f a i l s . I n f a c t ,
e x p e r i e n c e h a s shown t h a t c o n t i n u i t y , i n t e g r i t y , and good d e t a i l i n g
a r e t h e major r e a s o n s why c a s t - i n - p l a c e c o n s t r u c t i o n g e n e r a l l y has
a h i g h e r f i r e r e s i s t a n c e than t h a t i n d i c a t e d by t e s t s o f i s o l a t e d
components.

SPALLING

S p a l l i n g o r s p l i t t i n g o f f o f c o n c r e t e cover d u r i n g f i r e can
d e c r e a s e f i r e r e s i s t a n c e . Such s p a l l i n g can o c c u r e x p l o s i v e l y
e a r l y i n t h e f i r e , a f t e r 1/4 t o 1/2 hour, d i r e c t l y exposing t h e
main s t e e l t o high temperature. For continuous beams and s l a b s t h e
r e d u c t i o n i n f i r e r e s i s t a n c e i s u s u a l l y n o t s e r i o u s because o f
moment r e d i s t r i b u t i o n , b u t i t can b e s e r i o u s f o r simply-supported
p r e s t r e s s e d beams, h e a v i l y r e i n f o r c e d columns under high l o a d o r
t h i n f i r e w a l l s where gaps a r e c r e a t e d .
 Explosive p a l l i n g is due p r i m a r i l y t o build-up o f steam
p r e s s u r e (7), which c a u s e s t e n s i l e s t r e s s e s [Dp i n Figure 1s) .-
a c t i n g outward towards t h e exposed f a c e . A secondary cause i s high
compressive temperatulle s t r e s s (oc i n Figure 17) n e a r t h e edge (see
F i g u r e 5) . The build-up o f steam p r e s s u r e depends on the anount o f
f r e e w a t e r p r e s e n t , t h e r a t e o f v a p o r i z a t i o n , and t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y
of t h e c o n c r e t e cover. Explosive s p a l l i n g w i l l take p l a c e a t t h e
l o c a t i o n o f v a p o r i z a t i o n , a t a temperature somewhat above 10o°C.
The p o t e n t i a l f o r s p a l l i n g i n c r e a s e s a s t h i s l o c a t i o n moves inward
during t h e f i r e because t h e r e i s an i n c r e a s e i n f r e e water c o n t e n t
due t o condensation o f inward-flowing steam and because t h e r e i s
more c o n c r e t e t o r e s i s t outward steam flow. A c r i t i c a l d i s t a n c e i s
about 2 i n c h e s . I f s t i r r u p s a r e l o c a t e d c l o s e r t o t h e edge than
t h i s , s p a l l i n g i s c o n t a i n e d . This i s why Supplement No. 2 t o t h e
National Building Code r e q u i r e s a d d i t i o n a l mesh f o r l a r g e cover i n
colums .

The p o t e n t i a l f o r s p a l l i n g depends mainly on moisture c o n t e n t ,

type o f aggregate ( s i l i c a t e s spa11 more than carbonates o r l i g h t
w e i g h t s ) , r e s t r a i n t s t r e s s e s , p o r o s i t y and permeability. F u r t h e r
s t u d y i s needed t o i d e n t i f y under what c o n d i t i o n s s p a l l i n g o r
s p l i t t i n g can b e s e r i o u s and what design measures should b e t a k e n
t o c o n t r o l t h e problem.

CONCLUSIONS

1. S t r u c t u r a l f i r e r e s i s t a n c e i n low-rise b u i l d i n g s i s r e q u i r e d
p r i m a r i l y t o contain f i r e s f o r economic (and energy conservation)
r e a s o n s . For h i g h - r i s e b u i l d i n g s , however, i t is a l s o e s s e n t i a l
f o r human s a f e t y .
2. S t r u c t u r a l f i r e r e s i s t a n c e o f i s o l a t e d columns o r w a l l s can b e
c a l c u l a t e d by h e a t t r a n s f e r and s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s using tempera-
ture-dependent m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s . (New f i r e r a t i n g s a r e c a l c u l a -
t e d f o r w a l l s and r e c t a n g u l a r columns l o c a t e d w i t h i n a f i r e compart-
ment. )
3. Interaction studies indicate that structural f i r e resistance
depends p r i m a r i l y on s t r u c t u r a l c o n t i n u i t y , i n t e g r i t y and d e t a i l i n g ,
and consequently t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l c a s t - i n - p l a c e c o n s t r u c t i o n i s
expected t o perform much b e t t e r during f i r e than poorly connected
p r e f a b r i c a t e d systems s u s c e p t i b l e t o p r o g r e s s i v e c o l l a p s e .
4. F u r t h e r s t u d y i s needed t o e s t a b l i s h t h e c o n d i t i o n s under which
s p a l l i n g o r s p l i t t i n g w i l l occur e a r l y i n a f i r e and t o i d e n t i f y
what design measures, i f any, should b e taken t o c o n t r o l t h e problem.

REFERENCES

1. National Building Code o f Canada 1975.

2. Lie, T.T., "Optimum F i r e Resistance o f S t r u c t u r e s , " ASCE, J .

S t r u c t u r a l Division, Vol. 98 , NO. ST1, January 1972.

3. Supplement No. 2, National Building Code o f Canada 1975.

 4 . L i e , T.T. and Allen, D.E., " C a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e F i r e
R e s i s t a n c e o f Reinforced Concrete Columns," National Research
Council, Division o f Building Research, August 1972.

5 . Allen, D.E. and L i e , T.T.. " C a l c u l a t e d F i r e R e s i s t a n c e of

Reinforced Concrete Walls and Rectangular Columns." To b e
Published.

6. Allen, D . E . and Lie. T.T., "Further Studies of t h e Fire

Resistance of Reinforced Concrete Columns," National Research
Council, Division o f B u i l d i n g Research, J u n e 1974.

7 . S h o r t e r , G . W . and Harmathy, T.Z., Discussion o f " F i r e

Resistance of P r e s t r e s s e d Concrete," P r o c . , I . C . E . , Vol. 20, 1961,
p . 313.

This paper i s a c o n t r i b u t i o n from t h e D i v i s i o n o f B u i l d i n g

Research, National Research Council o f Canada and i s p u b l i s h e d w i t h
t h e approval o f t h e D i r e c t o r o f t h e D i v i s i o n .

Table I Annual Death Risk from Accidents p e r M i l l i o n

Average Canadian

A l l causes

Traffic accidents 270

Drowning 60

Fire 35

Structural collapse 0.2

C o n s t r u c t i o n Worker (Ontario)

A l l work r e l a t e d c a u s e s

S t r u c t u r a l c o l l apse 30
'; -

-
VI
m
=
d

yl

I
STRAIN %

FIGURE 3
CONCRETE P R O P E R T I E S

20°C >
ZOO "C >
400°C >

600 C >

I
0. ? 0.4 0. b

STRAIN. %

FIGURE 4
STEEL P R O P E R T I E S
FIGURE 5
STRESS D I S T R I B U T I O N I N CONCRETE SECTION' D U R I N G F l R E
(8" S Q U A R E , 4 . 9 % S T E E L , f" C O V E R . C A L C U L A T E D F l R E R E S I S T A N C E
54 M I N )

T\ A C I M I N ECCENTRICITY

FIGURE 6
TYPICAL COLUMN INTERACTION CURVES
 LOAD

yo = I N I T I A L IMPERFECTION

FIGURE 7
STRUCTURAL A N A L Y S I S : WALLS AND
SLENDER C O L U M N S
 0 STRENGTH

LATERAL DEFLECTION. i n .

FIGURE 8
L O A D - D E F L E C T I O N C U R V E S : 10' WALL 6" T H I C K
 A

12" x 48"
100 -
12" x 24"

12" x 12"
0
0 1 2 3 4

TIME, hr

FIGURE 9
F I R E R E S I S T A N C E C U R V E S : 10' C O L U M N
1% STEEL

&

100

50

0 1 I I >
1 2 3 4

I I M L . hr

FIGURE 10
FIRE RESISTANCE CURVES 9' WALLS HEATED BOTH S I D E S
 TIME. MINUTES

FIGURE 11
S T R E N G T H T I M E C U R V E S F O R 1 2 x 1 2 COLUMN (2.2% S T E E L
I t " COVER)

TIME, h r

FIGURE 12
EFFECT OF END C O N D I T I O N S ( 1 0 ' W A L L 6" THICK1
 301)
E ENDURANCE CONTROLLED
HEAT T R A N S M I S S I O N

200

-
w7
1

100

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

T I M E , hr

FIGURE 13
E F F E C T O F E N D C O N D I T I O N S - ONE S I D E D H E A T I N G :
(10' WALL 6" T H I C K )
 33
500

100

300
-
x
ACTUAL FlRE

STANDARD FlRE
100

100

D
I
T I M E , hr

FIGURE I4
E F F E C T OF A X I A L R E S T R A I N T 110' WALL 6" T H I C K 1

10 m l n

EDGE D I S T A N C E . In.

FIGURE 15
SPALLING