13th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering

Vancouver, B.C., Canada

August 1-6, 2004
Paper No. 2065

FLEXURAL BEHAVIOUR OF SINGLE PILES IN CLAY

UNDER LATERAL EXCITATION
R. AYOTHIRAMAN1 and A. BOOMINATHAN2

SUMMARY
Lateral Dynamic load tests are carried out on model aluminium piles in simulated Elastic Half Space filled
with soft clay having consistency index (Ic) equal to 0.3 to determine dynamic constants of soil-pile
system and to study the flexural behaviour of piles. Piles with different length to diameter ratio are
subjected to steady state vibrations with different force level of 7 N to 30 N at different frequencies
ranging from 2 Hz to 50 Hz. The load transferred to the pile, pile head displacement and strain variation
along the length of pile are measured using a Data Acquisition System. The normalized frequency
response curves indicate that the soil-pile system behaves nonlinearly in low frequency to resonance
region. Stiffness of both short rigid piles and long flexible piles increases linearly with length of piles.
Stiffness of piles reduces with force level because of soil strength degradation due to nonlinear behaviour
at higher force level. The damping ratio of soil pile system is found to increase by length of piles and
magnitude of applied forces due to geometrical and hysteretic damping. The dynamic bending moment is
dependent on frequency of excitation and the maximum bending moment occurs near the fundamental
frequency of soil-pile system. The maximum dynamic bending moment long flexible piles are by about 3
to 4 times higher than that of maximum dynamic bending moment of short rigid piles. The active length of
piles increases drastically under dynamic loads.

INTRODUCTION
Use of pile foundations become more common in practice when the soil at shallow depth is very loose and
weak, in particular soft marine clays deposits. Pile supporting structures such as power plants,
petrochemical complexes and compressor stations and multi-storeyed buildings are subjected to dynamic
lateral loads resulting from operating machineries, wind, ocean waves and earthquakes. Though several
methods were developed in the early 1970s, Novak's Continuum Approach (Novak [1]) is widely used for
the evaluation of dynamic lateral response of piles based on the assumption of linear behaviour of soil.
However, the field investigation carried out by Prakash and Chandrasekaran [2], Blaney and O’Neill [3],
Han and Novak [4], Nogami et al. [5], Puri and Prakash [6], Dou and Byrne [7] and Boominathan et al. [8]
show large difference between observed and estimated response due to nonlinear behaviour of soil and
gap at the pile-soil interface. Blaney et al. [9], Kuhlemeyer [10] and Angelides and Roesset [11]
investigated the dynamic soil - pile interaction problems considering the nonlinear behaviour of soil using
Finite Element method, which is computationally very expensive. In recent years, Nogami et al. [5],
Kagawa and Kraft [12], Dobry et al. [13], Gazetas and Dobry [14], Kavvadas and Gazetas [15], El Naggar
and Novak [16] & Badoni and Makris [17] developed models by approximately considering the nonlinear
behaviour of soil. However, these models are not well validated with experimental investigations and
hence not widely used in civil engineering practice.

1
Ph.D Scholar, Dept. of Civil Engineering, IIT Madras, Chennai. Email: ayothiraman@yahoo.com
2
Associate Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering., IIT Madras, Chennai. Email: boomi@civil.iitm.ernet.in
Experimental studies exclusively on piles embedded in clays under lateral dynamic loads are very limited.
Agarwal [18] & Novak and Grigg [19] carried out limited dynamic experiments on piles in regular square
tank in the laboratory and the experimental results are compared with results obtained using numerical
methods. Although, the estimated response is found to be in good agreement with the observed response at
lower magnitude of forces and low frequencies, significant discrepancy is observed at higher magnitude of
forces and near resonance region may be due to reflection of stress waves from boundary of tank. In view
of the above, the dynamic experiments are carried out on piles embedded in a simulated Elastic Half Space
piles to study the influence of various parameters namely, length of piles, rigidity of pile, modulus of soil,
magnitude of applied force etc., under lateral dynamic load. This paper discusses the results of dynamic
lateral load experiments carried out on single piles embedded in clay having constant consistency index or
shear modulus (consistency index, Ic = 0.30).

ELASTIC HALF SPACE SIMULATION

Commonly used shape of test facility is square or rectangular or circular and the plan dimension of the test
facility is normally decided based on the effective stressed zone of soil mass from the pile. It is 10 to 15
times the diameter of the pile in the direction of loading for piles under static lateral loads (Poulos and
Davis [20]). But in the case of dynamic loading, the reflection of vibration induced-stress waves from the
boundary of tank wall that may interfere with the actual response of piles is off very important. Hence, it
is very essential to simulate the non-reflecting boundary conditions for conducting the dynamic
experiments in the laboratory. To have minimum wave reflection and maximum wave absorption the
Elastic Half Space is simulated as adopted by Stokoe and Woods [21] & Srinivasulu et al. [22] as shown
in Fig. 1. The simulated Elastic Half Space testing facility consists of a test tank of size 2.0 x 2.0 x 1.5 m,
an absorbing layer of saw dust and a boundary element between them. The tank wall is made of hollow
cement blocks of about 250 mm thickness. The boundary element consists of mild steel basket in
logarithmic arc spiral shape, which is covered with the geomembrane sheet to separate the soil from the
absorbing layer as well as to maintain constant moisture content in the clay layer. The geomembrane is
made to the required logarithmic arc shape with the mild steel basket by hot air welding. After welding,
fiberglass coating is applied to bond the mild steel basket with welded geomembrane and it is checked for
water leakage.

Fig. 1. Simulated Elastic Half Space.

 SOIL AND PILE PROPERTIES

Clay sample collected from the Chennai city (India) is used for the present laboratory investigation. The
particle size distribution and Atterberg limits are determined as per ASTM standards. The undrained shear
strength of clay is determined by conducting laboratory vane shear test for consistency index of clay 0.30.
The summary of properties of clay is given in Table 1. The soil is classified as CH – Fat clay as per
ASTM D2487-00 [23].

Table 1 – Properties of clay

Gravel, % 1.0
Sand, % 25.0
Silt, % 32.5
Clay, % 41.5
Specific Gravity 2.54
Liquid limit, % 74.0
Plastic limit, % 26.0
Plasticity index, % 48.0
Classification (as per D2487-00) CH - Fat Clay
Consistency Index 0.30
Shear strength, Su, kN/m2 13.7

The aluminum piles with outer diameter of 25 mm and thickness of 3 mm are used. The length to
diameter ratio (L/d) of pile is selected as 10 to 40 to simulate the behaviour of both short rigid piles and
long flexible piles. A conical driving shoe is attached at the pile tip to enhance the driving of piles and to
prevent soil plugging into the hollow pile. Piles are also instrumented with foil type electrical strain
gauges to study its bending or flexural behaviour of piles under dynamic loads. After strain gauges are
fixed and connected to the wires, araldite solution is applied at the location of strain gauges to make sure
waterproof. The instrumented model pile with details of conical shoe is shown in Fig. 2. The instrumented
model pile is calibrated for strain gauges by simple bending test with simply supported conditions and
calibration curves are found to be linear. A pile cap of mass equals to 3.1 N is attached to the pile head to
simulate the static vertical load and clear resonance condition of piles.

DYNAMIC EXPERIMENTS ON PILES

Test Setup and Data Acquisition System

The simulated Elastic Half Space test facility with Data Acquisition System is shown in Fig. 2.
A 100 N-capacity electro dynamic exciter is attached to the pile cap such that it produces steady state
sinusoidal lateral excitation. The load transferred to the pile is measured with the help of 2 kN-capacity
HBM make Load cell attached between the pile cap and exciter. HBM make LVDT attached on the pile
cap is used to measure the time history of displacement. Foil type electrical strain gauges having
resistance of 120 ± 1.2 Ω are fixed in quarter bridge arrangement along the length of the pile at closer
spacing near the surface of soil and at larger spacing towards the pile tip to get the deflected shape and
bending moment variation along the length of pile due to dynamic load. A Data Acquisition System
consisting of Pentium II PC with DAS card, DAS software “GeniDAQ” and HBM make MGC Plus Multi-
channel digital carrier frequency amplifier system is used to observe and measure the load transferred to
the pile head, pile head displacement and strain along the pile length automatically. An AGILENT make
digital storage oscilloscope is used to cross check the load and amplitude measurements.
 STRAIN GAUGE
WIRES
PILE CAP STRAIN GAUGE
WIRES

200

1
100
A
2 PILE WALL
100 ALUMINIUM
STRAIN GAUGE
PILE OF
K=2.0
3 25mm O.D.
100 R=120

4 DETAILS AT A
100
750 OD
5 ID OD = 25mm
100 ID = 19mm

6
100 PILE WALL
3 mm THICK
7
100
25
25
8 CONICAL
50 60°
SHOE 15
B

DETAILS AT B

ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm

Fig. 2. Typical instrumented model pile (L/d = 30)

12

10 11

1 2

6 5
3 4

7
80° T est T an k
8 (2.0 x 2 .0 x 1 .5 m )

C la y

S a w D u st

1 . L oa d in g F ra m e
2 . M S A n gle
3. E lectro D y n a m ic E xciter
4 . L oa d C ell
5. D isp lac em en t T ra n sd u cer (L V D T )
6. Pile C a p
7. A lu m in iu m M od e l P ile
8. S tra in G au g es
9. M S B a sket co vered w ith Im p erm ea b le G eo m e m b ra n e
1 0 . E xcitat io n A m p lifie r
1 1 . M u ltich a n n el C arrier F req u en cy A m p lifier
1 2 . D ata A cq u isitio n S y stem

Fig. 3. Testing facility with data acquisition system

Preparation of Clay Bed

Water is added to clay and mixed uniformly to achieve soft clay consistency (consistency index
(Ic) = 0.30). Mixed soft clay is placed and hand-packed in the test tank in several layers of 15 cm
thickness and each layer is tamped with template so as to remove the entrapped air. Water content is
measured on soil samples collected from various depths of soil bed to check the soil homogeneity. The
dynamic properties of clay are determined by conducting seismic cross-hole tests in the Elastic Half Space
clay bed as per ASTM D4428/D4428M-00 [24]. The tests are conducted at various depths of 0.25 m, 0.50
m, 0.75 m and 1.00 m. The measured values of shear wave velocity are given in Table 2. The low strain
shear modulus, Gmax is estimated using the following expression (Stokoe and Woods [21]):

Gmax = ρVs2 (1)

In which, ρ = density of soil, which is determined by core cutter method. The low strain shear modulus,
Gmax evaluated using the above equation are also given in Table 2. It is clearly evident from Table 2 that,
the shear wave velocity and dynamic shear modulus of clay remain constant with depth of EHSS. The
average shear wave velocity of clay layer works out to be about 90 m/s.

Table 2. Dynamic properties of clay

Depth Density Shear wave velocity Dynamic shear modulus

m ρ, kg / m3 Vs, m/s Gmax, kN/m2
0.25 2065 85.71 15169.91
0.50 2038 90.91 16843.31
0.75 2013 88.89 15905.58
1.00 2064 92.31 17587.62

Test Procedure

The instrumented pile is gently pushed vertically into the prepared soft clay bed and sufficient time is
allowed for the soil to regain its original strength depends in its thixotropic nature. The steady state
sinusoidal vibration is applied to the pile head. The load transferred to the pile head, pile head
displacement and dynamic strain along the length of pile are observed and measured using the Data
Acquisition System. Initial tests are conducted on piles embedded in regular rectangular tank and in the
simulated Elastic Half Space. The observed response of pile in regular tank is scattered and multi-peaks
are observed, whereas the response of piles in simulated Elastic Half Space show single peak. This
indicates that the reflection of stress waves are minimum and does not interfere with the response of piles
in the case of EHSS; It proves the simulated Elastic Half Space is a very effective dynamic test facility.
The actual experiments are conducted on piles with length to diameter ratio (L/d) of 10,20,30 and 40. Piles
are subjected to lateral dynamic force with amplitudes (Fo) of 7 N, 14 N, 21 N and 30 N for wide range of
frequency of excitation (f) from 2 Hz to 50 Hz.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Frequency Response of Piles

From the measured data, the time histories of dynamic load transferred to pile head, pile head
displacement and strain gauge readings are plotted. The frequency response curves are obtained from
observed time histories pile head displacement. The typical frequency response curve for pile with
L/d = 30 is given in Fig. 4. Fig. 4 clearly indicates occurrence of single peak in the frequency response
curves, which indicates that, the soil-pile system behaves as SDOF system. The measured displacement
amplitude is normalized by corresponding magnitude of applied dynamic force. A typical normalized
displacement amplitude versus frequency ratio plot for piles with L/d = 30 is shown in Fig. 5. Fig. 5 shows
distinguishable response curves, which indicates the nonlinear response of the soil-pile system more
predominantly in the low frequency to resonance region.
0.080
L/d = 30

Fo = 7N
Fo = 14N

0.060 Fo = 21N
Displacement Amplitude, mm

Fo = 30N

0.040

0.020

0.000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Frequency, Hz

Fig. 4. Typical frequency response curve of single pile (L/d = 30)

0.003
L/d = 30

Fo = 7N
Normalised Displacement Amplitude, mm/N

Fo = 14N
0.002
Fo = 21N
Fo = 30N

0.002

0.001

0.001

0.000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Frequency, Hz

Fig. 5. Variation of normalized displacement amplitude with frequency (L/d = 30)

The frequency response at force Fo = 7 N for all the piles is shown in Fig. 6. It is clearly noticeable from
Fig. 6 that the natural frequency increases marginally with length of pile, but the peak amplitude reduces
significantly with length of pile. The natural frequency (fn) of tested piles varies from 16.00 Hz to
26.75 Hz and peak amplitude (Aomax) varies from 0.009 mm to 0.112 mm with length of piles.
0.020
Fo = 7 N

L/d = 10
L/d = 20
0.016
Displacement Amplitude, mm L/d = 30
L/d = 40

0.012

0.008

0.004

0.000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Frequency, Hz

Fig. 6. Frequency response curve for different L/d ratio at Fo = 7 N

The variation of natural frequency with length to diameter ratio of pile at different force level is shown in
Fig. 7. It can be easily noticed from Fig. 7 that the natural frequency increases with length of piles almost
in linear proportion at all force levels. The increase of natural frequency with length of piles is mainly due
to increase in stiffness of pile deriving from passive resistance of soil. It is also inferred from Fig. 8 that,
the natural frequency reduces with magnitude of applied forces for all piles. This observation is consistent
with observations made even on vertically vibrating piles (Han and Novak [4]; Muster and O’Neill [25]).
The variation of peak amplitude with length to diameter ratio of pile is shown in Fig. 8. It could be
inferred from Fig. 8 that, the peak amplitude increases with increase in magnitude of applied force, but
reduces with increase in length of piles. The reduction in amplitude with increase in length of piles is only
marginal at low magnitude of forces (Fo = 7 N and 14 N) due to presence of negligible hysteretic damping.
However, the peak amplitude reduces significantly by about 65% with increase in length of pile at
relatively high magnitude of force (21 N and 30 N) due to combination of geometrical and hysteretic
damping of soil-pile system.

Stiffness and Damping of Piles

The dynamic lateral stiffness and damping constants evaluated from frequency response curves assuming
SDOF system are given in Table 3. From Table 3, it is found that, stiffness of soil-pile system increases
with length of pile. The increase of stiffness of short rigid piles having L/d <=20 is only about 25%, but
for the long flexible piles 60%. This difference is attributed to the higher passive resistance derived from
long piles. It is also observed from Table 3 that, the stiffness of the soil-pile system reduces by about 25%
to 30% for all piles with increase of magnitude of applied forces, which proves the soil-pile system
behaves nonlinearly. It is observed from Table 4 that, the damping constant increases with increase in
length of pile and magnitude of applied dynamic force due to presence of both geometrical damping and
hysteretic damping.
 35
Ic = 0.30

Fo = 7N
33
Fo = 14N
Fo = 21N
30
Fo = 30N

Natural Frequency, Hz
28

25

23

20

18

15
10 20 30 40 50
Length to Diameter Ratio

Fig. 7. Variation of natural frequency with length to diameter ratio

0.12
Ic = 0.30

Fo = 7N
0.10
Fo = 14N
Fo = 21N
Peak Amplitude, mm

0.08 Fo = 30N

0.06

0.04

0.02

0.00
10 20 30 40 50
Length to Diameter Ratio

Fig. 8. Variation of peak amplitude with length to diameter ratio

Table. 3. Lateral stiffness and damping constant of soil-pile system

L/d Lateral stiffness, Kx, N/m Damping constant, C, N-s/m

Ratio Fo= 7 N Fo=14 N Fo=21 N Fo=30 N Fo= 7 N Fo=14 N Fo=21 N Fo=30 N
10 41843.2 38519.2 33285.0 31298.3 52.6 74.0 86.0 105.0
20 53916.2 48903.6 46489.0 40719.9 67.0 92.4 109.0 119.7
30 64675.0 60525.9 51379.4 48903.6 77.4 111.4 122.4 136.3
40 87484.0 77947.8 74891.3 60525.9 117.7 154.2 170.4 184.1
Flexural Behaviour of Piles

The typical plot of dynamic strain versus frequency ratio along the depth of pile is given in Fig. 9. It is
observed from Fig. 9 that, the maximum dynamic strain occurs at the natural frequency (fn) of the soil-pile
system (fn = 22 Hz for the shown case, Fig. 9). Kavvadas and Gazetas [15] also reported similar
conclusions based on the numerical study using Winkler model that, the maximum dynamic bending
moment occurs near the fundamental frequency of the system. It is also observed from the experimental
results that, the maximum strain occurs in the region of depth of maximum bending moment.

1000
L/d=30; Fo=21N

Depth = 4d
Depth = 8d

800 Depth = 12d

Depth = 16d
Dynamic Strain, mic.m/m

Depth = 20d
Depth = 28d

600

400

200

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Frequency, Hz

Fig. 9. Variation of dynamic strain with frequency

The dynamic bending moment is obtained from the measured peak strain at the natural frequency of
system by multiplying the factor obtained from calibration of strain gauges. The variation of dynamic
bending moment with depth of piles is shown in Fig. 10.
-4

-2 Dynamic Bending Moment, N.mm

0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000
0

L/d=10, f = 18 Hz
Depth/Diameter Ratio

2
Fo =7N
Fo =14N
4
Fo =21N
Fo =30N
6

10

12
(a)
 Dynamic Bending Moment, N.mm
-3
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000
0
L/d=20, f=20 Hz

Fo =7N
3
Fo =14N
Fo =21N

Depth/Diameter Ratio
6 Fo =30N

12

15

18

21
(b)

Dynamic Bending Moment, N.mm

0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000

0

12
Depth/Diameter Ratio

16

20

24

28 L/d=40, f=22Hz

Fo=7N
32
Fo =14N

36 Fo =21N
Fo =30N
40
(c)

Fig. 10. Variation of dynamic bending moment along depth of pile

for (a) L/d = 10 (b) L/d = 20 (c) L/d = 40

From Fig. 10a, it is clear that piles with L/d ratio 10 do not attain maximum dynamic bending moment,
which assures that the pile behaves as a short rigid pile. But, from Fig. 10, it is observed that, piles of L/d
≥ 20 attain maximum dynamic bending moment at a depth of about 11 to 17 times the diameter of piles.
As per Broms [26], the maximum static bending moment of piles under static lateral load occurs at a depth
of about 2 to 4 times the diameter of pile, which indicates the maximum dynamic bending moment occurs
at a depth of about 4 to 5 times deeper than the depth at which, the maximum static bending moment
occurs. Based on the experimental studies carried out on piles subjected to harmonic lateral vibrations,
Han and Novak [4] & Dou and Byrne [7] also arrived at similar conclusions that the maximum dynamic
bending moment occurs at deeper depth than the depth at which maximum static bending moment occurs.
It shows the depth of fixity of piles under dynamic load is much higher than the depth of fixity of piles
under static loads. It is also observed from Fig. 10 that the dynamic bending moment towards the pile tip
does not attain zero, because of vibration of pile even near the tip. This indicates that, even the lower parts
of the pile affect the pile head response to the inertia loads applied at the pile head and the active length of
pile is high for dynamic loading than static case. Finite element analysis carried out on the piles subjected
to static and dynamic lateral loads by Krishnan et al. [27] also leads to the similar conclusions that
increase of active length of piles under dynamic loads.
The maximum dynamic bending moment obtained from Fig. 10 versus length to diameter ratio of piles is
shown in Fig. 11. It is observed from Fig. 11 that the maximum dynamic bending moment increases with
increase of magnitude of applied dynamic force for both short rigid pile and long flexible pile is only
about 30 %. But, It could be inferred from Fig. 11 that the maximum dynamic bending moment of long
flexible piles is by about 3 to 4 times higher than that of maximum dynamic bending moment of short
rigid piles. It is mainly because of higher passive resistance of soil with increase in length of pile, but the
maximum bending moment of long pile is limited to the ultimate moment of resistance of pile shaft.

60000
Maximum Dynamic BM, N.mm

40000

20000
Ic = 0.30

Fo = 7N
Fo = 14N
Fo = 21N
Fo = 30N
0
10 20 30 40 50
Length to Diameter Ratio

Fig.11. Variation of maximum dynamic BM with length to diameter ratio

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the experiments carried out on model piles embedded in soft clay at consistency index (Ic=0.30),
the following conclusions are arrived.

• The soil – pile system behaves in nonlinear fashion more predominantly in low frequency to
resonance region. The frequency response of piles mainly depends on the length of pile and force
level. The natural frequency of piles substantially increases with increase in length of pile at all force
levels due to higher stiffness of soil-pile system derived from passive resistance, however, the natural
frequency reduces slightly with force level and inertia effect of soil-pile system.
• The peak amplitude of piles reduces with increase in length of pile and force level due to
combination of geometrical and hysteretic damping.
• The stiffness of both short rigid and long flexible piles increases significantly with length of pile
almost in linear proportion at the tested consistency of clay. The damping of the soil-pile system
increases with magnitude of applied forces and length of piles due to presence of the hysteretic
damping and geometrical damping.
• The dynamic bending moment is dependent on frequency of excitation. The maximum bending
moment occurs near the fundamental frequency of soil-pile system. The maximum dynamic bending
moment long flexible piles are by about 3 to 4 times higher than that of maximum dynamic bending
moment of short rigid piles. The depth of maximum dynamic bending moment is about 5 times
higher than the depth of maximum static bending moment, which indicates that the active length of
piles increases drastically under dynamic loads.

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