Moderncontroltheory Bakshi

First Edition· 2008
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:-.- Us~~f ~i;~;:;l~i~-~d-l~~id-l~~-;;~;;;~~-th;~d;;.;·~-d~~- ~;;;-~-S;~-I

[. Excellent theory well supported with the practical examples and :

ill ustra tions, I

• Important concepts arc highlighted using key points threugheut tho book. I

• Large number ofsolved examples.

• Approach oCthe book. re5embl.es classroom teaching .

• ' Use of informative, self explanatory diagrams, plots and graphs. * Book provides detailed insight into the subject.

• Stepwise explanation to mathematical derivatiolJs for easier

_n~_~~~:.s_t.!!1_~~_g~ nh nn n n __ n_n __ nn_

Dest of Technical Publications

As per Revised Syllabus of VTU - 2006 Course

• , ... ~!D~er - Y- [EEj!;] ,.._. _

,C-~--.;t':' __ . ~

Modem Control Theorll

Signal.s and Systems

Transmission lind Distribution

Linear ICs and Applications

D.C. M.<1cblnes and SyncbronoWil Machines

- ~...... ~-I-'<-"'-"," ~.............. .............._""~

(4)

U rheberrec htl ich gcsc h utztes M a\eria

MeeJem Control Thoory

ISBN 9788184315066

All rig .... reserved with foehni"'" Publ;amOf1 •. No po~ 01 thiS book, .hculd b.

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Publi,hed by :

Thc.hnlc.Bl !'\IbllcaUons !'\Ine"

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Preface

Tho imparlance 01 Control Theory is well known in vorious engineering liol'o s, Overwhelming response to Our books on vcrious ,ubjects inspired vs 10 wrile lhis book. Th e boo k is 'truet u red 10 cover Ihe key 0 'peel. 0 r Ih e .<) biecl Mo de m Contro I Thea ry.

The book uses plain, lucid langvoge 10 explain lundomenlol. 01 lhis subject. The book ,provides logieel method ,01 e,'plcining various ccmpliccted concepts and stepwise methods 10 explcin the importrml topics, Ecch chcpter is well ,upporled with nece ss oIY illu,lrol'ion" p rOdkol exo rnples a nd solved preble rns, All th e cho pi ers in th e boo k a re a rrc ng ed ; n 0 proper sequence thai permit, each lopic 10 build upon earlier studle s. All core no, been 10 ken 10 rnoke stu d enis Co rnlortoble i non d 0 rs 10 ndi ng' I ho be, i C COn cep I. of In e ,u bi eel.

The book not only cover, lhe entire scope 01 Ihe subject bUI explains Ihe philosophy of th.. s ubiect. Th is makes til e un d ersl 0 ndi ng of thr, su bie (I m ore cleo rand makes il more intere,ting, The book will be very uselol not only 10 the students bul also 10 Ihe subjecl teoche <S. The stu den Is have to 0 m itnoth i ng 0 nd poss ibly have 10 cover n olh; ng, mare.

We wi,h to ... pre ss our profound thonks to 011 rhosa who helped in making Ihi, book c molity. Much neadad morel support end uncevruqcment is provided on numerous ccccsions by our whole fomily. We wish to thank the Publisher end the entire team 01 Techaiccl Publieefions who hove loken immense pcin 10 gel tili. book in time with qualily prinling.

Any suggestion for theimprovemenl of lhe book will be acknowledged end well a pp recioted.

Au,ho.rs

U.,4. "A.MI ;11. "V. "A..LA!

Urroo uochtlich eschutat "~I~·ari"

1.1 Backgrouhd 1 - 1

1.1.1 Limitations 01 Conv~tIonal APProach .,.. .. • • .. • • . . • • . . . • . • . . . . . . . .. . . . .• 1 - 1

1,1.2 M~ntages of State VMable Arlali'S~ .,. . . . ..' ••..••. ,., .•• ,., ,1 - 2

1.2 Concept of State , , : , , , 1 - 2

1.2.1 Impa1ant Defi"iIlons : , , , .. : , . . . 1 - 4

• \ 'i .

1.3 Stale Mytle'ff Linear Svstems , , _ 1- Ii

• r,. ~. ". '

1.3.1 Slate Model of Single Inpul smgle Output Syslem., •... : .•....... .' , .. ,. 1- 9

I : ,

1.4 Stale Diagram Representation 1- 9

. . \ , , , .

1.4.1 Stale Diagram 01 Standanl State Model , , : 1 - 10

\

1.5 Non Uniqueness of State, Model 1'- 11

1.6 Unearizalion of Slater Eguatlon 1- 12

..

Review Que5llons "'.I ,, : .. ,

1 -14

'2,1 Stale Varlab!e Representation using Physical Variables 2 ·1

2:1.1 AdVantages , , " •• , , •• ,,..,., , " 2·4

2.2 Stale Space Representation using Phase Varlables " , 2 - 4

2.2.1 Siale Model fro m Differential Equation . , . , .••..• , •..••• , ..•.•• , .. , 2 ' 5

2 2 2 5Iale MmIfll fro mTran sfe r FlUlcJion 2 • 8

2.2.3 Advantages : , . • .. • .. . 2 - 1 a

2 2 ,4 ! !milatOons

2-18

2,3 Stale Space Representation USing Canonical Variables , 2· 19

2 3 '1 J'OrdM's Canonical Fenn

2-23

2.3.2 Advantages of Canonl'cal Variables , . . 2 - ,26

2.3.3 DisadvanlJieas 01 canonical Variables •..•... , , • ,. , ..•... , ...•. , •. , , .. , . ,. .. 2 - Z6

U rheberrcc htl ich gesc h utztes Materia

2.4 State Model by Cascade Programming .••....•..•...•...•.......•............•...•....... 2 - 29

Examples with Solutions , 2 - 31

Review Questions .• 2 -70

.,,:

t1fapje.?,a;!Ma11iW~lgIIii'r1t&'D1Jj· a i:in,or.nlns~meifaW2B~{3'(,.4ii'I

3.1 Background " ,:,.:.-.~ 3 -1

3.2. Definition of Malrix "" " .. "" " """ "" .. """"" """ .. ;""""" 3 - 1

3.2.1 TypesofMltrices " _' .. : .. : 3-2

3.2.2 tm pertant Terminologies -.'. . . . .. . . 3 - 3

3.3 Elementary Matrix OpBra~ens .. " "" " .. "." " .. " "" " .. "" ......... :3 - 6

:3 4 lnverne ora Matrix 3 - 7

3,4, 1 Properties of i'nverse ola Matrix , . . .. . . .. . .. . . • .. . .. . . .. . .. . . . . . 3 - a

35 DerWalioo of Transfer FuoclioD from Slate Model

. 3 - 9

3.S.1e haracteristic Equ8~on , .. , , , .. '. . , .. 3 - 10

3.5.2 MIMO System , .............•...•................ 3 -11

3.6 Eigen Values ". "." .. " " .. " " " " .. " " :3 - 12

3.7 Eisen Vectors """ ". " " " .. " " " " ". 3 - 13

3 a, Modal Matrix M

3 - 13

3 8.1 Vander Man de Ma lib:

3-14

3.9 Dlagonallsation .. ". ""","" " .. ", " .. "." .. "."" " .. " " .. " .. "". " .• ".". " .. " .". 3 - 19

3.10 Generalised Eigen Vectors " " "." " .. " 3 - 23

3.10.1 Vander Monda Matr1x for Generalislld Sge" Vectors • .. .. • .. .. .. .. . . .. .. • .. .• :3 - 24

Examples with Solutions " " 3 - 26

Review Qyestions

4.1 Bac'kground " " "." "." " .. " ". 4 - 1

4.1.1 Homogenoous Equation, , .

4.1.2 NonhomagEllleOU5 Equation , .. , , .. , , , , .•.... 4 - 2

4 2 Review of Classical Melhod of Soh Ilion

4-2

4.2.1 Zero Input Response 4 - 4

4.3 Solution of Nonhomogeneous Equation no on 4 - 4

~ rheberrec htl ich gcsc h utztes M aleria

4.4 Properties of State Transition Matrix 4 - 5

4.5 Solution of State Equation by Laplace Transform Method 4 - 6

4.6 Computation of State TransItion Matrix 4 - 7

4.7 Laptar:e Transform Melhod .

".4- a

4 8 Power Series MethOd

4-9

4.9 Cayley Hamilton Metbod , 4 - 1.0

491 procedure In GalCllla!e gAl 4.12

4.10 Similarity Transformation Melhod , , 4 - 16

4.11 Controllability and ObselVabilily , , 4 • 22

4.12 Controllability 4 - 23

4.12.1 Kalman's Testfol COntrollability 4· 23

4 .. 12.2 Condition for Stale Conlrollabfij!y In :;.Plane ......•.......... , 4· 26

4.12.3 Gilberts Test for Controllability ,.: 4·25

4.12.4 OutpuT Controllability , 4 - 29

4.13 ObselVability 4 - 29

4.13.1 Kalman's Tes! fer ObseMlbUiIy 4 - 30

4.13.2 Condition fur Complete Observab~l!y In :;.Plane 4 - 33

4.13.3 Gilberts Test fer Observabilily •.•.••.••.... , ..•.•......•.... , 4 - 33

Examples with Solutions 4 - 35

5 1 I n(roducti 0 n

5-1

5,2 Pols Plar:emenl Design 5 - 2

5.3 Necessary and Sumr:lellt Condition for Arbitrary Pole Placement 5 - 3

5 4 Eya" ",tiOD of State Feedback G;:tiD Matrix K

5 -15

5 4 1 lise QfIransfmm ation Maid. I

5-15

54 2 Direct SubstituUon Method

5 4 3 Ackerma nn's Formula

5-16

5.5 Selection of Location of Desired Closed Loop Poles 5 - 19

51l State Observers

5-24

5.7 Conoopt of State Observer 'n" ..

., ' 5-25

U rheberrec htl lch ge5c h "tz'te, M aleri"

5.8 Duat Problem " , , , , , 5 - 27

5.9 Necessary and Sufficient Coodmen for Slate Observation. ""'" "" .. , " .. 5· 28

5.10 Evaluation of Slate Obsarver Gain Matrix, 1<. 5· 28

5,.11 Selection of Suitable Value of Observer Gain Matrix 1<" , 5 - 30

512 Observer Based ConlrOlier

5 - 35

Examples, with Soilltions ..

" _ ,.-_ 5-38

Review Ouestions

5- 57

6.1 Background , ,., , , .. , ,., , , 6 -1

6.2 Properties of ControtJer.............. ., " 6 -1

621 Error

6-2

6.2.2 Variable Rango , , .

............................. ,.6-3

6.2.3 CQn!roller Oulput Range , , , .... , .... , .

...... 6,-3

6,2A Control lag p • -. . .. ....

' , ' ' 6-3

6 2 5 Dead 70ne

6-3

63 Classification of Controllers

6·4

64 Continuous Contmlter Modes

6-4

6,5 Proportlomll Control Moda , , 6· 5

6.5.1 Characteristic of Proportional Mode .. , •••••••• ' •• ' .•••.•.••••.•••.•••.••••••. 6 • 6 6 520ffset6 - 6

6.5.,3 Applitations. ,.,., ,. p , p, , .6-7

6.6 Integral Control Mods , , 6 -7

6.6,1 Step Response of Integral ModD •. ' •.. , ..•...•.....•...•... , ...•......•.•.••. 6 - 9

6.6.2 Characteris6cs of Integral Mode , ..•...... _ •.....•.......••. , _ .. , . 6 - 9

6.6.3 Applications , , _ .. , _ .. , _ .. _ .. , .. , _., _ .. , _ .. _ 6-10

67 Oerbtalbm Control Mode

6 -10

671 Cbamcte!lstics Q{Oerivativa Control Mode,., •. ,.,., ..•.•.• "'.. '''' 6-11

6.12 Appllcations , " , 6- '12

6 .. 8 Composite Control Modes , , , 6 -12

6.9 Proportional + Integral Mode (PI Control Model 6 - 12.

6 9 1 Cba""'leristics of PI Mode

6-14

U rheberrec htl lch gcsc h utztes Materia

6.9.2 Applications , , , .. , , , , , .. , , 6-15

6.10 Proportional + DerivalJva Mode (PO Control Mode) , .. , , , ,.6 - 15

6 10 I C haraclerisfcs of PO Mode

6-16

6.1.0,.2 Applica1iOlls , .. , , , 6 -17

6.11 Three Mode Controller (PIEl Control Mode) 6 -17

'6.12. Response of Controllers to Various Inputs .. , 6- 21

6.13 Effect of Composite Controllers on 2'"' 0rder System 6 - 22

6.,14 PO Type of Controller , , , ,6· 23

6.15 PI TyPe of Controller , on , , 6 - ,24

6.16 pro Type of Controller , on , , 6 - 26

6.17 Rata Feedback Controlier (Output Derivative CmltroHer) 6 ·26

6 .. 18 Review of S&ond Order System Specifications , .. 6 - 28

6.19 Steady State Error , , , u ' , _ , 6 - 30

Examples with Solutions 6· ,31

Review Questions

6 ·48

7.1 Introduction 10 Nonlinear Svstems 7 - 1

7.2 Properties of Nonlinear Systems _ , .. _ .. _ _ .. _ _ .. _ _ .. _ _ 7·1

7 3 Classification of NonlinearWes 7. 2

74 Inherenl Npnljnearities

7-2

7A lSa!lIrnticn

7 4 2 Oeadzooe

7-3

1.4.3 On-Off Non linearity .••..•........•...•.•...•...•.•. , •.••..•..••.••...•.••. 7 - 4

7.4,4 On-Off Nonlinearity with Hy;;teTesls ..• ,

, •• " , , •• 7-4

7 4 5 Non linaar FdcUon

7-5

7.4.6 Bacldasb .. " ...... " ... ".". "". '''',,''''''',,' """"",," """ .. " .. " .. 7 -5

7.4.7 Nonromw Spring •.• , .•. , ....•.••.•..•• " , •.••.• , ' •.•.•..• 7- 6

;,5 .Abso!ute Value Nonlinearity ,_ _ .. ,' , _ .. ', , _' __ ,,_ _.7 -7

76 lotentional Noolinearlties

7-8

Review Questions

7-8

U rhcberrec htl lch gcsc h utztes M ateri"

8" 1 Introduction,

8·'

8,2 Limit Cvcle, .. , .. , .. , .. , .. " , 8 -1

8.3 Jump Resonance 8- 2

84 The Phase Plane MethOd

8-3

6,5 Basic Concept of Phase-Plane Method 6 - 5

8,.6 Isocline Method for Construction of Phase Trajectory , 8 - 7

8.,7 Application of Phase-Plane Method to linear Control System 8·10

8.8 Second Order Nonlinear System on Phase Plane , 8 ·13

, 8,9 Oifferent Types of Phase Portraits , ,,,,, , , ,, .. , , .. , ,8 - 14

6.9,1 PhllSe Pmtrails JorType 0 System . '" .. ".,."".".", , ,', .. ,." , .8-14

8.9.1.1 Slablo Sy.lllm with Compl •• Roots. . . . .

· 8-15

8"9,1.2 Unslilble SvstemMth ComRiex Roots. • . ,

.. 8-16

8.9.1.3 Margin3!Y S!ab:e SysJem "';!h Complex Rools

8-16

8,9.1.4 Stable System wfth Real Rools .

, 8-17

8.9.1.S Unstablil System with Positive Real Roots ,

· a-18

8.9.1,6 Uns!alJte S)I1l!em ,.;th OIle Posmve and Dne Nll!lative Real Root .

· B-1.9

8,9,2 Forced Second Order Type 0 Syslem. " ... , , , . , , .... , ' .. , . , , ., ,

.. ' .... 8-19

8.9.3 Phase Portraits ler Type 1 System 8 - 19

8.9.4 Phasa Portri!ils 1cr Type 2 SYstem , : . , , , , .. 8 • 22

8,10 Singular Points of a Nonlinear. System 8·26

8 11 Delta Melhod

8· 27

Examples with Solutlons , 8 - 28

Review Queslions" " .. , .. " " ' _ , " .. , .. , .. , , 8 • 39

91 lolmdllcltoo

9 - 1

9.2 Stability in the Sense of Uapunov , _'" , .. _"" .. "".",,,, ... _,_' .. ' _, .......... ' ..... ,,"" 9 - 2

9.3 Asymptotic Stability , ..• , .. ,.", " " , " _ ,,, ,,, , 9 - 3

9.4 Asymptotic Stability In the Large _.""" ,,, .. ,, ,,''''''''''',.,, '', •. ,, 9 - 3

9.5 Inslability , ,n " .. " ,.".,,, .. ,.,,, .. _ .. ,,,.,,,, '_", .. " .. ,., 9·3

9.6 Graphical Represantalion , 9 - 3

U rheberrec htl ich gesc h utztes Materia

19:.7':!lp~J;I(;jlIOUryortant Definilions , .. i;.· '" 9 - 4

. ..~. gfrPoSfilv.; DefiDlterness . ~ ~. 9 - 4

9..7.2 Neg ati,ve 0 efinitenes5 .. , ..........••..•..

. " , , , .. 9-4

973 Positive Semjdeftnlteness

9-5

9.7.4 .Nega~~e Semidefinite, . ,

,. 9-5

,

91 5 I ndafinilen ass

9-5

9 8 QlladR!tic; Faun

" 9 - 5

9 9 Hermitian Foun

9-5

9.10 Liapunov's Second Method :,-.':.':.::::.< , no on' 9 - 6

9.11 liapuno s Stabili!y Theorem .- .. :~ :.:: , , , ' 9 - 6

• 9.12 Stability of linear and Nonlinear systems, , .. , , , : 9 ~ 7

9.13 Construction of Liapuno ..... s Functions for NonHn.ear Systems by'

Krasovskii's Method

.... 9- 8

9.14 The Direct Method of liapunov and the Linear System 9 - 11

Examples with Solutions , , ,,, , 9 - 1.2

Review Qilestions

"" " 9-.24

U rheberrec htl lch ge5c h utztes M ateri"

Modem Control Thoory

3·7

Matrix Algebra &. Derivation of Transfer Function

Properties of Multiplication

1. Commutative law is not valid for the matrix multiplication.

AS ... SA

2. The transpose of a product ls the product of transposes of individual matrices in the reverse order.

I. Example 3,3: Oblilill the mafrix ",,,Wplicatio,,.oj,

[3 ~ll

A = 0 1

2 0

B = [1 0 -I]. 2 1 0

Solution: A has order ,3 x 2 and [I has order 2 x 3 hence C '" A x B has order 3 ~ 3.

c

[3X1~1"2

A x B'" 0><1+1><2 2><1+0><2

3><0 ~1><.1 3><~1 ~1>< 0]

0><0+1><1 0><-'1+1><0 2><0+0><1 2><-14-0><0'

[~ ~; -~]

2 0 ~2

3.4 Inverse of a Matrix

In algebraic ca lcula nons we wri te ax = y

i.e.

Similarly in matrix algebra we can write,

AX B

i.e ..

where

Inverse of ma trix A

'I1u! inverse of a rna mx exists only under the following conditions,

1. The rna trix is a square rna trix.

2. The rna trix is a nonsingular matrix,

U rheberrec htl lch ge5c h (jutes M ateri a

Modem Control Theory

3-8

MatrIx Algebra & Derivation of Transfer Func:ti'on

Mathematically inverse of a matrix can be calculated by the expression,

_ 1 [Adjoint of A) A" _, -["AT---'---

3.4.1 Properties of Inverse of a Matrix

1. When a matrix is multiplied by its inverse, the result is the idennty matrix.

A~IA" AA~l=I

2. Inverse 0 fin" erse of a rna trix is the matrix i tself,

,

3. In verse of a product of two rna trices is the', prod uct of their individual inverses

taken in the reverse order. .

(ABf 1 " B ~I A - 1

I....... f2. 1~}.'

....,.. Example 3.4: Fiud tll~ fllver,e of A .. '4'

. l

Solution: Check thai A is nonsingular.

)A)

12 31

, =,2 - 12 = -10

4 1.

[Adjoint of Al

. IAI ' .

1 Cofactor of A I T

AdjA

[ 1 _4]T ,,[ 1 - 3]

-3 2 -4 2

[-~ -~L [--{J.t +0.3J

-to +0.4 -0.2

Important Observatlon: For ,2 " 2, matrix, the adjoint of the matrix can be direcUy obtained by changing the posltions of main diagonal elements and 'by changing the signs of the remaining clements,

U rhcberrec htl lch gesc h utztes M ateri a

Modem Conlrol Theory

3-9

Matrix Algebra & Derivation of Transfer Function

For example,

This result is directly used hereafter while solving the problems, when matrix has an order 2 ~ 2. No!e that for any oth.,.. order of matrix the adjoin! must be obtained as transpose of ~of3ctor matrix.

With this study of rna trix algebra, let us discuss the method of obtaining transfer function from the state model,

3.5 Derivation of Transfer Function from State Model

Consider a standard stale model derived for linear time invariant system as,

X(t) AX{I) ... aU{t) ... (Ja)
and Yet) C X(I) + D Uti) ... (lb)
Taking Laplace transform of both sides,
[s X(s) - X(O)] A Xes) ... a U(s) ... (2.)
and '1'(5) C Xes) + D U(s) ... (2b) Note that as the system is time invariant, the coefficient of matrices A, B, C and Dare constants. While the defini.tion of transfer function is based on the assumption of zero in! tial conditions i.e. X(O) = o.

s X(.) s X(.) - A X(s)

A XC,,) + B U(s) B U(s)

Now. is an operator while A is. matrix of order n x n hence to match the order. of two terms on left hand side. multipl)! 's' by identity matrix I of the order n x fl.

sl X(s) - A Xes) [sl - Al Xes)

a U(5) a U(5)

Premultiplylng both sides by [sl - A]" 1, Lsi - Af J lsi - A] X(s)

Now

[sl - A]" ! [sl - Al XC';)

[~J - A]" I BU(5) 1

[.1- Af I BU(s)

..• (3)

Substituting in the equation (2b),

yes) C [sl - A]" 1 B U(s) + D U(s)

Yes) (e [sl - Af I II + 0) U(s)

U rheberrec htl lch gesc h (jutes Iv! ateri"

Modern Control Theory

3 -10

MatriX Algebra &. Derivation of Tra[lsfer Function

Hence the transfer function is,

Y(,) 1

T(5) ~ U(~) ;; C 151 - A]" B .. 0

.. (4.1)

Now

lsi - Arl

,'\djlsl-AJ lsI-AI

T(5.) ;; C Adj lsi-AI B .. D Isl-al

... (4b)

Key Point: The slale model oj a system is !lot h'Mique, but lire IroJu;j.r fllJlclirJJ! of ob(oined /m'" allY More modd is uniqu«: /I is illdepclldclII of 1/" ",""wd u~d '0 "'1're~s 'he .yslem j" .Iale model form.

3.5.1 Characteristic Equation

It is seen from the expression of transfer function .tha I the denornina lor is I sl - A I. Now the equation obtained by equating dcnommator of transfer Junction to zero Is called characteristic equation. The roots 01 this equation arc the dosed loop poles of the system, Thus the characteristic equation of the system is,

i 5! - AI - 0 ... Characteristic equation

The stability of the system depend. On the roots of the characteristic equation. In matrix algebra, the roots of the equation 151 - A'I " 0 arc called eigcn values of matrix A and the",", are generally denoted b)' )".

Il,... Example 3.S; COll5id.". a >ys/em havi"X Siale mudd

I XI1 ~[-~ -3]. [Xt]+ [~] U

jX2j .! 2, X2. ,~

will, D", O. Ol'lai" its T.F.

andY",,/111

(VTU: J.nJF.b.-20011)

Solution:

T.F.

C[sl-A)-I B Adjls! - AJ

I sl ., AI

s [1 0]·, ~[. -2 -31_ ['~] •. -r~2 -3l

_0 1. _ ~ 2 J 0". ci4 2 J

U rheberrec htl lch ge5c h utztes M aleri"


3 ·11

Matrix Algobra & Derivation of Transfer Function

lsI-AI

"l.+2 3]

-4 s-2,

Is! - AI

Adj

3]

"+2

4 ]T ~ [" _ 2

s + 2, 4

(s + 2) (s - 2) + 12 ~ s' - 4 + 12 ~ $2 + 8

["-2 -3]

4 s+ 2

s~2 + S

T.F.

[85+1) .' + 8

3.5.2 MIMO System

For multiple input multiple output systems, a single transfer function docs not Cldsl', There exists a mathematical relationship between each output and all the inputs, Hence for such systems there exists a tr0nsfer matrlx rather than the transfer function. But the method 0 f obtaining transfer rna ttix rcma ins same as before.

n .. Eltample 3,.6 ,: Determine the 1,,",,"/", rnat:ri:~ /or MIMO system giwl! by,

Sol uti on ; from the given sta Ie model,

[.1- AI

Adj [51- A]

Isl-AI

A

[ 0 3}

,-2 -5,

T.M,

C[S'-Ar1B+D

[s -3]

,2 .+~

'[Cll, C1,]-T '" [S+, 5 - 2]T '" [S+5 3]

C1I C~,' 3 s - 2 "

s:! + 5s+ 6 = (s + 2) (s + 3)

U rheberrec htl lch ge5c h utztes M ateri a

Modem Conlrol Tlleory

3 ·12

Matrix Algebra & 'Do,iv3.tion 'of T'a lisle' F u nctlon

Adj lsl-,'] lsI-AI

[s_+; !]

(s-l-2.) (s+3)

T.M.

[3Hl11 35+14] s+S s+ 8

(s + 2) (s+ 3)

35-1-14 1

(5-1-2) ($+3)

s .. 8

(s+2) ( ... 3)

(s+ 2) (5+ 3)

i.e.

Y(s)

T.M. Or.}

[ 3HH

(5+2) (s+ 3) 5+8

3HH 1

(5+2) (5+3)

The above rela tion indicates !hal each output depends on be th the inputs.

3.6 Eigen Values

Consider an equation AX = Y which lndicates (he transformation of 'n x 1· vector rna trix X into 'n " 1· vee to,' rna trix Y by 'n ~ n' rna trix opcra tor A-

U there exists such a vector X such that A transforms it to a vector )J( then X is called the solution of the cqua tion,

AX )J(

i.e.

)..X-AX

o o

... (1)

i.e.

[),_I- AJX

The set cf homogeneous equations (1) have a nontrivial solution only under the condition,

t I),_,I-AI ,,0 ]

... (2)

The determinant I),_ I - A I is called ~haracteristl~ polynomial while the equation (2) is called the characteristic equation,

U rheberrec htl lch ge5c h utztes M ale,; a

Modam Control Theory

3-13

Matrix Algebra &, Deri\'~IIDn of Transfer Function

After expanding, we get the characteristic equation as, p. I - A I = ,);n + 31 1.." - 1 + .. + an = 0

., (3)

The 'n' roots 01 the equation (3) i.e, the values 01 J.. satisfying the above equation (3) are called eigen values of the matrix A.

The equation (2) is similar to 151 - A I: = 0, which Is the characteristic equation of the system. Hence values of )., satisfying characteristic equation are the erased IMp pole. of the system. Thus eigen values are the closed loop pol es of the SysteOl.

3.7 Eigen Vectors

Any nonzero vector Xi such that AX; = I, Xi is said to be eigen "ector associated with eigen va lu e )., j. Thus let A"' ).,1 Sa tisltes the eq ua tion,

(All-A) X = 0

Then solution of this equation is called cigen vector of A essociated with eigen value ').,1 and is denoted as MI'

11 the rank of the matrix [1'1 I - A] is I, then. there are (0. - r) independent eigcn vectors. Similarly another importanl point is thai if the eigcn values of matrix A are all distinct, then the rank r of matrix A is (n - 1) where n is order of the system.

Mathematically, !he eigen vector can be calculated by taking cofactors of matrix (All - A) along any row.

r-~-----------------------'

Thus

where k " 1, 2, ... n

where Cki is cofactor of matrix (Jo. j 1 - A) of k'n row.

Key Point: 1f a,e cofactol'S nlOllg a pnrUmlar ruw gives null ~ol1"io~ i.e. ~II eleml'l1ts of C(Jrrespondi.lIg elge" vee/oTtO are 2;ero I1U:11 c%dors ~lmlg any other row :must be oljltli~red, Othmoise inverse of modnl matrix M aln not exist.

3,8 Modal Matrl.x M

let ).,1' )'2' .... A,n are the n eigen values of the matrix A while MI, M2, ... M", are the elgen vectors corresponding to th" elgcn values AI' ).2 ... 'An respectively. Epcl; elgen vector is of the order n x 1 and placing all the cigen vectors one after another as the columns of another matrix, n x n matrix can be obtained, Such a. matrix obtained by placing all the eigen vectors toge!her i.s called a modal matrix Or dlagenalising matrix' of matrix A.

U rheberrec htl lch gesc h (jutes Iv! ater;"

Modem Control Theory 3 -14

Matrix Algebra'" Derivation of Transfer Function

.. I M .~Modal MMrlx - IMl : M2 : ... : Moll

The important property of the modal matrix is !h<lt,

AM A 1M) : M2 : : M"I.

[AM) : AMI: AM,,!

[~ MI : :I..J Mz : ... : I", M,,!

AM

Mil.
rAI 0 0 n
' 0 A2 0
Diagonal matrix 0= l ~
0 ... (1)

where

Thus premultiplying equation (1) by M-l.

M-1 AM "" M-1M A

M - 1 AM = iI. (Diagonal matrix)

It can be noted that

1. Both A and A have same characteristic equation.

2. Both A and A have same eigen values,

Hence due to transformation M - I AM, eigcn values of matrix A remain unchanged and matrix A gets converted to diagonal form.

3.8.1 Vander Monde Matrix

II the state model i.s obtained using the phase variables then the matrix A is in Bush form or phase variable form as,

0 1 0 0 1
0 0 0
A
I 0 0 0 1
~an ~~:a 11- I -~'n-:2 -0, .l And thl! characteristic equation j.e., denominator of T(s) is, F{s) = "tr + "'1 ~/'11-1 + ... + art ~ 1 s + an ~,o

U rheberrec htlich gesc h (jutes M ateri a


3 -15


In such a case, modal matrix lakes a form of a special matrix as,

1
A.1 1..'2 ~n
V ).." ),~ A;l
1 Such a modal matrix for matrix AI, which is in phase variable form, is called Vander

Mondc matrix . . . \ . .

1_ Example 3,7; ConSIder a stateiodel ,mtl! mamx II 115,

[.0 2 \ UJ

4 o \ 1

-48 -34 ~9

II

Dell'rmillc, a) Characteristic cquntiOll, L,) Eigrn va/lies c) Eigen lJeCrors and tI) Modnl matrix. Also protJl' tim, 1'/,.. trrUis/ormqholl M - JAM /'eSlllls a diagonal matrix.

Solution ;' oj The characteristic equation i~ I), I - A I = 0

A.I~ 0' ~I-I 0 2 J
1 4 0
0' 11 !-48 -34
I ).. -2 o I
- 4 A. -I i
48 34 ,.+9: o

0'

.. , (1)

:. A.z ().. + 9) + 2" 48 + 0' + 0' - 8 (A. .. 9) .. 34 A. = 0'

This is required chaf'llctcrlstic equation,

b) To find eigen values, test).. = - 2 for its toot.

-2

- 2 - 14 - 24

9

26

24

12 0

U rheberrec htl lch gesc h utztes Iv! ateri a


3 -16

Matrix' Algebra '" Derivation of Transfer Function

i.e.

(I, + 2) (). -t 3) (11. + 4) ~'I

o

- 2, "2 - - 3 and ),.3 '" .:. 4 \

These arc t.he cigcn values of matrix A. \

c) To find eigen vectors, obta in rna trix P'l I - A I fnreach cigen al ue by substi tuling value of ),. in equation (1).

i.e,

for 11.1" -2,

[A;I-AI

=~ -~]

34 7

For '"2'" - 3, p'; I - Al '" [=: =~ -~]

.18 34 6

.", The common factor can be \_taken out.

\

\

.. M2 '" [~::l'" [-li4] '" HJ
-[~ ~2 -;]
For 1..3 '" - 4, [Ai I-A] -4
48 34
.. M3 '" [~::l'" [-m '" [-:J MI, Ml and M] are the etgen vectors corresponding 10 the elgen values 11.1' 11.2 and 11..;.



3 ·17


d) The modal matrix is,

M '" 1M!: M2 : MJI ,,[-~ -2

let us prove M -lAM is a diagonal matrix.

M -! "' Adj [M] [Cofactor of MIT

1Mi" IM[

Adj 1M]

[-. 10 +8 _7.]T [-10 -7 -1]

-7 6 -5 = 8 6 1

-1 1 -1 -7 -5 -1

[10 7 1]

Adj[Ml_ _ ..

"""TMI - -S -{i 1

7 5 I

. -

[:8 2 ~] [-~ 2 1] [-2 -{i -4]
AM 0 -3 -'2" 2 9 -1:
-34 -9 -2 4 4 -3
[10 7 1][-2 -{i -4]
M-'AM -8 -{i -1 2 9 8
7 5 1 4 -3 -16·
n 0 0] [i'l 0 ~ ]" A
-3 o " 0 AZ
0 -4 0 0 Ie] Thus M-1AM is a diagonal matrix.

)I" Example 3.8: OblaiM the Eigm ml ..... , fig'M veeto.r. and Modal malrit for the matrix

1 0]

o 1

-11 -6


· ~ ..


3-18

Matrix A1ge bra & Derlvatio n of Transfer Function

Solution: Eigen values are roots of 1,)'1- AI=O

[A -i Q]

I).I-AI" 0 ),-1: =0 6 11 ),+6,

i.e ..

o

0-+ 1){1_+ 2) ()..+ 3)

o

)'1 '" -,1, 1..2 ,,-2, 1.. J = -3 are "igen values, To find Eigen vector,

Lei ),_ A, =-1
[~I -1 ~11
.. [1..1 I-A] -1
11
[Cn]
Ml e12 where C = Cofactor
e13 K_2
Mi [~l l.e, M1=H]
For 1..2 =-2
[~2 -I ~l ]
[1..2 I-A] -2
II
[C11] =[~~] =[+]
M2 C12
en (Q,K-l
For 1..3 =-3
[~ -1 ~]
[") I-A} ":3
11 U rhcberrec htl lch gesc h (jutes M aleri"

Matrix A1gabnl & Derivation of Transfer Function

Key Point: The coj.clors aboul any row om be obI/Ii/led. :. Modal matrix M = [MI: M2 : MJ]

M [~l ~2 ~]

U can be easily checked that,

M-1 AM =h = [~l ~2 ~3l

3.9 Diagonalisation

The diagonal matrix plays an important role in the matrix algebra. The cigen values and inverse of a diagonal matrix can be very easily obtained just by an inspection. Thus in state variable analysis, if the matrix A is diagonalised then it Is very easy to handle mathematically.

Whe!1 matrix. A Is dlagonalised, then the elements along its principle diagonal are the elgcn values. The eigen values are the dosed Joop poles or the system, from which stabillty of the system can be analysed.

The diagonal matrix A indicates nenlnteraetton of various state variables. The derivative of one stale variable is dependent on the corresponding state variable alone and other state variables do not interact in it, when A is diago.naJ matrix. This is practically important from con trolling point of view.

Due to all these reasons, the diagonaHsation of matrix A is always motivated. The lechnlques used to transform the general state model into diagonal fcrm i.e. canomeal (ann an! called dla80nal~tlDn techniques.

Consider n U> order state model in whlch matrix A is not diagonal.

X(I) Y{I)

A X(t) + B U(I) C Xli) + 0 U(I)

... (1) ... (2)

Let Z(t) Is new stale <'ector such that the transfonnalion is, X(I) ~ MZ(t)

..• (3)

U rheberrec htl lch ge5c h utztes Iv! aleri a

Modern Conllol Theory

3 -20

. Mallix Algebra & Derivation of Transfer Function

Here

Moda I rna tnx of A

M

XC!)

M let)

... (4)

Using equations (3) and (4) into equations (1) and (2),

and

MZ(I) Y(I)

AM Zet} .. B U(t} CM Z(t} .. DU(t}

... (S) ... (6)

Prernultiplying equation (5) by M -1 on both sides,

and

.

2(1)

Y(l)

M- .1AM Z(t) + M-l B U(I) M-l AM Z(I) + M-1B U(I) CM Z(t) .. D U(I)

... (7) ... (a)

The equations (7) and (8) gives the canonical state model in which M - lAM is a

diagonal matrix denoted as A. .

The matrix M which transforms A into diagonal form is called diagonalising- matrix or modal matrix.

The new canonical sta tc model is represented as,

where

2(t) yet)

A Z(t) .. II U(t) C 2(t) .. 0 U(t)

M - 1 AM = Diagonal matrix M-1B

... (9) .... (10)

A

B

The method of obtaining modal matrix M is already discussed in the last section. The transformation M -lAM is called diagonalisation of matrix A.

I.., Example 3.9: Rtduce ti,e given stale model into its ",nonical form by d~gcmalising matrix A,

and Y(t)

x(t)

[~ -1~ -!] X(t) .. (~] U( I)

-6 -11 5; 1

11 0 O} X(I)

U rhcberrec htl lch gesc h utztes M ateri a


3 -21

Matrix Algebra & Derivation oJ Transfer Function

Solution: From the given stare model,

A ~ [j =~~ -i], B~m, C~[1 001

Let us find eigen values, eigenvectors and modal matrix of A.

IJ.. -1 1 I
.. I: J..+11 -6 . ~ 0
11 ~.-5 :. J.. (J.. + 11) (J..- 5) + 36 + 66 - 6 (J,.. + 11) + 6('.- 5) + 66 l = 0

o

(A+ 1) (J..+ 2) p.+ 3)

o

Thus cigen values are, Al = - 1, A.2 ~ - 2, "3 = - 3 To find elgen vectors,

For AI = -I,

n -1 -~l
[)'J 1- AJ 10
11 -6
[ell] nn
Ml Cl2 =~; = 0
Cn 01
For).,=-2,
n -1 -~]
[".21- A] 9
11 -7
M2 [Cl1]_[+3]_n
C12 ,- +6 - 2
CIJ 12 4 U rheberrec htl lch gcsc h (jutes Iv! ateri"


3 ·22

Fori..] .. - 3,

Matrix Algebl'l & Derivation of Trlln.fer Function

Ii..~ 1- A)

MJ
M
M-IAM
WhIle il and

[MI ' M2: M3) = [~ ! :] = Modal matrix

n -~ _~]~ A

M-1B

Adj[MJ ---rMI

[~ : ~]T [~_! ~]

4 -6 2 -2 -32

-14 . -14

[ 0.428.5 .0 . 3.571 -o. 2857 .. ] -0 A285 -{)5714 + 0 .4265

0.1428 0.2142 -0.1428

M -lB ~ [:~.~. ], .. {-~]

-0. t428 -1

C " eM" [1 1 1)

ThU! canonical state model is,

Z'(t) = It. Z(t} + BU{t)

and Y(t)

C Z(t) where X(I) " M Z(t)

-r- Multiplying by 7

U rhcberrec htl lch gesc h (jutes M ateri"


3·23


3.10 Generalised Eigen Vectors

The gen!'ralis~d eigen vectors are the eigen vectors corresponding to repeated cigcn values. Uptill now, it is assumed that the eigen values are distinct but if an cigen value 1..1 is repeated for r times then the corresponding eigen vectors are called generalised eigen vectors.

If a particular elgen value )..1 is repealed r limes then the rank of n ~ n rna trix [11.1.1. - Al is n - 1 and there is only OnC independent cigen vector associated with A] given by,

... Ckn are cofactor" about klh row

tmportant Note.: II cofactors along a particular row gives all values zero l.e, eigen vector as null matrix, then eofactors along other row must be cbtained.

I'or remaining (r - 1) eigen vectors for r - 1 times repeated value :I.], generalised eigen vectors must be used as,

ilCxl U<CI<I
1 ' dX1 21 i))'i
M2 {lCIa M3", il2Ck2
I! ~ 2! ilA.t
uCkn ' 1 a2e
1 ! 'il:l.l' ~
2! (l1..i
o,-I(C.I)
(r-l)! ij),.~-I
M, i;I,-I(CjU)
(r-W d~-I
1 o,-l(Ckn)
([-I)! a).'j"'l . The modal matrix M then can be obtained by placing all the cigcn vectors one aher the other.

Note that in such 1I case, M - ] AM matrix is not diagonal but consists of a r ~ r Jordan block in it where r is the order of repetition of a particular elgen value.

U rheberrec htl lch gcsc h utztes M ate,i"


3 -24

Matrix Algebra & Oorivat.ion of Trans'fer Function

3.10.1 Vander Monde Matrix for Generalised-1Egen Vectors

If matrix A is in phase variable form "J,d,!~n. ,cig.n value ,A 1 is repeated fur r times, then n elgen values arc AI' Al ... '.", f"r --+ 1, ,,,I, len. The corresponding modal matrix i5 Vander Mondc matrix in modified form as,

o

o ()

),n-I 'I

o

(I, "', ,,, :1..'+1

o - ..

... A~,~\

I..,. Example 3.10; Find I),e ~ig~n vaIlles. eigen nectors and modal matrix t(}T,

Solution : Find eigen values which are roots of I Al - A I = (I

I A [~ (I ~] -[ ~ ~ ~] I

o () 1 -8 -2 -5 I

1_; ~ -~ 1

+S 2 1..+5

1..2 p.+ S) + 4 + 81.. 1..3 + 5A2 ... 81.. + "

Try 1..= - 1

(I

o

o o

-1 B 4

-1 -4 -4

4 4 [£]

(7-.,+ 1) (1..2 + 41..+ 4) 0

(I.. + 1) (A + 2)2 0

U rheberrec htl lch ge5c h utztes M ate,i a


3 ·25

Mallix Algebra & Derivation of Transfer Function

Thus '- 2' is repeated twice hence it is necessary to use generalised eigen vector •..

Now J.. 2 = - 2 is r"Pea ted twice.

[J..z' - AI = [~~ ~2

B 2

and

[en 1 [ 'l·'~ L,
M, en. = 2)'2 +10
C 13 "2,-2 -4 -8),.,
~ [~~l=nl
dCll
n d)'1
M3 dCI2 = [2)'~+5] _ = u]
1! di..:z
dC)J ).2--2
1 ! dl.., Thus MI, M2 and M3 are the required eigen vectors.

[-1

:. Modal matrix M = (MI: M2 : M31 = :

-1 1]

1 2

2 -8

Urheberrechtllch qeschutztes ~lalcrial

Moclam Control Theory

Examples with, Solutions

3 -26

Matrix Algebra & Dorivation of Tran sfurF un ctlo n

I .... Ellamplu3.11: FitII'I tlte T.1". of tire sy~tfln ImviMg stQle mod.l,

. [0 "I] . [1]

X ~ -2-3. X + 0 U and Y = [1 OJ X

Solution: From the given model,

[sl -AJ

Ad; 1~'...,A1

1_1- AI

. T.F.

[01]· [1] _

A - B '" 0 ,C '" [1 OJ, D '" °

- _-2 -3 '

T.F

Y(s) 1

U(s) = C lsi - A]" B + D

... Change diagonal elements and

change SIgns of other elements . . ~ (s + 3) + 2= .1 + 30 + 2 =. (s + l) (s ... 2)

C Adj [sl-A) B lsi-AI

(s+3)

n O[ [S~23 :][~]

(s+1)(s+2)

,.... Example 3.12; fi!!d th~ T.F. of the system lraving stal« modtl,

(s+I) (5+2)

. __ [-3 11. + [0]

X . -2 of 1 U and Y = [1 o[ X

'QlutJon : Prom the given model,

lsI - AJ

[-3 1] [0]

A =-2 0 ' B", I ' C" [1

T(s) = C Is! _ AI" 1 B + D U(s)

OJ, D = 0

T.F.

S[1 0]_[-3 1]=[5+3 -1]

o 1, -2 O. 2 >

U rheberrec htl lch gesc h (jutes /vi ate,i a

j

Modllm CO,ntrol Theory

3·27

",.trix Alaobra II! D!1liva~ilm ofTnmsfer Fllfl~QI1

/ Adj [51- Al .Iil- AI

s(s .. 3) ... 2 ;: .2 .. 3s • 2 = (s .. 1) (5 ... 2)

T.F,

CAdj[sl-AII! . lSi-AI'

1

[1 01[_; .:3J [~]

(5+1) (H2)

(9+1) (5+2)

1""/ Examplll 3.13: Obl~jll lhe Itmu;ftr lune/ion matrix for tilt MIMO syslom Iuroing slul. model,

[~, -11 ~] X .. [-11

-1 0 1 . 0

aud y= G ~ ~] X

X

i Solution: From the given stale model,

Transfer matrix

I.I-AI

Adj [sl- Al

A

C

[1 1 0] D = 0

1 0 1 '

C· [I"-A]-la, D_CAdj[sI-AIB

s ... -. lsI-AI

s ,[~ ~ ~] _[ ~ -1 ~] = [S~12 .-1 _~]

o 0 1 -1 0 1 1 0 s-1

[(5_1)2

-11+ 1

-2

5-3 (.8-2)(8-1) 2(5-2)

U rheberrec htl lch gesc h (jules Iv! ateri a


3-28

Matrix. Algebra & Derivation of Transfer Function

[51-2"+1 "-3 5-1

...,,+1

s2 -3.+2

1.1- AI

(s - 2) (s - 1)"- 2 + s - 1 53 - 4.2 ... 55 - 5

Adj [.1- AlB

[SI -. 2.+1 5-3 s-1

~+1 51 -35+2 1

-2 1 [-1 0]

2s-4 1 0

91-3>+3 . 0 2

[ ...,,2 ... S

.2 -.4s+5 ...,,+2

-4 1

4.-8

2S2 -6s+6

.. C Adj lsI - A] B

[-35+5 4S-12] ...,,2 +2 2s2 -6 .... 2

[-3>+5. 4.-12] --.;2 +2 2s1 -6s+ 2 Transfer matrix ~

".1 -4s1 +6.-5

l-. Example 3.14: Obtai" the eigm va/lies, eigm vectors ami modal matrix fo~,

A [-1~ _~ i]

and prove thai M - lAM = i\ = Diago"al matrix. (VTU, JulyIAug .• 200',JrnJFeb .• 1008)

Solution : For eigen values,

1),.[- AI = 0

I-~ -)~ ~21 0

12 7 ).. ... 6

U rheberrechtl lch gesc h utztes M ateri"

Modem Control Tileory

3·29

Matri x Aigeb ra & De rlvatlo n of Transfer Function

\ " \

\

.. 2(1..+ 6) + 24 -3 .. -18 + 14 .. = 0 1..3 + 6 .. 2 + 11'- + 6 " 0

Test .. = -1,

\

\

-1 e 11 6
0 -1 - 5 -6
5 6 [£}
,. { .. + 1) 0.2 + 5 .... 6) 0
i.e, ( ..... 1) ( ..... 2) ( .... 3) 0 Bence eigen values are, Al " - 1, "2 " - 2, "3 " - 3 For the eigen vectors,

"I = - 1, r"l. r- AJ

4, =- 3, [43 1 - AJ \

-~1·

5

[~:;]. ,. [-;] ,. [-:]'

Co ,-9 ,-1

[-1 -I

-3 -1 12 7

'[-2 -1 0]

,-3 -2 -2

12 7 4

MJ

[ell]' [5] [1]'

Cll ,= ,-15 = -'3,

C ' 15 3'

13 .'.

M

[1 2 1]

Modal matrix = -1 -4 -3

-1 1 3'

U rheberrec htl lch gesc h utztes Iv! ateri"

3·30

MalrlxAigoJra & Dorivatiori of Trilnsfor Furictlon

M-I
-
AM
.. M-1AM [-9 6 _S]T

-5 4 -3

Adj IM1 -2 2 -2

IMr = ;=....._--..,,-2~'-

[-: ~ -~]

-2 -3 -2

-2

[4.5 2.5 -~]
-3 -2
2.5 1.5
,
[)2 1 OJ[ 1 2 '] [-' -4 1.]
0 2 -1 -4 -3.. j B 9
-7 -6 -1 3 . 1 -2 /-9
[4.5 2.5 1] [-1 -4 -3] [-1 0/ ol
_:\ -2 -1 1 8 9 = 0 -2 OJ
2.5 1.5 1 1 -2 -9 0 P -3
I Thus, M - lAM = A = Diagonal matrix

1111" Example 3.15: Fi.Md I/o! rig"" IMIlles, tiS"" t>fctors alld nofa! molrh: for, I

I

Solution : .For eigen values,

1:l.I-AI 0

··1 '1-._-14 ~ -~ I 0

-1 '1-.-3

[~ -~ I]

(VTU: j"anJF.I>.-100S)

.. ), ('1-..- 4) ('I-. - 3) - 2- 2 + n -).. .. 3 + 21.- 8", 0

.. )? - n2 + 1St. - 9 0
.. (i. - 1) (1._2 - 6A. + 9) 0
.. (A.- 1) (/.._ 3)2 0 !
I •. . .)..J = 1')..l 13, 1.; = 3

Now )..2 '" 3 is repeated twice hence for ).. .. 2 '" 3, tf'c generalised cigen vectors must be used.

U rheberrec htl lch gesc h (jutes M ateri a


3· 31

Matrbt Algebra" Dativallbll DI Tran.fer FuMlion

For )'1" I,

[=~ -1 _~]

-1 -2

[~:~ .l' " [.~]

Cl30

As it Is a null matrix, calculate cofactors about other row,

2 1

-2

1..z-3

, I dCIi
1 ! d)'2
del2 " [2A~ -3] _ "m
Ii dl..2
dCIl )'2-3
n d"2 '2~ 3 Hence the modal matrix Mis,



3·32


I'" Example 3.16; 1110 Fig. 3.1 sbows .III. block diog"'''' of. ,,",111'01 system using stal. mriablc [e.<llnn); and in /,'/,,,., COlltro/. The st.l. modd "f plan! is,

Y " [0 IJ [~~]

;) Derive the slale model of Ih. ellli ... ~ syslem. ii) Dorive the trmls[n function Y(5)!U(5).

U(I) _"~()--"'_-I

y(t)

Fig. 3.1 Solution: i) TIle input of integrator shown is Xl'

and

x, r(t)

- 1 ~ [U(t) - Y(t)1 " Y(t) - U(t)

- .3.5 X3 - 2X1 - 1.5 Xl

... (1) . (2)

From the plant model given,

x, - lXI + 2X2 .. r(t)
.
~ 4 Xl - 5 Xl
and Y(t) Xl ... (3a) . .. (3b) ... (3c)

Using equation (2) in equation (30) we get,

Xl - ax! .. 2X2 - 35 X3 - 2X1 - 1.S X2

., (ota) ... (4b)

Substituting equation (3<:) in equation 0),

;S " X2 - U(t)

... (40)


Modllm Control Theory .

3 ·33

Matri>: Algebra & Derivation of Transfer Function

and

Y(I) " ~

... (4d)

Thus equations (4a) 10 (4d) give stall.' model of the entire system,

Xl [-J 0.5 -35][X I] [0]
.
X2 ~<i ~ • _~~_ + _~. U(!)
XJ 1
and Y(I) [0 1 0] [~~]
i.e. X ~ AX + BU and y '" CX with D ~ 0 ti) The transfer function Y(s)!U(s) is.

Y( s ) '" C lsi - A]" I B + D U(s)

lsi _ A[ '" S [~ ~ ~]_[-: ~.: -~.5] '" ["_+45

0010 0 0

-0.5 s+5 -1

[ .' .5, 45 · r
Adj [sI- A] '" 0.5.-3.5 .2 +55 5+5
-3.5(s+5) -14 (s+5)2 -2
[ ,"5, O.Ss -3.5 -3.5.-17.5 ]
" 4~ ,2 +5s -14
4 s+5 .2 +10.+23 lsi-AI VIs) U(»

'" s (s + 5)2 + 14 - 2s " 53 + loi + 23s + 14 CAdj[sl-A]B d·"

lsI-AI an D - 0

C Adj [si - A] a

[52 +55

,,[0 1 0] ~s

0.5.-3.5 ,2 +5s s+5

-3.55-17.5][ 0]

-14 0

,2 +10.+23; _-1

" 14

Y(s) 14 14

V(s) "'lsI-AI" s3 +Ws2 +23s+14



3·34

Matrix Algebra & Derivation of T ra ns Ie r F u netion

14

nus is the required transfer func~(m_

I,.. Example 3.17: Far the mattix A ~ [_~ ~

~·.l·

-3

Find the eigen values, eigm vectors and molial matrix M.

Solution : .!'or eigen values,

lid-AI 0
I~ -1 01
.. 10.. -1 K 0
4 10..+3
.. 1o..2{10..+ 3) + 2 + 4A. '" 0
.. ...3+310..2+410..+2 - 0 Test 10.. = - 1,

- 1 " 2
-.1 -2 - 2
~
(10.. + 1) (10..2 + 210.. + 2) 0
.. (10.. + I) (Io.. + 1 + j1) (Io.. + 1- j1) 0
.. 10..1 -1, 10..2 '" - 1 - jt, )'3 '" - 1 + jt Calcula Ie- cigcn vectors. For 10.. 1 '" - 1,

1'.11- AJ

n =} -f] [~:~l-H]-H]

U rheberrec htl lch gesc h utztes M ateri a


3·35

Matrix Algebra '" Derivation of Transfer Function

For

-1

-I-jl

4

... Choosing 3td row to calculate cofactors,

r-I+j1

For 1..3 = -1 + jl, [1..3 I - Al " 0

2

-I

-1+11

4

o ]

-1

2+jl

II.,.. Example 3.18: For a "!Is/em will, s'ate model matrices.

A {: ~ :l" me, [:r

Obtain tM system tnmsfu function.

Solution: The T.F. js given by,

T.P. " C[sl-ArIB

fVl1.1: March-20(1)

[S+1 0

[51-A] "-1 5+2 o a

Adj[sl-AI

[Cofactor 51-A[T

[(5+2)0(5-3) (5-3)

(s+1) (5-3)

-+{s+2) +1

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3~.36

Matrht Algebra & Dorivation of Transfer Function

lsi-AI [sl-Art

T.F.

[(8+Z) (5-3) 0

(s -3) (~+llls-3)

o 0

(5 + 1) (5 + 2) (s - 3) Adj[sl-AJ

lsi-AI

5+1 1

o

(s+2) ] (S+I)\""2) :

(s+l) (5+2) o

(HI) (s-3) I

(s+l) (s+2) (5-3) 1

s-3

o

1 (H2)

o

s+,1 1

[I 1 0[: (5+1) (H2)

o

o

(s'; I) (s - 3) !

[1 1 O[ ( .... 1) (5+2)(s-3)

1

(5-3)

(,...I/(S-3) + (5+1) (S~2) (5-:3) (5+3)

(5+1) (s+2){s-3)

(5+1) (5-3) 1

(5+\) (H2) (5-3) 0 1

"-3

1'" Example 3.19: Find the 'r~nsformalioM n1Jltrir P which will Cllllveri lhe following IMtrir A 10 dillgon.1 form. Th« eigen 1Joiul!S Me "1' "2 .nd."3.

U rheberrec htl lch gesc h utztes M ateri"


3-37

Matrix Algebra & Derivation of Tnlnsfer Fun~ol1

Solution: The matrix AI - A is,

'[ A -1

p .. I-AJ = •. 0 I..

. at a 2

o 1

-1

1o.+a~

To find P, means to find eigen vectors and modal matrix, For A: ).." [).., 1- A] = [)~I

a I

-1

To find eigen vector, find cofactors about 3rd row.

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,3 ·38

Matrix Algebra & DlJriyalion of Transfer Fllnction

Hence transforma lion rna trL" Pis,

I
r )'1 ).1 ).1
).2 ).1 )..l
I J Thus if matrix A is in phase variable form,

r 0 1 0 0
0 0 0
A lin
0 0
-fln_t --('/,Ll-2 -ctl And the cigen values are distinct as ).1' ). 2' ... An then ;1 'an be proved as above that the d iagon.., I ising matrix is,

r 1 1
1..',1 A, An
"1 J..~
P 2 A~l
~'h .. l ~·fl-1 1..,-1
,,! """2 -« Key Point; Note IIml while filldillK II .. rigt'll! .... clors J'"d Ihe cO/4ciors am",l lasl row.

II..... Example 3.20: Del .. min« Ih~ trQIIsft. mll/rir for the ")Is/em.

[~I]i _ [=; ~J [~:]+ [~ ~] [~:] . [~:] ~ [~ -1,J [~;]

2· (VTU; Ju.ly/Aug."2005)

Sollliion : Prom the given state model,

A = [=~ ~], B = [~5 60 J. C: g -:l D - ! 0 I

Adj[SI-A'I! [5+3 -1.1. ~_.'\.I ,Sl-AI:, 2 ""

Adj [sl-A)

[,' 'IS -2 J'T [" 1 ]

8+3 : -2 s+3

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3 -39

MatrIx Afgsbra & Oerlvallon of Transfsr Funcllon

[- 93+18

... ~ ("+1)(5+2)

.. T.F. - 27,- 63

. . (s+1)(s;-2)

T.F.

[1 -I] [43-5 681

B 1 -53- 23 -12 J

(3+1)(5+2)

63+ 12 1

(st l)(st2)

~8s-12 (>+1)($+2)

[ 9

,,+1

= 273-63

(s+J)(s;-2)

6 1

.+1

48.-12 (s+1j(s+2)

This is the n~ry transfer matrix.

I" Exampte 3.21 : COIIVt'I"/ the ftll!Jwing stn/~ mood into m~onjCIII jon».

(VTU, JulyiAug.-2005)

Solullon : From the given model.

A'" [1 -4} 6 '" [.0] C" [1 0.1

3 -6 -1 '

IH-AI

Let us find the cigcn values, eigen vectors and model matrix of A

bo[l 0]_[ .. 1 -4] .. 1=1)·-1

! ° 1 3 - 6! -3

.. (l-l){>"+ 6)+12

(A+2)(>..+ 3)

o i.e, AI =-2., )'l ,,-3

To lind el gen vectors.

For AI =-~ 1.1'11- A] = [=~ :] i.e. Ml = [~:~J =[~]

U rheberrec htl lch ge5c h (jutes M ateri"

Modam Control Theory

3.40

Mallil( Algol1ra & Dorivatlon of Transfer Fun.:tion

For )..2 ~ -3, 11'21- II J" rl-t 4] i.e, Mr- [C 11 J ",[ . .3]'. "1'.],

,-3 3 C12.3 LI

M " lM1; Md" [~ ~J" Modal matrix

1I.rlAM [~2 OJ
.. "II
-3
While Ii M-"IS
[1 -1 J
M-1 AdjM',,-34 ,,[1 -1]
IMI ~ ~I ~1 4
B [11 ] [~l] ,,[~]
.. -3 4 The canonical sl<llc model is,

1.(1) AZU) + BI!

Y(!) C Zit) where XU) '" M Zit)

I'", Examp!e 3.22: (",,<'Crt the fol/Qwillg squtlrt matrix A 1.'/0 lord"" canon ,cal form uS;IIg

Q suitable "on-sills"l.r Imn.sformntioll malrix P. (VTU: July/Aug.. '20(5)

r!) :I

A" 0 0

l-4 -9

Soluti on : Find the cigen val ues 01 A.

I)·I-AI " I,~

'4

-1 1.. 9

~1 .1" 0

1..+6,

.. (1..+4)('-+ l){)..-rl) ,,0



3 -41


As A, ,,-1 is repea led twice,

- 1 dCIi

I! d),.2

dCI2 &2 -

del] dll.l

[Mj:M2:M3J '" f~ 4

.16

M

o ]

-1

"l. +6,

rell] .[),.~ +6'.2 +9] _[ 4] ... _[ I]

lCl2 =. -4 --4.--\

C1J J. . -4)'2· 4 1

k-l ~h-!

1 !

1 1]

-1 0

-I

Ad; r~ [~--~; ~:r "[~24 M-l,,~~~ = [~24 ~r7-;J

9

2 Il -17 - 4] 15 3··

[1 1 1]

-4 -\ 0

16 I -1

U rheberrec htl lch gC5C h utztes M ateri a


3 -42

Matrix Algebra & Derivation

. of Transfer Function

..... Diagonal matrix with Jordan block

)I", Example 3.23 : Consider ,Ihe ","lri:.:

(V11J: Jan.JFeb.-2006)

[2 -2 3]:

A " 1 1 1

1 J -I,

i) F.ind Ihe eigrn values IUId eiger" vectors .of A. ii) Wrile the modal matrix.

iii) Shaw Ihal the modal motrixind~d diag(ma/izes A,.

Solution : For eigen values I),J -A I " 0

1:~;-2 1..:1 J " 0

-1 -3 1..+:1

i.e, p.-l)(l+1){) .. -2) + 2-9- 3(/..-1)+2(/..+1)-3(1..-2)",0

i.e (/..-1)(1..+2)(/..-3)=0

.. AI ~+1" A,~ =-2. }"J ,,3

For /.., "L

[1.1- Al

For A.:! =-2,

CAl - A)

A. Cll '" e'l" Ctl '" 0, calculate co/actors about ether row.

U rhcberrec htl lch gesc h (jutes M ate,i a


3 ·43


[}J-A]

[ 1 2 - 3]. [C II] rs] [I]

-J 2, -1 .. M} '" CIZ," I,.~ ".1

-1 - 3 4, C I~ [s 1

M

11 1]

1 1

-14 J '

M-I

Adj M 1M!

1 [15 - 25

--=-- () - 2

-30

~15 - 3

l~ j.

-12

1~ ] [~ - 2 ~ ] [~1 \1 ~]

-12 1 3 -1 1 - 14 1

1 .[15 - 25 10 ] [_I 11 1]

- 30 {) .. -4 1 1

- 45 - 9 - 36 1 - 14 1

1 [15,-25 - 30 0 - 2

-15 - 3

[~~ {) o ] [1 o
1 ' U ~ {)
-35° 60 -2
0 n -9().O o Thus mod al matrix indeed diagonalizes A.

I,.... Ex.mpJo 3.24, Gi'",,~ fI," ;tate model X=i\)('-Ihl,y "ex

(vru, 'anJFeb .• 2006)

where A '" [~

-1

10 ~ 1 ' B '" [~l and C '" [I 0 0]

- 2 -3 1

j) Simulat« and find the transfer fullC/iOM~::; I,sing Maso/l's gai'" formula. ii} Determine Ole Iram!er fi",clioll from I}", Slate model formulation.



Matrix Algobra & Dorlvation of Transfer Fun..tion

Solution; The state equations MC,

. . .

XI=X., X."'X3' X3"'-XI-2X?-3XJ·H~y=XI

Hence the signal flow graph is,

Fig. 3.2

Here K ~ 1 .•

The various loop gains are,

6

-J

-,

l~-7

F1g. 3.3

All loops are touching 10 each other.

..
~K.
.. 1I1 ~ '" l-[Ll +L:2 +L31 = 1+~+ 22 +..!..

s S 53

Elimina.ting all loop g~ins from 1I which are touching 10 KIh forward path



3 ·45

Matrix Algebra & Derivation of Tran.fer Funl:tion

Yes) U(s)

Now let US use the state model method of finding the transfer function.

Yes) C[sl-Ar'B+O
.. OM
[~ -\ o ]
[~I~Al -\
2 s +3 [S2 +35+2 -\

~+3 s(s+3)

Adj [sl-Al IsI-A I

... 0 ",0

-5 ].T [,2. +3.+2

-25-1 = ~I

s2 '-s

5+3 s(s+3)

-25-\

I.]

,;

1]

s

s

5+3 s(s+ 3)

-2.-1

Yes) U(s)

[" .~., s+ 3 :] [:]
[1 0 0] -1 . 5(5+3)
_,; -2s-1 g.l 1
.3 <-3sZ +2.+1 Y(s) U(s)

... Same as obtained above

[ I] [-2

) .... Example 3.25: The vee/or 2. is UI) <'igm oector of A = :<

-1 -1

",,/,," of A correspandlng 10 rh. vector gw.m.

_ : ~ ~] Fmd III Ulgen

(VTU: JulyIAug.-Z006)

Solution: The eigen vector is thai vector whjd\ is non-zero such thai

AX) J'i X)

Xi = Eisen vector = r ~] l-1

where



3 -46

Matrix Alge bra & Derivation of Tmnsfer FLlnctlon

Ai Eigen value '" To be obtained

[-~ ~ ~:] [ ~] ~ A,[ ~]

-1 -2 0 -1 -\

[~o] " [~~i]

-5-),.i

)..i " S

... Corresponding eigen value.

9. What I:f VRndu MOlldt! m.alriz. 'I' W/W11 it exists? 'tVh.iJt is its imparlllnct 7

10. Fiwd tlte T.F. Df tlte 'yo!'"'' with foil",";,,! 51.1. IntHM.,

oi X [_~ _~] X + r~] 11. Y" /1 01 X

bl X • [~ ~~] X + [~J u. b 10 1/ X

<J X [~_~ ~~lx+[~lu. Y~ll 0 O/X

11. Ob.W" lite T.F. Df lite ,yo/,,,, having stal. n""ul.

X(I) ~ [: _!] X(I) + [~] U(I)

Y(t) [1 2) X(t)

(A' 125+ 59 J ' - ",.. (5+ 2)(8+ 4)

Review Questions

1. D<rl"" v'" ''''''''for "Indio" ,rom s!aI, "",del.

2. What is ,h.,adtfistic "'IIUII;"" of. systtm "",Irix" ? .J. Dtfin. 'is.,, ",,1"<5 a"d .i:e" _tors of a """FIX.

4. Whrn to, gencmJisd ,iso" IJ<dors or< US<d ? HIlW to "'" trnon ? .5. Whol is nwdol .'o/.rix ? 51.,. il' imporl.=.

6. St.,. the .d ... n'.s," of dillgon4li<nIi""0' a maIm.

7. 1'1"", to ",nla!, di"S"""/isali'", of "",1m" ?

8. Redu,,, !he g;""" stat, ",,,,101 in di4gonal jo.rm,

X " [~ ~] X + [:] U(IJ and '1(1) '" [1 OJ X(I)

000

U rhcberrec htl lch gesc h (jutes M ateri"

4

Solution of State Equations

4.1 Background

UptiU now the methods of obtaining state model in various forms and obtaining transfer function from the state model are discussed. It is seen that the output response depends on the state variables and their initial values. Hence it is necessary 10 obtain the

state vector X(t) which satisfies the state equation X(I) '" A X(I) + B U(I) at any time r, This is called solution of state equations, which helps to obtain the output rcsponsl' of a system.

Consider the state equario n of linear time invariantsystem as,

X(t) " A X(t) + B U(t)

The matrices A and B arc constant matrices. This state equation can be of two types, 1. Homogeneous and 2. Nonhomogeneous

4.1.1 Homogeneous Equation

If A is a constant matrix and inp,·t control forces ore zero then the equation takes the form,

.

X(I) '" A Xl!)

. .. (1)

Such an equation is called homogeneous equation. The obvious equation is if input is zero.how output can exist 7 In such systems, the driving force Is provided by the initial condltlons of the system to produce the output. For example, consider a series RC circuit in which capacitor is initially charged 10 V volts. TIle current is the output. Now there is no input. control force Le .. external voltage applied to the system. But the initial voltage on the capacitor drives the current through the system and capacitor starts discharging through the resistance R Such a· system which works on the initial conditions without any input applied to it is called homogeneous system.

(4·1)

U rheberrec htl lch gcsc h (jutes Iv! ateri a


4·2

Solution 'of State Equation.

4.1.2 Nonhomogeneous Equation

If A is a constant matrix and matrix U(t) Is non zero vector i.e, the input control forces are applied to the system then the equation takes nonnal form as.

X(I} - A X(I) oj. B U(I)

• .. (2)

Suth an equation is called nonhomogeneous equation. Most of the practical systems require inputs to drive them. Such systems are nonhomogeneous linear systems.

The solution of the state equation is obtained by considering basic method of finding the solution of homogeneous equation.

4.2 Review of Classical Method of Solution

Consider a scalar differential equation as, dx

Cit - ax where x(O) = Xo

... (1)

This is a homogeneous equation without the input vector, Assume the solution of this equation as,

x(l) bo oj. bit oj. h:!r oj. ... + ~~

At t ~ 0,

x(O)

... (2) ,.. (3)

The solution has to satisfy the original differential equation hence using (2) in (1),

d ~ k

dt rbo oj. bl! + .,. oj. bkl I 8 [bo + bit oj. ••• oj. bkt I

For validity of this equation, the coefficients of various powers of '1' on both sides.

must be equal. .

.. bl abo- 2b2 - abl, .•• kbk ~ abk _ 1
.. bl abo
b2 .!. a hI = .!. ibo = 2. i bo
2 2 2!
b3 1. a b2 = _1_ a~o = .!.. a3 bo
3 3x2 31
bk _!_ ak bo and x(O) = bO
k! Urbebcrrechtllch qeschutztes Materia

State Variable Analysis and Design

1.1 Background

The conventional approach used to study the behaviour of linear time invariant control systems, uses the time domain or frequency domain methods. In all these methods, lhc systems arc modelled using transfer function approach. which is the ratio of Laplace transform of output to input, negl~cting all the initial conditions. Thus this conventional analysis [aces all the limitations associated with the transfer function approach.

1.1.1 l.imitations of Conventional Approach Some of its limitations can be stated as :

1) Naturally, sign.i.fi.can! initial conditions in obtaining precise solution of any system, loose. their importance in corwcntional approach.

2) 11'e method is insufficient and troublosome 10 give complete time domain solution of higher order systems.

3) !t is not very much convenient for the analysls of Muluple Input Multiple Output

systems.

4) It giv~'S analy>.-;s of system for s"m~ specific type'S of inputs like Step. Ramp etc,

5) It is only applicable to Linear Time Invariant System s.

(,) The classical method. like Root locus, Bode plot etc. are basically' trial and error procedures which foil to give the optimal solutio" required.

Hence it is absolutely nc«>ssary to USe a method of analysing systems which overeomee most of the "hove said diffi cul tics. 1110 modem method discussed in this chapter uses the concept of total internal state of the system con..idcring all .initial conditions. This technique which USCs the concept of state is called State Variable Analy~15 Or SI~te Space Ana.ly$is.

Koy Point, Slale var;abl, " n ,,/y.,;s is cllSc"liolly a time domain urProach bill il has ",,,,,ber of advQ,,'ages comp<lm;l 10 CO'IV",,/imwi '''<lhods of a>lllly.,;s.

(1 - 1)

U rheberrec htl lch gC5C h utztes /vi aleri"


1·2

Slale Variable Analysis & Design

1.1.2 Advantages of State Variable Analysis

The various advantages of state variable analysi, are,

I) The method takes into account the effect of all in! tinl condi Ii ens,

2) II can be applil!d to nonlinear as wen as time varying sy"t~.

3) It can be convenlently npplied to Multiple Input Multiple Output systems,

4) The system em be designed for the optimal conditions precisely by using this modern method.

5) Any type of the inpu t can be considered for designing the system.

6) As the method ilwolvl'S matril< algebra, can be ccrwerucntly adopted for the digital computers.

7)Th c state variables selected need not necessarily be the physical quantities of the system.

8) The vector matrix notation greatly simplifies the mathematical representation of the system ..

1.2 Concept of State

Consider a foutball match. Thescore in the football match must be updated at every Instant from the knowledge and Informa tion of the total score before that Instant. Thi.s procedure of upd aring the score continues ti II the end of the rna tch when we get exact and p~ score of the entire rna teh, This upda ting proced urn has main importance in the understating of the concept of state,

Consider th" network as shown in th"Fig. 1.1

To find V nu\' the knowledge of the initial ca paci tor vol tago must be known Only information about Vln will not be sufffcient to obtain precisely the V out at any time t 2: O. Such systems in which the output is not only dependent on the input but also on the initial conditions are called the systems wit/r t"tmory or d!fllllmic sy5ltmS.

Fig. 1.1

J V ValOO<ty

X Displacement f""",~_

/77/7/7~ Z""'~ictiO!l

Flg. 1.2

While if in the a bove network capaci lor 'C is replaced by another resistance 'RI' then output will be depend en ! only on the input applied Vin.

Such systems in which the output of the system depends only on the inpu t applied at I '" 0, are called sysltlllS with uro memory or sl., ic systems ..

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1·3

StateVarllble AnalysIs & Oe.tgn

Consider another example of simple mechaJrical system as shown in the Fig. 1.2 Now according to Newton's law of motion,

. F Ma .
a Acceleration of mass M
F d
.. Mdt «o»
i.e .. v(l) kJ 1(lldl Now velocity at any time 'I' Is the result of the force F applied 10 the particle in the <mtirc past,

v(t)

,

M J I(t)dt

1 'f· 1 '

M /(1) dt +1\11 1(1) dt

'0

where t o '" lnltial time.

Now ~ J fit) dt '" v(IO)

v(l)

,

v(lol + J I(t).dt '0

From the above equation it is dear that for the same input fit), we get the different values of the velocities v(l) depending upon 01U" choice of parameter 10 and thevalue of v(to)·

U v(tu) is known and the input vector from '10' 10 'I' is known then we can obtain a unique value of the output v(l) at llI\y time t e- to.

Ka.y Point ,Thus "",/inl ClmdilioM5 Le. memory affects tlur ~Ie.n ,haracterisatiOfl and sub,>tqllcnt beht!viou r,

Thus initial conditions descnbc the status or slate of the system at t '" t I,. The state can be regarded as a comp~ct and concise representation of the past hi.lory of the syst..m. So the state of the system in brief scvarates the future from the past 50 that the state contains all the information concerning the past history of the system necessarily required to determine the response of the system for any given type 01 input.

The state of the system at any lime 'I' is actually the combined effect of the values of all the different elements of the system which are esscciat .. ,d with the initial conditions of the system. Thus the complere. state of the sysrem <an be <onsldet<!d to be a ,,"ector having components which are the variables of syst.em which are.-tlosely ~od .. ted with



1 ·4

State Variable Analysis & Design

Initial conditions. So slale can be defined as vector XII) called slate vector, This X(I) i.o, stale al any time ·r is ·n· dimensional vector i.e, column matrix n x 1 as indicated below.

X(I)

X,,(tj

Now these variables X 1 (I) , X2 (I) , X" (I) which constitute the stale vector X(I) are

called the stal.variables of tire systrm.

If stale al I ~ tl is 10 be decided then we must know X(tolondknowledge of the input applied between 10 ->11. This new state will be X(II) which will ad as initial slate to find out the stale at any time I > tl.This is called the updating of the slate. The output of the system at t "' 11 will be the function of X(t1) and the Instantaneous value of the Input at t .. t I' if any. The number of the state variables for a system is generally equal to the order of the system. The number of independent state variables is norm.ally equal to the numbee of energy storing elements (e.g.: capacitor voltage, current in indudor) contained in the system.

1.2.1 Important Definitions

1) Slale:!he slale of a dY""mic system is defined as a minimal set of- variables such thai the knowledge of these variables at I .. to together with the knowledge of the inputs for , ;0, '0' completely determines the behaviour of the system for I >,t o.

2) Siale Variables: The variables involved in dcl.ermining the slate 01 a dynamic

system X(I), are called the state variables, X I (I) , X2 (I) Xn (II am nolhing bul

the state variables. These are normally the energy storing elements eontalned in the system.

3) Stale Vl!dor: The 'n' state variables necessary to describe the complete behaviour of the system can be considered as 'n' components of a vector X(I) called the state vector at lime T. The slate vector X(I) is the vector sum of all the stMe variables.

4) Siale Spaoe : The space whose co-crdtnate axes are noth",g but the .0.. 'tate variables wi!h time as the implicit variable is called the state space.

5) Stall! Tnjl!dory : It is !he locus of the tips of the Slate vectors, with lim.e a. the Implicit variable.

U rheberrcc htl lch gesc h (jutes M ateri"


1·5

State Variable Ana.lysls & Design

Definitions can be expllined by considering second order system ; Order is .2 $0 number of stale variables required is .2 say Xl (t) and X2 (t). State vector will be the matrix of order 2 x 1.

X(I) [XlV)]
XZ(t)
-t -+ -+
Le, Xl!) Xj(l)+ X2(1) (vector addition) The state spa"" will be II. plane in this case as the number of vlll'izlbies are two. Thus 8tale space can be shown as in the Fig, 13.

Flg. 1.3

X,(I) X., (I,) X,(II XI(I,I

Fig. 1.4

x, (I)

L",(,

(0.0)

NoW' consider t = t t

-+ -+ -+

X(t]) = Xj(II)+X2(111

x, (I)

• X, ("I)

Fig. 1.5

Fig. 1.6

Now consider I = 12

-+ -+ -+

X(!2J = XI('t) + X2(!1)

The state trajectory can be shown by joining the tips of the two stale Vl • xtoes i.e. X(I!) and X(II)



1." 6

Slate Variable Analysis & Design

1.3 Stats Model of Linear Systems

Consider Multiple Input Multiple Output, nth order system as shown. in the Fig. 1.7.

Number of inputs m

Number of outputs p

Slate ""'lable.
Fig. 1.1
u,m} XI(t) YI(I)
Ul(l) Xl(l) Y1(1)
U{I) : X(I) = ,Y(!) =
U.,(t) Xn(t) Yp(t) All are column vectors having orders m xl, n x 1 and p x 1 respectively.

For sum a system, the slate variable represents lion can be arranged in the Eorm of • n,' first order differential equations.

dX1(I) --at '"

dX2(1) -d-t-

Xl(l) m II (Xl' X2 " X~, UI ,Uz Urn)

U rhcberrec htl lch gesc h (jutes M ateri a


1 ·7

State Variable AnalySiS & Design

Wheref:

is the functional operator.

fn

Integra ring the above equa tion,

,

Xi(l) = Xi (10) + f I; rx.: X, X" U1 ' u, LJlnl dl

'0

where i = 1, 2, n,

Thus 'n' state variables and hence stat e vector at any time "t' Can be determined uniquely.

Any "n' dimensional time invariant system has state equations in the functional form

as,

X(t) = f (X, U)

While outputs of such system nrc dependent on the state of system and instantaneous inputs.

:. Functional output equation can b. wrltten as,

yet) .. g(X, U) where "g' is the functional operator.

For time variant system, the same '"<luation. C"n be writ.ten as,

.

X{t) fiX, U, t) ... , State equation

Y{t) g(X, U, tj .. Output equation

Diagramatically thls can be represented as in the P,ig, 1.S.

It'lPul UtI) - ....... ---<..,

U(I) Ins!an tencoos lnpllt

YI!) OIJ'!Put

XI~J 1fl.I\iat !tate

Fig. 1.8 Input-output statl! description of a system

U rheberrec htlich gcsc h (jutes M ateri"


Slate Variable Analysis & Design

The functional equations COIn be expressed intarms of linear combination of system states and the input as,

X\ " au XI + ")2X2 ........ aln~ ... hl\UI ... hl2U2 ......... bl", U",

Xn '" ""I XI+ "nlXz ......... a""X" + bn.l VI ... br>lU2 ......... b"", U",

For the linear time invamnt systems, the coefficients all and bij are constants. Thus all the equations can be written in vector matrix form as,

X<tJ A X(t) .. B U(tl I

X(I)

Slate vector matrix of order 0 x 1,

U (I) Inpul vector matrix of ord er m .x 1

A Syslem matrix Or Evolution matrix of order n x n

B Input nulrix or eontrol malri_x of order n x In

SimllaJ"ly the output variables at time t can be expressed as the linear combinations of the input vartables and state variables at time t as,

YI(t) '" Cn XI(!) ... _ ..... Cln Xn{t) ... dll UI(t) ... " .... dim Um(t)

Yp(t) ~ "pI XI(I) ......... cpl X"{t) ... dp1 UI(t) ......... dpm Um(t)

For the linear time invariant systems, the rocfficlenis Cij and d;j arc constants. Thus all the output equations can be written in vector matrix form as,

yet) " C X(l) + 0 U(t)

where

yet)

Output vector matrix of order p .x 1

C Output matrb or obsetvatlon matrix of order p .x n

o Di...,d lral1.!imi ... ion matrix 01 order p " m

The two vector eq\Ultions together is called the state D10del of the linear gyslem.

X(I) .. A X(t) B 0(1)

Y(I) " C X(I) D U(t)

... Output equation

... State equation

this is state model of a system.

U rheberrec htl lch gcsc h (jutes Iv! at<:ri"


1·9

Stale Varillble Anlllya'" & Design

For linear lime-variant systems, the matrices A, B, C and Dare also lime dependent.

Thus,

X(I) = A(t) X(t} + B(t} U(t)} For hnear time variant system Yet) = CIt) X(t) + D(t) U(t)

1.3.1 State Model of Single Input Singht Output System

Consider a single Input .ingle output· system t.e. m = 1 and p = 1. But its order is 'n' hence n statl! variables are required to deflne state of the syslem. In such a case, the slate mod,,119

.
)«1) A X(I) + B U(t)
yell C X(I) + d U(t)
where A n ~ n matrix, B " n x 1 matrix
C 1 x n matrix, d " constant
and U(t} single scalar input variable In general remember the orders of the various matrices.

A " Evolution matrix => n " n

D '" Control matrix

~nx m

C " Observation matrix => p " n

0= Transmission matrix = p " m

1.4 State Diagram Representation

It is the pictorial representation of the state model derived for the gtven system. It forms a close relationship amongst the state model, differential equations of the system and its solution. It is basically a block diagram type approach which is designed from the view of programming of • computer. Th.1> basic advantage 01 state diagram is when it is Impossible to select the state variables as physical variables. When transfer function of 5ystem is given then state diagram may be obtained firsl. And then by ASSigning mathematical state variables there in. standard state model can be obtained.

State diagram of a linear time invariant continuous system is discussed hero for the sake of simplicity. It is a pr"per interconnection of three bask units.

i) Scalars ill Adders iii) Integrators

Urbebcrrechtllch gcschutztcs Material


1.10

StaUt Variable Analysis & Design

Seal aI'S are nothi ng bu I Ii Ire a mplifiers haVing required gain.

(a)Sealar

Xz(I)_TC~'{t)-Xz(')'Xl(l) XiI)

. ,(blAdder

Fig. 1.9 AddLTS are nothing but summing points.

Integrators arc fur, cl=nts which actually in"'grale the differentiation 01 state variable to obtain required state variable ..

X,II)-----rn------: )(.,(1) -I X,(I) dt

Now integrators are denoted a.' 1/";' in Laplace transform. So transfer functlon of any i_ntegr~lor ;,j always lis. W, th these three basic units we can draw the state diagrams of any order systcID.

Fig. 1.9 (e)

Key 'Po;nt: The Q~tpllt of each inlegrQtor i.~ the sltlle ruTiable.

1.4.1 State Diagram of Standard stir.t,a Mpdel Consider ~tandard state model

.

X(I) A X(I) + B U(I) and

Y(t) C XU) '. 0 U(I)

So its state diagram will be as in ihe Fig. 1.10.

Fig. 1.10 Stale diagram 01 MlMO sy,stem

The thick arrows indicate that there are multiple number of input, output and sla", variables, There must be n parallel integrators for n stale variables-The output of cad> integrator is a sepe zr ate state vaneble. If such a state diagram for the system is obtained then thl! slate model from the diagram can be easily obtained.

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1 ·11

StII!t8 Variable Analysis & OHi9n

1. To obtain the state mode! from state diagram, always choose oUIp"t of each integrator as a stale variabl e. Number of integrators always

equals the order of the ~ystcm i.e .. "n' .

2. Diffcr,.".tiators arc not used in the stale diagram as they amplify the inevitable noise.

Remarks

n.. Exlllmpt" 1.1 : ObW" the s/Qte diJlgrmrl of 5150 system reprmllted I>y eqlUltilmS.

XIW = "t Xt(I)+ bl urn. X2W" "1. XI{I)+aJ X2(t)+ b2 Uit)

QM y(t) " Ct Xl(t) + c2 X2(t)

Solution: As there are 2 state variables Xl (t) and Xl. (I). the tIVO lnll.:graJors nrc required.

U(I)

Y(1)

Fig. 1,11

1.5 Non Uniqueness of Slale Model

Consider a standard ,stale model for a system

X(t) y(t)

A X(t) + B U(t) C X(I) + 0 U(I)

(1) (2)

lei X " M Z where M is a nun si~gular cnnstantmatrix.

Key Point: A matrix wh_ ddmniruml is IlQ"zntI is called llollsi.lIgu!ar malrix.

This means Z Is new set of state variables which Is obtained by Uncar combinations of the original sill te variables.


Madam Control Theory

1.12

State Varlabla Analy.11I & Da.lg"

. .

X - t>1Z hence X '" MZ

Substituting in a stall' model

M~t) Y(I)

AM 2(t) + B U(t) CM Z~I) + 0 U(t)

... (3) ... (4)

:. Prcmulliplylng equation (3) by M- I

. M-1AM Z(I) + M":j B vm
.. Z{I)
wJ.re M-1 M I l.e. Identity matrix
.. Z{t) Ji.. Z(I) + fiV(t)
wmro A M-iAM
fl M-1 B
and yet) (:Z(I) + D U(t)
Wh"", t CM ... (5)

... (6)

Equations (5) and (6) forms a new stare model of the system. This shows that state model ts not a unique property.

KIIY Point: Ally iillN' combilU!lious of .Ihe original set of slale lklriables results buo a IkIlid new sd of state lltlriablos.

1.6 Linearization of State Equation

Any general time invariant system is sa ld to be in equilibrium, at a point ("0. Uo) when.

I X·~ f (Xv- Vol A 0 I

The derrva lives of all the sta te variables are zero a t a poinl of equi llbrium. The system has a tcnde.m:y to lie a I the equilibrium point unless and un lill it is forcefully d lsturbed,

The state equation X(t) = f (X. 0) Can be linearized for small deviations about an equilibrium point (Xa, 0U). This is possible by expanding the state equation using Taylor series and ronsidcring only first order terms, neglecting second and higher order terms,

U rheberrec htl lch gcsc h (jutes M ateri"


--

1 ·13 SlatiiVariable Analysis & Design

So expanding kth state equa tion,

• _ n a f/(X, U) I '" il fk(X. U)I

~ = fk (Xc- Uol + ~>-ax-- . (X1-XIO)+ 2:>--aU--

. I~I I XoXO ;=-1 i X~XQ

V-UO U-UO

(Ui - Up)

Now fk(X", Uol = 0 at the equilibrium point

And let the variation about the. operating point is.

and

! • X I - Xro hence X = ~

Uj - UjO

Hence the kth state equation can be linearized as.

Xk

.In this equa.tionXk• Xl and Uj are the vector matrices and the remaining terms are the matrices of order n " nand n " rn respectively. Hence the linearized equation can be expressed in the vector rna trix form as,

z AX + nu
X =
all ill! .. , illl
vx;- (ixz -;r;;
ill, af2 ilf.
where A <h1 ax. -~h;;,." is n x n matrix
ill" illn of"
~ iJx2 ~
ilfl ilf1 illl
aUI aU1 au",
alz afl alz
B (JU1 ilU2 (JUm Is n 'x m rna trix
ilfn eln <lIn
<lU, auz aUn, U rheberrcc htl lch gesc h (jutes M ateri a


1 ·14

State Variable .Analysls & Design

All the partial derivatives 01 the matrices A and B arc to be obtained at an equilibrium state fX(p U~) Such matrices A and B defined above interms of partial denvanves are called the Jacobian matrices,

c. SInh" i ntje.'Clory i. SI'PIIf: ifwa

.1:, 1):p,ll1Ii~ adwmlll,g,~ of stale mt.,il1b!c mdlwd ~ f{t,.vrn~itJnlll ant'"

d. Sta'~

Review Questio"s

1. I'.>:pl.", I"" <"""pi oi,IOIf.

2. lJr_fwe l1nd i.·xpiain drL~' folltn.'~ing terms,

Q. ShU( :t}Ilrinhle.5 b. SInle V4't(;lJ'"

4. Writ,,, ,;Itorl "01" on od"""I.S'" ."d Um;/aJum, ,oj .,Me ."ria.!. 'pp,,,,,(.h.

5. Wrill" 1.1 ,u;lU Ojl Jipjt.~rlur.timl of !talc .eqlUttlor1~.

6. l'rtlVt' Ore' ,rlO"W_IJ1l4IIf'P1j_'S9 oj flit! sImI!,? mod_tl.

DOD

U rheberrec htl lch gC5C h utztes Iv! ate,i"

State Space Representation

2.1 State Variable Representatron using Physical Variables

The' state variables are minimum number 01 variables which are associated wilh all Ihe inilia] conditicns of the system. As their sequence is not important, the state model of the system is no! unique. But for all the stale models it is necessary that the number of sl"te variables is equal and minimal. This number 'n' indicates the order of the system. for second order system minimum two state variables arc nc<;css"cry and So on.

To obtain the state model for a given system, il is necessary to select the state variables, Many II times, the various physical quantities 01 system itself arc selected as the state variables.

for the electrical .y.stems, lhe currents through va.lious inducto rs and the voltage across the varieus "padtors arc selected to be the state variables.TIlen by any method of network analysis, the equations must be written intcrms of the selected state variables, thcir derivatives and the inputs, The equations must be rearranged in the standard foO'n so as to obtain the required stale model.

Key Point: It ;s import'''''1 0.,1 11u: <qualiou for dif/erm/jatiOll uf QIi" s/ak'Nlrmblc ,/,auld 1101 ;"''''(,''' tilt aif/erc"l;atioM of a"!loJher slale "",jable.

In Ihe mechanical systems the displacements and veloduos of "nc'1:Y storing clcm~'t1ls such "S spring and friction arc selected as the slate variables.

In gene.rat the physical variables associated wilh energy storing clements, which are responsible for iniHal conditions, arc selected as the stale variables of the given system.

Ill .... Eumple 2.1

Obl"j" 0" stOle mod,,1 of Ihe gi"",! cltlClrii:D1 system.

R l

v,~t)

l ~t)_.J T -I

Fig. 2.1

(\Il·U : JulyIAull.·200&)

(2.1)

U rheberrec htl lch ge5c h utztes M ate,; a

Modem Control Tlioory


Solution: There arc two energy storing clements L and C. So the Iwo state variables are current Ihrough inductor i(f) and voltage across capacitor i.e. vo{t).

i\iId

Applying KVL to the loop.

XI(I) U(I)

itt) and X:z(t) "" Yo(l)

y,(I) ~ Input variable

di (t)

vittI ~ itt) R + L ~F + volt)

Arrange it for di(O/dt.

di (I) -<1";-'

XI(I) R 1 1
t.c, - --.XI(t)--X2(1) +- U(I)
l. L L
While Y,,(I) Voltage across capacitor = ~J i(l) dt
dVo(t) ~ i(l) but ~vo(t) = ~ (I)
.. -crt dt
. J
i.e. ~(t) ~ t Xl(t) •.. (1)

The equations OJ and (2) give required ~tate equation.

... (2)

[~I(t)]

X 2(1)

i.e.

[- [ -I] [Xl (t)] + [-I:] U(!}

h 0 Xl(tJ 0

X(I) = A X(I) + B U(I)

While the output variable Y(I) = vo(l) '" Xl(l) .. Y(I) [0 I] [~~] + (0) U(I)

i.e,

This is the requlred state model. As n '" 2, it is second order system.

YII) "" C X(I) and D '" [01

Nole : The order of the state variables is not important. XI(t) con be v,,(t) and Xl(t) can be i(l) due ttl which state model matrices gct changed. Hence 51lt'C model is not the unique property of the system.

Urheberrechtllch geschutztes Material

Modem CO!llrol Theory

2-3


I...,. Exampl", 2.2: Obl~ill the slale """lei of Ihe give" e/"'Iricai lit/work jll II'I~ ssandard form

~:

R;t 8,,(t)

__ ----~----~--~4

Fig. 2.2

U(t) " input" el(!) Yet) " output" e,,(l)

Stat" variables : XI(I) " itt!), Xl(!) " i,(l), XJ(t) = ve(l)

Writing the equations:

i.e.

~~(l) dill!} "aT-

Then.,

and

dvc(t) Cd(

dvc(t) ---.rt

dill!) .

Ll dt +vc(t)

.LC;(l) - ._1._ ve(1)

1.1 1.1

1 1

- U(t) -~ X}(t)

Ll LI

di,(t) ..

L2 ----.it + '2 (t) R,

1 R;a

L2 "c(l) - 1.2 i2(1)

... (1)

... (2)

1 . (.) 1, () C'lt -C'. t

Xl(l)

.. ' (,3)

U rheberrec htl lch ge5c h utztcs Iv! ateri"


2-4


0 0 1 [ i j
Xl -~ Xl. ~
. R2 1 [;:]+ ~. U(I)
Xz 0 - Lz Lz
XJ 1 f 0
C -C
X(t) AX(t) .. BU(t)
",,(t) i2(1) Rz
Y(t), X2(t) Rz
Y(t) [0 Rz 0] [~:] l.e,

and

i.e,

Y(t) ~ eX(f) .. DU(t)

where D ~ O. This Is the required state model,

2.1.1 Advantages

The advan.!agcs 0,/ using available physical variables as the state variables are,

1. The physical variables which are selected as the state variables are the physical quantitiCll and can be measured ..

2. As state variables can be physically measured, the Iecdbaek may consists the information aboul state variables in addition to the output variables. Thus design with sta Ie feedback is possible.

3, Once the slate equations are solved and solution is obtained, directly the behaviour of various physical vanables with time is available.

But the important limitation 01 this method is that obtaining solution of such slate equation with "tate variables as physical variables is very difficult and time consuming .

. 2.2 State Space Representation using Phase Variables

Let us study how to obtain state space model using phase variables. The phase vilrlables arc those state variables which are obtained by assuming one of the system variable as a stille variable and other stale variables are the derivatives of the selected, system variable, Most of the lime, the system variable used is the output variable which is US(.'<i to selc-ct the state variable.

Such set of phase variables is easily obtained if the differential equation of the system !s known (If the system transfer function is available,

U rheberrec htl lch gesc h (jutes M ateri a


2-5

State Space Repntaenbltion

2.2.1 State Model from Differential Equation

Consld.er a .linear continuous t:i.nm system represented by n'h order dHli'1'elltiai equatien

yn .. al\_lyn-l .. an_2 yn-2+,..+

• ;:;;: boU+bJ. U+~~.+bm_lum"_I +bmUm

a I 'l·+-aQ Y(t)

. n dY"ro ~.. .

In the equation, '{ (tl = -. -- .. ~ n denvattve of Y(tl.

. ill" .

." (1.)

Fot time Lnvariant system, the coeffidenls "n _ t. an _ 2' . . . ao- bo- b" . .. bm are constants.

For the system,

Y(t)

Output variable

U(I) Input variable

'l(OJ, YtO), ... Y(O)"-' represent !he initial conditions 01 !he system.

Consider the simple case of the system in which derivatives of the control forCe U(I) arc absenl

ThU!l

U(t)

:. yn .. lin _ 1 Y" - ! ..... + al Y + ao '((t) = hoU(t)

... (2)

Choice of state varlable Is generally output variable 'l(t) illielf. And other state variables nc derivatives of the selected state variable '((t).

,. X,(tj Y(t)
X2(1) Y{t) = X,(I)
X3(t) Y(I) " XI(t)." X.(I) Thus the various state equations are,

.

~(I) ~(t)

x. _ I (I) )(,,(1)

x,,(I)



. State Space Repruentltion

Note that only n variables arc 10 be defined to keep their number minlmum. ThU!l x,. -I (I) gives nth slate variable ".,(1). Bul to complete stale model x,.{I) l, necessary,

Important : x,.{I);S 10 be obtained by substituting the selected stale I variables In the original differential equation (2). We have Y(I) '" XI' ),1) .. x,_, :';(1) " X~ . ..

\,,,-1 (I) = ".,(1), yn(I) = x,,(I)

:. \t(I) + an _ I x.,(I) .. an _ 2 1<" _1(1) " ... + aJ X21 + ao XI(I) " bo Uri) :. J<;,(I);: - ao Xl - 31 x,_ ... - an_2 1<,,-1- 3n_l X"" bo U(I)

••• (3)

,Hence all the equations now can be expressed in vector matrix form as,

r~:1 u.

-II,

Le.

.

X AX(I) .. BU(I)

o

o

Such set of alate variables is e .. illedset of phase va.ri"blci.

The matrix A is called matrix inphase variable form and il has following features,

1) Upper off diagonal i.e, upper paralic! row 10 \he rnnin principle diagonal contains aU elcmen.t!I as 1.

2) All other dements except las I row arc zeros.

3) Last row consists of the negatives of the coefficients conlain<><l by the original differential cnuation.

Such a form of matrix A is abo called Bush form or Compa.nion fonn. Hence the method Is a Iso called companion form rcallZiltion_

The output equation is,

Y(I) ~ Xl(!)

"tt)

[1 0 •... 0]

l.e,

X,,(I)

eX(I) where D ~ 0

Y(I)




This model in the Bush form can be shown in the state diagram as in thc Fig,23.

Output of each integrator is a .tate variable.

U(')

Fig. 2.3 State dIagram for phase variable form

Observe that the transfer function, of the blocks in the various feedback paths arc the coefficients existing in the original differential cqua tion.

If the diffcrcnllal equation consists of Ihe derivatives of the input control fo"", U(t) then this method L~ not u se ful. In such a case, the sta Ie model is to be ob tained from the transfer function.

1" Example 2.3; Construct the $tnfe model using pl'Q.le mriQbles if "'e 5)I"leI" is rit$cribed by Ihe diffat71 tilll eqUIIlion,

d2yW + 4 d2Y!I! + 7 dY(t) + 2Y(t) " sum

dl·l dl2 ,It

Draw Ihe sMte diagram.

Solution; ChI>QSe output Y(I) as the state variable XI(I) and successive derivatives of it give us remaining stale variables. As order of the equation is 3, only 3 stale vari.bles .,re .Uowl'd.

Xj(l) Y(I)
Xit) • • dY(I)
.. XlII) " yet) " CIt
and U ~(I} " Yet) " d2Y2(t)
dt
•
Thus Jt,(t) X2(1) •. _ (1)


Modlltm Control Thoory

2-8

Statu Space Ruprosentailon

.,. (2)

To obtain Xj{t), substitute state variables obtained in the differential equation.

d3Y(tj ••• d'·, dX)'

"dll' = Y(I)=dt[Y(!)j~dt=:S(t)

;. XJ(t) ... 4X:J(t) .+ 7 Xz(t) .. 2)(1(t) "' 5U(t)

~(1) '" - 2X1{t) - '7 Xz(t)- 4Xl(t) + 5 U(t)

... (3)

The l'qU"tion5 (1), (2) and (3) give us required state equation.

.. X(t) AX(t) + BU(\)
[-~ 1 i] B = [~]
where A 0 and
-7 The output is, yet} X1(t)
yet} CX(t) + DU(t)
where C 1100], D = 0 This is the required state mood using phase vanJlb les,

Fig. 2.4 2,2.2 State Model from Transfer Function

Consider a system characterized by lim differential equation containing derivatives of the input variable U(t) as,

Y" + an _ 1 y" - 1 + .. , + at Y + au yet) "' boU + b1 U + ... + bm ~ 1 um - 1 + bm Um .. , (1)



2·9

Slate Spa~e Representation

In such a case, ;t ;s advantegcous to obtain the transfer function, assuming zero initial conditicns. Taking Laplace transform of both sides of equation (1) and neglecting initial ccnditions we get,

Y(s) [5n + a" _ 1 sn - I + ,. _ + al s + "01 '" [bo + sbl + _ .. + bm _ 1 sm- 1 + bm sotl U(s)

Y(s) U(.)

... (2)

Practically in most of the control systems m " n put for general Cl$C, let us assume m e n,

From such a transfer function, state model can be obtained and then zero Initial condltions can be replaced by' the practical initial conditions to get required result,

'There arc two methods of obtaining state model (rom the. wunsfer function,

1) Using signal flow graph approach

2) Using direct decomposition of transfer hmcli,,,,

1) UsIng Signal Flow Graph Approach

The Mason's gain formula fur Sign.! [lew graph slate.s thae,

T(s}

!:T,".

---;:,-

Gain of k'h forward path

where

II System dotcrminant

r ~ Goi;, x (iain product on

1 - {l: "II loop gains} + 1 "II corniJinati("'_' <,I two ~ - ...

\ non -touching locps j

1I k Value of "cUimlnating those loop gains and prod \1cL~ which are touchi ng to k t" forw atd path

Aecordtng 10 thiS formula, construct the signal [low graph from the transfer function.

From (he si""",l now graph .. state model can btl obtained. While obtaining si!,';noJ now graph, try to get the gains af branches as, 'l/s' representing the inlegralL>rs. This helps to obtain tho required slate model. To clear this idea, Jet us consider the system having transfer function,

U rheberrec htl lch gC5C h utztes Iv! aleri"


2 • 10 State S pace Representation

- T(s)

bu +sbj +slbz +s~b3 Y(s)

a'o,";'5a1 +s2a2 +S3 U(s)

lilll +'[2112+T)"') +14t14

1 -[LAil joopg~insl 4- [L Gain products of 2 non" touching loops J ......

Assuming that there arc no combinations of 2 and more non-touching' loops.

Loop gains an"

And let II, ~ 1I2 ~ 63 = L\~ ~ 1 i.e. all loops are touching to all the forward paths Hence forward path gains are,

bz bl bo

1'1 = b:l> Tz ~ ...,-, T3 = -1' T4 '" -

s s s3

Involving various branches having gains 2, tho signal flow graph can be obtained as, s .

Fig. 2.5

Each brancl- with gain! represents an integrator. Output of each integrator is a state s

variable. According to signal flow graph, value of the variable at the node is an algebralc

U rhcberrec htlich gesc h utztes M ateri a


2.11

Slate S pate Representation

sum of all the signals entering at that node. Outgoing branches docs not affect the value 01 variable. Hence Irorn signal flow grnph.

Xl b2U + X. - "2 Y
X-.! bIt! t X] - al Y
and ~ bot! - ao Y
Y b], U + Xl Substituting Y in all the equations,

X !

... (In)

... (Ib)

x ],

... (lc)

These "'lUll lions give the required slate model.

where

and

Y{t) C

ex(t) + DU(t)

[1 0 OJ, D = b3

where

. .

Now as Y(O), Y{O), Y(O), U{O}, U(O) and V(O) arc the known inilial condltloru s, using the

derived state model. the initial conditions Xt(O), X2(O) and X3(O) can be obtained.

llJ+ Example 2.4: A feedback !IIjStl'11l is ch"'nel .... /ud Uy I/Ie closed loop IrmlSfer functkm.

Draw a suitable signal flow gr~ph alld ob,a;" ",e slale model.

Solullon : Divide N and D by s3 1 3 3

~+~+,~

s S2 ~J

1+':;'~.2+_!_

s ~2 53

T(,5)



2 ·12

Stale Space Representation

LI 2
.. - s'
TI - S:' And til - 4.2 - '4.3 - 1 with no combinations of non-lo,;<Nng loops.

'There are many si gn" I flow graphs which can be obtained 105' tisfy above transfer functiun.

MeUtod 1 : The signal flow graph is ... s shown in Ihe Fig. 2.6.

Fig. 2.6

From signal flow graph,

Y x,

Xl X2 .. U - 2Y - -2X1 + X2 .. U

x.z X3 .. 3U - 3Y ~ - 3X1 .. Xl .. 3U

X3 3U - Y - - Xl .. 3U

Hence the state model is,

l.e,

X

AX(t) .. BU(t)


Madem Control Theory

2 -13


and

yet) ~ [1 0 OJ [;~l

Y(t) '" X(t) with D = 0

i.e.

Method. 2, When m ~ n and. m <; n then signal flow graph can be constructed So asto obtain matrix A in phase variable form. This is shown in the Fig. 2.7.

-1

Fig. 2.7

From the signJI flow graph,

and

Hence sin Ie model has,

A = [~ 0 n B = [~} C" [33 11 and

-1 -3 ':2J I

D = 0

Thus the rna trix A is in phase variable form.

Note: Whcnm c n, then transmission matrix D = o.


Modern Control Theory .,

Slate Spate Representation

21 UsIng Plrect Deo:.omposilion of Transfer Funttion

This is also called d lrect programming, In this method. denominator of transfer function is rearranged i.n a speclfle fonn. To, understand the rcaITangcmen I" consider an

clement with transfer function :;-+,,_ From block diagram algebra, the transfer fUIlction of

minor feedback loop is 1 + ~H for negative feedback.

Let

where

s+a

G l+GH

G

! = integra lor and H = a s

H

Flg,2.B

The feedback is nega Ii ve and the transfer function can be sirn ula ted as shown in th" Fig, 2.B. wi th a minor feedback loop.

Now if such a loop is added in. the forward path of Mother such loop then we get !he block diagram ns shown in the Fig. 2.9.

,

s+a

r~--~----~-~------------,

, ,

, ,

, ,

, ,

The transfer function now becomes,

b

Fig. 2.9



2 ·15

Slate Space Representation

where

x ~ [s ... 0)

U now the entire block shown in the fig. 2.9 is added in the forward path of another minor loop with an integrator and feedback gain 'c', we gct the transfer /unction as.

1

~ sY"'c where Y = sX ... b

Thus the denominator of transfer /unction becomes s (sX + b) = Is (s Is .... j ... b)] = 5~ ... as' ... bs

Thus denominator of any order Can be directly programmed as discussed above. 52 ... as ... b "" Is (5 ... a) .. b]

i .. a.,2 + bs .. c "" lI(s + ill s .. b] s + c)

s4 ... as2 ... bs2 ... cs ... d => 1([ (s ... a] S ... b] s ... cJ s + d) and So on.

Now if numerator is b1s + bo and dcncnunator. Simulation is obtained dln.'dly then. the block diagram is as shown in the Fig. 2.10. But 5 ~ _jd~ .• which is differentiator and is

- - ,I

not used to obtain slate model. In such a case. take off point 't' is shifted before t.hc last integrator block.

Fig. 2.10 (a)

U(s)

-~-[>--

I-",","{Xl--_Y(s)

, , , ,

" ,

~ - - ~ -~- - ~ - ~ --,-

Fig. 2.10 (bl

U rheberrec htl lch gesc h utztes M ate,; a


2-16

State Space Represo ntali on

1---00--- YI.)

, ,

.... ~ ~ ~ ~ .... .;.; - ..... '" - .. -~,

Fig. 2.10 Ie)

According 10 block diagram reduction rule, while shifHn~ take off point before the block. the lake off signal must be multiplied by transfer function of block before which it is to be shifted. Thu. s we get block of bl with take off from input of last mtegrator.

Similarly if there is a term b2s1 in the numeral;'; fuerishlft lake off point before one more integrator as shown in the Fig. 2.10 (d) .

.. ~

, - - - - -- - b, - -..- ..

~--~--. ..In r: !. ~ .. ' • no>

I, i-, :5,

I: ; :

t ; :

[ _ .. ,,, ..... : .... ~, .... :

~~~ .... ~~ ~~~_I

Sm".:I1IOfl'of I'Il.1mer;Mor Dc, • b .!5i, • :b~

Fig. 2.10 Cd)

Thus for any order of numerator, complete simulation of the transfer function can be achieved.

Then assigning output of each integrator as the atate v .. rI~bl", stale model in the phase variable form can be obtained.



2·17

Stats Space Representation

I..... Example 2.5: Obtai" state model by direct d~cumpositioll method of a ~slem w/wse transfer funcuon is

Y(s) 552 +65 + S

U(s) ,3 + 3s' +75 + 9

Solution: Decompose denominator as below, ,3 + 3.' +7s+ 9 = {([s+3]s+7h+ 9}

Its simulation starts from (5 + 3) in denominator

Fig. 2.11

To simulate 'numerator, shift take-off point once lor 65 and shift twice lor 5,2. Therefore complete state diagram can be obtained as follows.

UII)

V(I)

Fig. 2.12

Assign output 01 each integra tor as the state vari~ble.

U rheberrec hit lch gC5C h utztes M ateri"


2 -18

State Spaco Re presentation

x,

U(I) ~ 9X) (I) ~ 7X~ (I) - 3X 3 (I) 8Xt(l) + 6X1(t) + 5X)(I)

While output, Y(I) .', Sta te model ~"

X(I) ~ AX(I) + BU(t)

where

A

eX(t) + DU(!)

[010J -raJ

o 0 1, B~ 0

- 9 -7 -3 II

and

y(!)

C~18651,

The matrix 'A' obtained is in the Bush form or Phase Variable form.

2.2.3 Advantages

The various advantages of phase variables ;.(". direct programming method "T'<', I, Easy 10 implement.

2. The phase variables need not be physical variables hence mathernaucally powerful 10 cbtain slate model.

3. It is easy to establish the link between the transfer function design.nd lime domain design using phase variables.

4, In many simple cases, just by inspection, the matrices A, II, C and D can be obtained,

2.2.4 Limitations

The various ltnutattons of phase variables arc,

I, The phase variables arc not the physical varieblcs hence they loose the practical significance, They have mathematical importance,

2. The phase variables are mathematical variables hence not available for the measurement point of view,

3. AL.,Q these vadi\blcs are not available [rum 1.'(U'!,trol point of view.

4, The phase variables are the output and H~ derivatives, if derivatives or input arc absent, But it is difficult to obtain second and hig.hcr derivalives of output.

5. The phase v",iable form, thollgh special, docs not offer any advantage from the mathematical analysis point 01 wicw.

Due to all these disadvantages. canonical variables arc very popularly used to obtain the state model,

U rhcberrec htl lch gcsc h (jutes M ate,i a

Modem ContralTheory

2 ·19


2.3 State Space Representation using Canonical Variables

This method of obtaining the stale model using the canonical variables is also called parallel programming method and matli" A obtained u:;ing this method is said to have canonical form normal form Of Foster's form, The matrix A in such a case is a diagonal matrix and plays an imporlant role in the slate space analysis.

The method is basicall}' based on Partial Fraction Expansion of the given transfer function T(s).

Consider the transfer function T(s) as,

~ bus"' + b1s",-1 + b2."'-L+ ..• +bm

T(s) ~ (s+a j)(s+A2) .. ,,(s+lIn)

Case 1 : J.{ the degree 'm' is less than 'n' (m < n), then T(s) can be expressed using partial fraction expansion as,

Now each grOllp ~ can be simulated using the minor loop in state diagram as s+n]

shown in the Fi g~ 2.13.

-------------------t

, I

I I

I

,

~-----------------,

Fig. 2.13

The outputs of all such grouP" are to be added to obtain the resultan t output.

To add the outputs, all the groups must be connected in parallel with each other. The input U(s) to all of them is same. Hence the method is called parallel programming. The overall state diagram is shown in the Fig, 2~ 14

.

X, - a) X, + U

Then assign output of each integrator as a state variable and write the state equations

as,

While

X AX + BU and Y = ex + DU

U rheberrec htlich gesc h (jutes M ateri"


2-;Z0

Slale Space Represenlation

tJ(.)

Yeo)

, , , , L_

: ~-- ..

I

Fig. 2.14 Fostat's form simtilation

where

[1 0 0 .. , j ,{]
""'2 0 .. ,
A
0 0 ...
C ~ lei c2 ..... 0;,1 and D~O Case 2 : If the degree m = n i.e. numerator and "the denominator have same degree then first divide the numerator by denominator and then obtain partial fractionS of remaining factor.

T(5)

N(s) I, ci

D(s) = Co" I '$-+3,

i=-l· I

where

Co ~ Constant obtained by dividing N{s) by D(s) ,

In such a case, the state diagram for partial fraction .terms remains same as before and in addition to all the outputs, Co U(I) gets added 10 obtain the resultant output as shown in the Fig. 2.15.



2·21

Slate Space Repl1lSentation

U(.}

Addl Uonel "Iemen!

Fig. 2.15 State diagram for Tis) with m .. n Thus the state model consists of the matrices as,

C '" [tt Cz ... c.,J, 0 = Co

Key Point: 11ms for m .. "., direct tram;mission matrix D aists in the state ,"odd.

When the denominal~r DCs) of the transfer function T(s) hasnon-repeated roots then the matrix A obtained by parallel programming has following reatures.

1. Matrix A is diagonal i.e .. in canonical form or normal form.

2. The diagonal conststs of the c!cmcnts which are the gains of all the feedback paths associated with the integrators.

3. 11t" diagonal eletn~nts are the poles of the tr.nsfer fundi on T(~I.

1_ Example 2.6: Db.!";n tile slote model by FO$I$r'$ fonn oj a >yslem wlltJSe T.F. is.

($+1)(. + 1)(> +3)



2-22

State Spaco Reprosontatlen

Solution: Find out partial. fraction expansion of It

S:~ + 4

( • .;.1) (s-" zf(, + 3) ~

2.5 S 65 ----- +-s+l ,+2 ,+3

:. Total state diagram is as shown in the Fig. 2.16.

U(I)

FI,~. 2.16

U(I) - Xj(t) , X2 = U(I) -2)(2(1) ,

y(tJ

U(I) - 3X3(t)

2.5X 1 (I) - 8X2 (I).;. 6.5X 3 (I) AX+BU

ex+ DU

.. State model is, X

and

y

where

A

[-I O. 0]

o -2 0

o 0-..1

e 12.5 - 8 6.51 0 = 0

U rheberrcc htl lch gesc h (jutes M ateri a


2 ·23

Stilte Space Representation

2.3.1 Jordan's Canonical Form

In the Foster's form it is assumed IhM the <00'" 01 denominator of T(s) arc non-repeeted, simple and distinct. But ,if the roots <lTC repeated then the par~lIcl programming results matrix A in a form called 1ord"n', Canonical form.

Let T(s) has pole at S " - a] which is repeated for , limes as,

T(s) ~ . ... . N(s)

(H," ]J'(s+" 2) ... (s+n n)

The method of obtaining: partial fraction for such a case is,

T"(s) " __ '_1_. + '2 ',',,·1,. Co

(s +all' ('+<1"1)'-1 ... ··· ... (5+a I) + (s'+a ~) ,. ....... (s+a n)

... m cn

If the degree of N(.) nnd D(s) is same i.e. m " n we gel ndditlcnnl constant Co as,

.,_ Ol.;;;;;;n

This can be mathematically "><pTCSSed as,

'" rn < n

... m~n

Key Point: Note tlmt in partial fraction expansion, a srp~rllt£ eoeffieitlll is 0,55111".01 far eou/, paWtn' a f repea ted fnctor.

10 simulating such an equation by parallel programming,. 1 __ is simulated by (Hal)'

connecting (s ... 1 a I ) groups, r times in series fitst While all other dis tinct factors are

simulated by parallel programming as before. The components of each power of _(.. 1 ) 10 S+tJ'l

be added toget output is 10 be taken from output of each integrator which arc connected in series, This is shown in the Fig. 2.17.

Now assign state variables al the output of each intcgratur. For series inlegrat!>no, assign. the stale variables .from right to left, as shown in. the Fig. 2.17"

U rhcberrec htl lch gesc h (jules M ateri a


State Space Representallon

\ \,
,
, ,
,
" ,
, ,
,
,
,
,
, l
, :
,
, ,
"--I ill" __ •
~ .. _L ~ .. .! .f c
, ,
, , v
, : E
,
, : ,s
,
, ! }
: ~
,
t ! .E
or .;
-rl "
, , ~
, , A
, ,
: I
I E
~
'"
.!!
..,
.
!
"'
::
..
Do
~ U rheberrec htl lch ge5c h (jutes M ateri a


2 ·25

State S'pace Representation

For series integrators, the state equations arc,

While for parallel integrators, the slate equations are,

x:,. + I '" -;12, X, +1 + U(I)

While

CtXl'i'- ("2X2 + , .. + c[" Xt + (':r + 1 Xr t· 1 + ... oj. c-ri Xn

Y(I)

Key Point, YW !u.s .ddirimwl cD urI) term if m = 11-

Hence the state model has matrices in the fQrm,

Ele,,-,en\ =a1forrtlme5~ r lfbrr~'1.1imes

I-a" I 0 , .... 0 0 0 --------,,--···0

o -a, 1 .---- 0 0 0 -------··----··0

"

?, 0 -a, ----·1 0·----·· , .. 0

, . "".

0 O'-""-a'1 , 0 ---------··0 0
-,
0 0 0 ,-,-, 0 ~iEl:l ",············0 0 A=
Jordan 0 0···,· 0 0
blOck
0 0 a. ~9. ""---"0

l ; ~

: : ~

······0 0 ... - OJr\

~

only d'agonal etcmerus

Fig. 2.18

o o o

U rheberrec htl lch ge5c h utztes M ale,i a


2 ·26

State Spece Representation

0)

o ,-1

: I rimes

01

1

B

The matrix 0 is zero jf m " n and is 'CO' if m " n, The matrix A in such a case has a Jordan block for th~ repeated factor and many times A is denoted as /'

X(t) " JX(t) .. BU(t)

... For repeated roots

The matrix A '" J has the following features.,

1. The principle diagonal consists of aU the poles of transfer function with repeated pole 'r' times and other ncnrcpeated poles.

2. Upper off dlagonal consists of (r - 1) times unity element, as indicated in the Jordan block.

3. All the remaining elements are zero,

N ole that the matri~ II has 'r - I" zeros and all other clements as uni ty. The rna trlx C has all partial frnction CQ(!fflcicnts cl' c~ _ .. <;,_

2.3.2 Advantages of Canonical Variables The main advantages of canonical variables are

1. The matrix A is diagenal

2. The diagonal dement is very important in the mathematical analysis.

3. Due to diagonal feature, the decoupling bclw~n the stale variable is possfble. This means all 'n' differential equations arc independent IIf each other. Thus Xl depends on XI alone,~ depends on X~ alone and so on. Such decoupling is important in system dcstgn from controlltng point of view.

2.3.3 Disadvantages of CanonIcal Variables

The main. disadvantages of canonical variables is slrnilar to the phase variables. These arc not the physical variables helta' pmdic"lly dJJfkuJt to measure and. coruroi, Hence such variables arc not prnclical1y advantageous, though mathematicallyare very important,

U rheberrcc htl lch gesc h utztes M ateri a


2-.27


lno+ Example 2_7: Obrllin. II,e s/al' "'VIM in lo,d","~ catronirul farm of a syslt'" w/,o,;e T.F:

. 1

,S~-=~~ (5+1)2 (.s+"l)

Solution : Finding partial fraction expansion,

T(s) "' ~ .. _. _8_ + C

(S+ 2)2 (H 2) (s + 1)

Take LCM on right hand "ide and equate numerator with numerator of T(s), ;.A(s + 1) + B(s .. 2) (s .. 1) + Gs + 2)2 "' 1

Equate coefficients of all powen< of s on both sides,

a+c A+31l+4C A .. 2B+4C

0, ... from power of sl 0, '" from power of s

... from constant term

Solving we gel, A" - 1.. B" - 1, C" 1

Simulate first term by series integrators while other nonrepeated terms by parallel integra tors.

U(I)

V(IJ

Fig. 2.19

Total simulaUon is,

.

Xl

U rhcberrec htl lch gesc h utztes M ateri"


2 ·28


:. Stale model is ,X

AX. BU

and

y = ex. DU

A

C = [-I -I Ij, D = 0

The rna trix A consists of J orda n block.

Important Noto: If some of the poles of T(s} are complex in nature .• then a mixed approach can be used. The quadrauc or higher order polyncmlalhavmg complex roots can be simulated by direct decomposition while real distinct roots can be simulated by the parallel programrnmg using canonical variable, the example .2.8 below explains this procedure.

11* Examplo 2.8: C()mbilmliOlI oJ Direct D«omposiliOlI and I'osltr·s Form. Ohtuill 1/,. stase modd JOT the g iVl'n 1·.F-

T(s) ~ . 2 ...

(, + 3)(~2 +2s +2)

Sol uti on ; Obt .. in partial frocticns as,

"1"(") = .2 .. ....A... + . [I .... C

(~+ 3)(.2 +2s+2) .+3 s:z+2s+2

Find LCM on right hand side and equate numerators of both sides,

.. A(,l +2s+2)+(Ils+C)(s+3)=2

As' + 2As+.2A + Bs~ +C:s+ 3B.+ 3C = 2

Equating coefftctcnrs of .11 powers of s.

Ai" B 0 2A+C+3B",O .2A + 3C ",.2
2A + C - 3A 0 .. 2A + 3A = .2
C-A 0
C A
S<)lving, A .2 2 2
"5 ' B=-"5'C=S 2 2 2 2 .2 .2
5 -c="S+- _L -sS+:s
"1"(5) = + 3 S +
(5+ 3) s' +20+:2 .+ 3 {(s i" 2)" + 2} The quadratic s2 .. 2s .. 2 having complex roots is decomposed directly.

U rhcberrec htl lch gesc h (jutes M aleri"

Modern Control Thco.ry

2 -29


:.Complcu, "tau, diagram is ~$ shown in the Fig. 2.20

U(I)

Fig. 2.20

and

Y(t)

X 3 U(I) - 2X2 - 2)(.3

~ XI(t) + ~ Xl(f) - ~XJ(t)

:.Stnte model is, X

AX .. BU and Y ~ ex

whore

A

[- ~ ~ ~] , B - [~l

o - 2 -2 1

e '" [-.;. - -.; ~]

~ ~ ~.D"'Q

Note tha t in such a case matrix A does not ha ve any speci fie form.

2.4 State Model by Cascade Programming

This is .1,0 ca.lle-dl'ole-Zero Form or Gullemin'.s Form. This can be effectively used when both. numerator and denominator can be factcriscd.

In sum form, group n pole and zero together and arrange given transfer function as the product 01 011 such groups. Then simulate each group separately and conned all such simulations in cascade to gel complete simulation. Then assigning output of each tntegratcr as a stale variable obtain a stale model in standard form.

U rheberrec htl lch gcsc h utztes M ateri a


2 - 30


_ s+ n Sim ula non of group , Consid er ,." b

First simulate denominator _1---.:. as in the Fig 2.21 (a) and then as discussed earlier

se o

simulate the numerator (5 + a) J5 shown, in. the Fig. 2.21 (b).

f:""'_ - - - - - ,_ - - - -- -.,.

, I I

, ,

r , ~ ~ ~-__ ~ ~ _ ~ _ ~ ~ __ ~

{al s 1 b

(b) ~:~

Fig. 2.21 Simulation of a group of pole-zero

' ... Example 2.9 : Oblain II,. .Ial. model of asyslem by cascade programming ·who.. .. tnmsfer [unc! ion is

T(~! '" Y(s}" (5+ 2)(5+ 4] Uis) s (5+ 1) 15+ 3)

Solution: Arrange the given T.f. as. below

Yrs) (5+ 2) (s + 4)

Uj~) (;'+1) (.+ 3)

J..

Group 1

~ Group 2

J.

Group 3

Now simulate each group as discussed and connect all of them in series to obtain T(s).

The complete simulation is shown in the Fig, 2.22.

'. -,

Fig. 2.22

Now

. .

Xz" - 3X:1 +2XJ +X)

U rheberrec htl lch gcsc h utztes Iv! ateri"


2·31


and

Substituting X 3 into Xl equation,

Model becomes,

'[0 I t] [XI] [11'

0, - 3 1: Xl +, I ,V(t)

o 0 -1 XJ .'I.

and Y(t) XI(t)
i.e, Y(f) (1 0 OJ [;~ ]
XJ
[~ 11 n
So A ··3 11 B-1
0 -IJ 1
C - (1 001 D - 0 Feature of A: Feature 01 Matrix A is it, principle dlagonal contains gains of all feedback paths associated with all Integrators i.e, 0, -3, -1 in above problem. All terms below principle diagonal are zero. Thus the features of A having all poles of T(s) in its principle diagonal still continues in this method of programming.

This method is also known as Iterative programming.

Examples with Solutions

110+ Example 2.10: Oblain tile Mate model of Ihe give" "./work ill lile slandl1rd form.

A~""n e Rt=l!l C!=lF

R2 211 C, = 1 F

R, = 30

U rheberrec htl lch gesc h utztes Iv! ate,i"

Modem Control Theory 2 • 32 State Space RepresentatJon

--~~----------------------~--~------

+Q_~R' ..

• +

I "~'"

'nput UII) .."?. -

R2 ~f

_! .~T- "2 {II) QUIPU!

Fig. 2.23

Solution: Selecting sill!" variables as voltages across capacitors C\ and C2 i.e, c1 ~nd c2, R,

Cj Xj(t)
c2 ~ X2(t) U(I) ',I) Applying Kirchhoff's laws, U(t) - i I R I .• C I - R, (i I - i 2) ~ 0

U(I) = i,R1"'cl+R2(il-;,)

.

t

0------'-----'----0 {II)

Fig. 2.23 (a)

... (I)

for second loop J

~, - ;) I<·.l - c, - (i 2 - ; I) RI 0

... (2)

Solving sirnultuncously equations (1) and (2)

U(t) ;1 (R] + R,l- i2 R] + ci

{,' ,I ~ i I R;2 ... lJ (R~ R J}''_ c:]

Substituting the values,

Uil) illl +2)-lil·,c1

i.e ...

U(t)

. .. (3) ... (4)

Multiply equation (~l by 2 and equation (4) by :>

2 U(I)

3~, 3 Uri) + 30,

- oil :1- '15i2 + 3('2 and adding lH~ + x2 + 2111

U rheberrec htl lch ge5c h utztes M a\eri a


2 ·33

State Space Represenbltion

- .. (5)

Now from equntion (3)

U(I) '" 3'1 - 2il -l- c1 Substituting i 1 from equation (5)

and

__ de.,

Cl(f!

C2 d~l dt

and

., State model is, X

where

O(t)

". (6)

... Capac!", current is C ldvc/dtl

,., (7)

.. .Capecrtor current is C [dve/atl

X2

3 - (' 1 - 3 X

IT U t) + IT XI - ITl

.. , (8)

y(t)

AX + nu and Y " ex + DU

A

[ 12 1 -] [ 8]

-33 1 .; 1, '6" 33_"

1 3 ' 3

IT -it n

C " 10 ,11 D" I 0 I

U rheberrec htl lch ge5c h utztes Iv! ateri"

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Moderncontroltheory Bakshi

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