.

O)
 KASY LESSONS
IN

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY
NATURAL STORY II I

MECHANICS, CrilEMIBTRi
ELECTRICITY, OPTICS, AND ACOl's'iirs

\\TI1I NTMKKOrs ILI.rsTK.VI

LONDO '

LBTO5 AND \v li I <, H r \V

65, PATKKNOSTKK UOW
GRANDFATHER WHITEHEAD'S CATECHISMS,

[.-NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.
 TO TEACHERS AND PUPILS.

THE object of every tutor should

be to convey the knowledge the pupil

requires in as simple, clear, accurate,

and concise a manner as possible.
The object of every pupil should be to acquire the knowledge imparted
by the tutor, not in words only, but in ideas ; so that the information
.1 should not be of a superficial character a mere catalogue of

scientific names but an acquaintance with the phenomena of Nature, and

net and comprehensive idea of the laws which regulate them.

" a tutor should not be

remarked that
.jitly continually
thundering instruction into the ears of his pupil as if he were pouring it
through a funi :ter having
put the lad, like a young horse, on a
.-fore him, to observe 1 :
i,k- to perform,

should, according to the extent ot his eai luee him to taste, to

distinguish, and to find out things for himself ; sometimes opening the

way, at other times leaving

it for him to open and by abating or in-
;

creasing his own pace, accommodate his precepts to the

capacity of his
pupil."

inquiry A\ill and the consequence

follow,
will be a Lrratify that curiosity by acquiring knowledge. The.
ignorant or m n quite as mm-li as the

unproduet on the road-side. In the following Catechisms the

led
pupil is step by ste; -1
easy method, to acquire the
knowledge . is still further elucidated

by numerous diagrams nts.

iv PREFACE.

The experiments are so contrived, that the apparatus required is of the

most simple and inexpensive kind in most instances, and due regard lias
been paid throughout to simplicity and usefulness, rather than mag-
nificence ;
the object being to render everything as plain and intelligible

as possible, commensurate with the subject.

The introductory narratives are all founded upon facts, or are the actual
biographies of eminent scientific men. The lessons have been constructed
forweekly tuition, it being desirable that the first five days should be
devoted to catechising, and the sixth to recapitulation, examination viva
voce, or essay writing upon the subjects contained in the week's course
of study.

Teachers are recommended to give additional illustrations of the

subjects under consideration, to perform the experiments given in the

lessons before the pupil, and to adduce other familiar and simple experi-
ments to elucidate them.

Pupils should perform the experiments themselves before studying the

lessons,and repeat them again when master of the lesson. If possible,
they should also perform other experiments bearing upon the question,
and explain their analogy to those previously exhibited.

Each lesson has a few important questions appended, to assist the

teacher in the examination of the pupils.
GRANDFATHER W

INTRODUCTORY NARRATIVE.

LESSON I.

NEARLY a century and a half ago,

great distress prevailed in a certain dis-
trict inEngland, where there were but a
few houses, peopled by labourers in the
humblest condition of life and, as the
;

land was unproductive, and marshes

hemmed in by mountains were to be seen
far and wide, the earth did not
bring forth
sufficient to supply the wants of the
peo-
ple, so that many of them were oblip-,1
to leave the home of their childhood, and
settle elsewhere. A poor lad, who had
only received sufficient i-diuMtion to
enable him to read, wa removed from

t
'

V
6 INTRODUCTORY NARRATIVE. [Lesson I.

school to assist his his employment of stuff-weaving.

father in The love of
knowledge becoming a scholar had taken possession of the youth,
the ardent desire of
who devoted all his leisure moments, and even a portion of the time which his father
required of him, to reading and writing. The father, instead of encouraging his son's
fondness for study, forbade him to open a book, behaved with great harshness, and at
length drove him from the house, telling him to go and seek his fortune where and how
he chose. "NVeary, and uncertain where to go, he threw himself upon the heath to
reflect upon the course he must take; and, having refreshed himself at an adjoining
brook, walked to the neighbouring village, and took up his abode in the house of a
tailor's widow, with whose son he had been previously acquainted. He contrived to
support himself by industry and frugality, and to add to his stock of knowledge by care-
ful observation and reading. Soon after his arrival, a pedlar, who combined fortune-
teller and astrologer with his own trade, came to lodge in the same house and becoming;

intimate with Hallam for such was the boy's name instructed him in the various branches
of knowledge that he was acquainted with, while pursuing his own trade of pedlar and
itinerant merchant From the astrologer-pedlar he obtained the knowledge of the first
principles of Natural Philosophy and his naturally active and intelligent mind, improved
;

by reading, extracted new and important facts from the incidents of every-day life with
which he was surrounded.
The time for the departure of the pedlar arrived, and previous to setting off on his
journey, he lent Hallam Cocker's Arithmetic, which had bound up with it a treatise on
Algebra, and a work upon Physics and Somatolosy. These he studied so thoroughly
that when the pedlar returned he was astonished to find his quondam pupil had almost
eclipsed his tutor, and forthwith proceeded to draw his horoscope, as he termed it, in
order to discover the probable career of this wonderful lad.
Having concluded his observations, the pedlar predicted that in two years Hallam
would surpass his tutor, and ultimately rise to bo a great man and the youth promised
;

that if such came to pass, he would not forget in his prosperity the instruction of the

pedlar, and his kindness towards him.

Eighteen years have elapsed, and the prediction has been fulfilled : the lad abandoned
his trade of weaver, turned schoolmaster, and married his landlady the tailor's widow.
He has passed through many phases in his journey through life, and, notwithstanding
the privations and hardships he encountered, has risen to considerable eminence as a
scholar, has been appointed Professor of Mathematics, and elected a Fellow of the Royal
Society.
The few houses that were scattered upon the borders of the wild and desolate district
where Hallam's father formerly lived, have increased in number and size the marshes ;

have been drained, the land tilled, the mountains quarried, and the whole aspect changed
from desolation to the busy hum of commercial activity. Jacqunrd-looms have been
erected, mills and factories built, and long lines of streets; BO that from being a village
at first, it has grown into a city. He seeks out the aged pedlar, who still instructs the
young and labours for his bread; the old man has almost forgotten his pupil, but tears
of joy suffuse his eyes, as the remembrance of other days is recalled. At eve, the two
stroll towards the brow of the hill, Hallam supporting his aged tutor, and as they

approach a mill on the road-side, they halt, for the pedlar is wearied and wishes to rest
himself.
 I.] NAT HAL PHILOSOPHY.
I-

"This "
where I reclined when my father drove me from his
.spot," said Hallam, is

house; but how changed the prospect! The mountain's side is now peopled; and
where the heath and furze grew amid marshy land, the golden-eared corn bends to the
breeze. Observe yon waggon as it moves along the road 'tis mine aye, and all the ;

factories beyond! So you must now leave off toiling, and share them with me; for ta
your instruction I owe alL"
" To mine ?"
replied the pedlar.
"Yes! 'twas through the knowledge obtained from you, that I have risen to my
present position. Your prediction ever before me, and with the desire of reaching the
highest pinnacle of fame and honour, I worked incessantly success crowned my
efforts ; ;

and now, surrounded with wealth and honours, I must not forget the pedlar-astrologer,
and his gift-book of NATURAL PHILOSOPHY."

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY,
BTIONfl AND EXPLANATIONS.
.vAt-r. WHAT is Natural Philo- ences into two great branches Natural
sophy ? History, and Natural Philosophy.
It is that branch of the natural
Pupil. 4. T. What does Natural History treat
ciences which treats of phenomena that of?
do not depend upon a change of the con- P. It instructs us in the nature of indi-
struction of bodies and makes us acquainted
;
vidual objects, and arranges them in
with the nature, causes, properties, and
according to their different charae:
effects of the various objects and events
which surround us. It will enable us to 5. T. If such be the case, of what does
Natural Philosophy treat ?
discover why a room smokes when there
P. It endeavours to teach us the manner
are two fire? in it Why the handles of
in which inorganic substances act upon
cooking vessels are often made of wood.
each other; laying open, in fact, t:
Why persons interpose a piece of woollen
material between their hand and the handle of the niiiti ri.il world.
of an iron kettle. Why plunging the What do you mean by inorganic
hands into water produces a sensation nf substances f
cold. Why
water in fluid or why a ; /'. Ii: :-.' mi. Mihstances are bodies that
cracked bell makes a discordant SOUTH!. are not endowed with life, such as minerals,
[The pupil should be required to give satisfactory being the reverse of organic, or living
answers to all these queries.] bodies.

2. T. What is the term Philosophy -What do you mean by th.

P. From the Greek philosophia /'. All objects recognisable by the

which " lovo whether fluid or are
(<PAOTO<$>(), literally signifies senses, solid, ge-
of wisdom or knowledge." !>cd as bodies ; thus v.

solid body, and M

appear* from what you
gaseous body. All these substances ex-
have *t a wide
cite certain sensations in our minds, and
Held for
the pov. M arc called
so many objects of opposite character. I s

;n(ilitict or proper tut.

he case f
/' Yes. Th vaat realm of Nature, e me some examples of the
properties of boi
has some i

:
vl sci- .
quality :
it is distin-
 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. [Lesson II.

guished from another. It the property

is ple, are compared, classified, and gene-
of glass to be transparent and brittle; of ralised by the philosopher, and rendered
fire to burn of charcoal to be inodorous
;
familiar and useful to mankind.
anJ insipid of amber to be brittle, light,
; 13. T. What do you mean by phenomena ?
hard, and transparent and ofthe loadstone
; P. They are all extraordinary appear-
to attract iron. ances in the works of Nature; the \\oid
[The pupil should be requested to give other phenomenon being derived from the Greek
examples of the properties of bodies.] word phaino (to appear), and signifying,
9. T. You said that certain sensations literally, an appearance.
were excited in our minds by bodies give :
14. 7\ Give me some illustrations of
me some natural phenomena.
examples.
P. One body excites the sensation of P. Heat applied to ice drives the par-
ticles entering into its composition further
green, another of blue, and a third is de-
void of all colour, or may be said to be asunder, and changes it from a solid to a
white, such as lime. liquid form ; and if the temperature is in-
creased, and the process prolonged, the
10. T. "Why is lime white ?
water or liquid is converted into a gaseous
P. Because the particles of matter of fluid or steam, because the component par-
which it is composed are piled so densely ticles are driven still further apart. Heat
one upon another, that they are able to rarefies air and causes it to expand for ;

reflect all the coloured rays of light. let a

example, [Experiment 1,] bladder,
1 1. T. What do you mean by the term half full of air, be tied tightly at the neck
mattt-r ? and then laid before a fire, or held over the
P. The substance entering into the flame of a spirit-lamp sufficiently high to
composition of all bodies has received the prevent the flame injuring the bladder, and
general name of matter, which possesses the air will expand and fill the bladder.
certain essential characteristic qualities. [The pupil should give some further illustra-
tions of natural phenomena.]
12. T. What do you mean by the ex-
pression general name ?
P. Ageneral name is one that is used
to express a large genus or class of things
GENERAL QUESTIONS UPON LESSON I.

of similar character thus, fiats may in-

; 1. What is the derivation and meaning
clude straw hats, gutta-percha hats, cork of the term Philosophy ?

hats, silk, beaver, or felt hats, and many 2. How is Philosophy divided ?

other kinds and when we say apples, we

; 3. Name the senses by which the exist-
use an indefinite term, if we allude to any ence of bodies are made known to us.
particular kind, such as crab-apples, or 4. What is the quality of a body ?
golden russet, and only employ the general 5. What constitutes the composition of
name to express the class. Generalisation bodies ?

of facts can only be accomplished by per- 6. What is matter ?

sons of experience, well acquainted with 7. What a natural pnenomenon ?

is
science. The vast and heterogeneous mass 8. Prove that the same cause may
pro-
of phenomena which puzzle ignorant peo- duce various effects.

LESSON II.*
WE have an excellent example for the youth ofthe present age to follow, in the case
of the poor boy Hallam, who, by untiring zeal in study, and perseverance, raised him-
self from obscurity to affluence, and an honourable position in the scientific world. The
chief points in the story are true, but some little incidents have been introduced for
* Grandfather Whitehead requests that the Pupil will commit to the ideat of each lesson,
memory
and endeavour by experiments of a different character from those given here, to demontlrate to the
Teacher that he has thoroughly mastered the subject.
Lesson H.] NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.
especial reasons. founded upon the career of Thomas Simpson, the celebrated
It is

mathematician, who was born in the town of Market- Bosworth, in Leicestershire, in

the year 1710. By studying the books given to him by the pedlav-astrologer, the boy
ibled to comprehend many of the laws of nature; and the Blowledge he thus
i

acquired was applied to the daily purposes of life, for Natural Philosophy explains the
principles of the various arts which are practised, elevates and improves the mind, and
extends man's power over nature. It unfolds to us the magnificence, order, and beauty
of construction in the material world, and adduces the most powerful evidence of the
wisdom and beneficence of the Creator. It was the knowledge of its laws that enabled
Hallam to change the desolate tra|^>f land into a populous and productive district.
We can understand the manner ^hich bodies act upon each other, and the reason
they do so, by means of its laws for example [Experiment 2,] take a sheet of glass
;
:

and place some water upon it the glass will be wetted. You know this already from
;

daily experience but you require to know Natural Philosophy to explain the reason.
;

If we wipe the glass dry, and place some mercury upon it, [Experiment 3,] the same
effect is not produced, the glass remains dry and Natural Philosophy explains why ;

the glass is Suppose we substitute a thin sheet of lead or tin,

differently affected.
[Experiment 4,] and use the mercury as we did with the glass, the effect will be
different the metal plates will be wetted with the mercury, and if there is sufficient
;

mercury, the plates will be dissolved in a short time. Again, take a lump of sugar,
[Experiment 5,] and place it upon the glass plate we used a short time ago examine ;

it carefully, and you will observe how

compact it looks place a teaspoonful of water ;

upon the glass and allow it te flow towards the sugar, you see it falls to pieces, and has
now disappeared and when you know more of Natural Philosophy the reason will be
;

obvious.

QUESTIONS.
15. T. From what you have shown re- leftto themselves, descend in straight lines
specting the manner in which some bodies towards the surface.
act upon each other, it would appear that 17. T. Do you think that I can dissolve
the phenomena we have witnessed always sand in water ?

happen under similar circumstances, and /'. No; I know you cannot, because it
therefore, that there must be a natural law is contrary to its natural law.
to govern the action of bodies. Do you
think that this is the case?
18. 7\ How have these laws been dis-
cover.
Yen, undoubtedly. It is a natural
law that bodies always act in the same
P. By experiments and observ.v
imiiM-r under the same circumstances, and 19. T. What is the use of expei :

>dy has its own

Pure water law. /'.
verify oliserv.it ions
Experiments and
will always dissolve sugar, but does not truths, elicit facts, establish i

affect gold in the same manner, because it press the principles more strong!.
is not its nature to do so. our minds, and exemplify thw .i|>]
of gener.il principles to the demonstration
16. T. Do you understand what is
of individual facts.
meant by a natural law T
P. It is tl. ..f the . rdth.it sail.!.

phrnmnen*
<
It' we apply heat to and other bodies insoluble, or
.ire

water itconverts the water into steam, cold uith water, you say that
will not thm-fnre we .ty it is a natural
; it is a natural law that p'"-'"" '>
law that gov< 1 is a natural 1 as it would he impossible fo:
.: all bodies at the earth's sin to observe and experiment upon all (he
ii .5
10 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. [ Lesson III.

bodies by which he is surrounded, how can properties which we observe, .MS divisibility,
we obtain the knowledge we reqii :

extensibility, compressibility, porosity, in-

P. From the experience of philo- ertia, and gravity.
sophers, who have observed and experi- 23. T. Can you always re-cognise these
mented upon the many and various bodies
around them, and left their knowledge to properties in bodies ?

P. Yes some arc essential to the

;

us. Galileo was the first to test theories

existence of a body, others are not, as I
by practical experiments, and Lord Bacon stated before.
showed that this was the only method of
acquiring a knowledge of the laws of
2-t. T. How do you expect to under-
nature. stand phenomena that occur when
all the

21. 7*. Where can the recorded ex-
perience of philosophers be found ?
P. In works upon Natural Philosophy,
in which the nature and properties of
bodies, the laws which govern them, and
the phenomena of nature are explained.
22. T. As bodies differ materially one
from another, the comprehension of the
nature of their individual properties appears
to be almost impossible.
P. So it would be, if there were not
general properties which we observe to
exist in all bodies, whatever other differences
Thus, it is essential to the
they exhibit.
existence of a body that it possess the
expcrMting upon bodies ?
studying Natural Philosophy.
GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON II.
1. What is the object of Natural Phi-
losophy, and to what purposes is it applied ?
2. What is meant by a natural law ?
8. What is the use of experiments ?
1. What is essential to the existence of
a body ?
5. Do all bodies possess peculiar cha-
racteristic properties ?
[The pupil should be required to state the pro-
perties of various bodies in a concise manner
Example Lead is solid, heavy, soft, mal-
:

power of extension, occupy a limited space, leable, deficient in tenacity, and readily
and be impenetrable but in addition to fusible. Water is fluid, inodorous, clear, and
;
tasteless. Carbonic acid is gaseous, colour-
these properties, without which we cannot
less, pungent, insoluble in water, and acid-
form any idea of matter, there are other ulous, &c.J

LESSON III.

HALLAM learned from the bogk on Natural Philosophy that the pedlar-astrologer
lent him, many of the laws of nature and their application, and by reading, reflection,
and observation, he was enabled to add much to his store of knowledge, and apply his
experience in such a manner, that he not only enriched himself, but benefit ted his
neighbours. The only source from whence we can derive our knowledge of nature is
the perception of the senses, practical experience and observation the facts observed ;

and collected are arranged, and inferences drawn cither from analogy or induction but ;

we derive all the certain and accurate knowledge of the laws of nature from the latter.

Having mastered certain points, his next object was to apply his experience, and this
he did so effectually that he drained the marshy lands, and made the mountain streams
move machinery. We trust our pupils will all endeavour to be Hallams.
QUESTIONS.
25. T. You have said that one of the divisible,being capable of division into
properties of matter was divisibility. Now, smaller and still smaller portions and, pro- ;

do you think that there is any limit to this ; vided the instruments of division are fine
thn.t is to say, can it be infinitely divided ? | enough, there is no limit as far as our
P. As far as we know, all bodies are j
senses arc concerned. Yet, as all particles
Lesson III. ]
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 11

of matter must be possessed of a finite num, when formed into wire; toap bubble*,
a; ing t of infects, puff-ball fungut, &c.]
ade, we should rather say that it is
.
though too small to be seen even /'. What you have stated seems
when maguilicd by the most powerful almost incredible without some further ex-
planation will you therefore demonstrate
;
microscope.
to me how matter is capable of division?
26. T. Give me some examples of the
ILITY of matter?
/'. of the best examples of extreme
One
divisibility of matter is musk, which will
continue to diffuse its odour year after
year without any perceptible loss of weight
It is stated* that "a clean cork, which

stopped a phial in which there was musk, T 9 hi i A* Z vn, st

which it have touched, in
seemed never to
Fig. 1.
melled of musk more than twenty
P. Draw a line, A, B, and parallel to
years after;" and Fee says that one part of
musk will communicate its odour to 3,000 that another, C, D then draw E F per- ;

pendicular to C, D, and between the two.

parts of inodorous powder. It is very
evident that some of the musk Let E F represent the particle of matter to
particles be divided then draw lines from A to g,
must have been diffused, otherwise the ;

I, tn, n, D, and the line E F will be

odour would not have been discovered by h, i. /.-.

divided into eight parts. If the line, C,

the sense of smelling; touch and vision
could not assist in the perception of its D,
be lengthened or extended, and the
lines drawn from A increased in number,
existence. Again the silk, spun by the then
:

the line E F, which represents the

silk-worm, is about the 500th part of an
inch thick; but a lineis, perhaps, particle of matter, will be divided into a
spider's
six times 6ner, or only the 3,000th part of greater number of parts of less magnitude.
an inch in diameter ; insomuch that a 28. Although you have explained
T.
single pound of this attenuated substance to me in a very satisfactory manner the
>>c sufficient to encompass our globe. division of matter by means of a diagram,
Another remarkable instance of the di- I wish to have a familiar instance. Can
ly of seen in the dyeing of
matter is you furnish one ?
ilk with cochineal, where a pound of silk, P. Yes; when large rocks are divided
containing eight score threads to the ounce, from the mass, for the purposes of building,
each thread seventy-two yards long, and Her portions are again divided to
the whole reaching about 104 miles, when ids, and then subdivided by
dyed with scarlet doet^iot receive above a ds of wagv :: 'l tnp
y forra
weight ; so that a drachm dust, the particles of which arc frequently
olouring mattrr of the cocli so exceeding! we cannot readily
actually extended through more than 100 distinguish them without the aid of a mag-
minute quan- tliis

an intense colour
to give
20. T. Give me an example to prove
to the silk with which it is combined. h< I

th:it the divisibility of matter passes tho

also affords us an excel-
limits of sensual }>
lent example of th- divisibility of in /'. Cinnabar, which is composed of sul-
which are
the iron -ochre,
Each animalcule
irshes.
phur and mercury, may be separated into
these constituents but we cannot di-tin-
;
is about 1 of an inch in diame-
only -nrtao^ '!<
particles of sulphur from those
ter ; and therefore a cubic line would con-
under the microscope.
'00 million* of them, or nearly two
million million t in a cul /.Do you consider that the di-
.ty wholly unlimited f
of matter is
[Tho pupil ihould b required to glv* other
illuttration* of the divisibility of matter, luch P. No; to adopt such an assu
M gold in ftildinr. or wh.n bton out plat, ; he to ndmit th.it the ni*c
ultimat. s null while ;

Alston'* LttlfTt o*Mal*riaM*tca t vol. li.

p. S. it is evident, that if the ultimate particle
 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. [Lesson IV.

have no extension, it cannot enter into the :;i. 7'. -Has knowledge of the con-
the
stitution of bodies thus formed been ap-
composition of a body occupying space.
plied?
31. T. What do you
gather from all P. Yes. Natural philosophers and
the facts and observations you have stated ? chemists have universally embraced the
P. That all bodies are composed of hich has received the name of the
minute particles, which cannot be further atomic theory, or theory of atoms.
disintegrated, but are undivisible.
/'. What name have these particles GKXF.RAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON III.
received from natural philosophers ?
P. Atoms. If, however, we speak of 1. Are bodies divisible ?
all
2. Give some examples of the divisibility
the particles of a mass, without wishing
of matter from the organized world.
actually to describe them as the ultimate
3. C;ui you give a familiar example of
portions, we employ the term molecules.
the divisibility of matter ?
33. T. Then it appears that a molecule 4. Can we always prove the divisibility
is not the same as an atom will you ex- ; of matter by our senses ?
plain the difference ? 5. Is there any limit to the divisibility
P. A
molecule is supposed to be of matter ?

formed of several atoms, arranged according 0'. What

is the difference between an
to some determinate figure, and generally atom, a molecule, and a particle?
signifies the component parts of a body too 7. "What name has the fundamental view
small for sensual perception. of the constitution of bodies received ?

LESSON IV.
RECAPITULATION, &c. THE
study of the laws of Natural Philosophy enabled
Hallam to discover that matter was capable of division, and he applied his knowh <!:,(>
to many useful purposes. The mountain on the borders of the marsh where he had
taken up his abode, was barren, and he therefore rented a portion of it for a small sum :

on this he built a hut, and formed lime. The lime he sold to the fanners and by fru- ;

gality and industry, was enabled to purchase a plot of ground on which to build his
house. The house he now built was formed of stone, procured from the mountain's
side, united with mortar made from lime he manufactured himself. To procure this
stone, he was obliged to have recourse to Natural Philosophy as his assistant, and by
means of judiciously conducted experiments and observations, he was enabled to accom-

plish ten times the amount of work he otherwise could have done, if unacquainted
with Natural Philosophy.
QUESTIONS.
.',3. T. I remember that you said one P. It is the bulk or size of a body,
of the essential properties of a body was being the quantity of space included within
- n. 11. IT Y. Pray what do you mean its external surfaces.
by the term ? 37.T. How do you estimate the bulk
P. Every body must occupy a certain or volume of bodies?
amount of space, which space will, of course,
be in proportion to its magnitude. Exten- P. By the quantity of their dimensions ;

or in other words, by their length, breadth,

sibility is theproperty observed in bodies
to have their volume enlarged without in- and depth.
creasing their mass. 38. T. You have just said that a body
36. T. What do you mean by the may have itsvolume enlarged without in-
volume of a body? Qg its mass; how is this possible?
Lesson IV. J
PHILOSOPHY.
/'. -I will prove it to xpcri- cannot easily be withdrawn witln.
eriiiK'nto'.] Take ,1
glass tube probability of breaking the decanter, if a
(a, &,) with a bulb at the end (6); flannel is dipped into hot water, and applied
let the bulb (6), and part of to the neck of the bottle, it will cause the
the tube be filled with some glass to expand [Experiment 7], and when
i of logwood, solution the neck is enlarged the stopper can be
of indigo, or other coloured easily extracted.
fluid, as far as c. Plunge the 40. T. Has the volume of a body any
bull) into hot water, and if you
relation to i

observe, you will see the decoc- /'. No. Bodies Inviiu? very different
tion of logwood, which is in this volumes may have the same figure; and
tube, rapidly rising tow bodies with different figures may havj the
because the fluid has dilated or same volume. Thus, a box may be ten
extended under the influence ia large as a die, or another box,
of the increased temperature, but yet have the same figure ; and a square
and is occupying a greater space and a sphere may, though of dilferuit
than before, therefore its volume have equal volumes.
figures, yet
isincreased. will now allow We
the fluid to cool, and you will *V * 41. T. Do you
think that bodies can
observe that it will return to the level at c, be diminished in bulk, without diminishing
therefore we prove that the mass is the same their mass 1
as before. If you repeat the experiment P. Yes all bodies possess the property
;

with the bladder, [Experiment 1], you will
have another illustration of extensibility.
In both these experiments the elevation of
the temperature produces an incr
volume, which will be easily comprehended
by examining these two diagrams.
of compressibility as well as extensibility.
42. T. What do you mean by COM-
PRESSIBILITY ?
P. It is that quality which all bodies
possess of having their volume diminished
without decreasing their

43. T. Can you furnish me wit::

familiar examples of the compressibility
Of bod:
C P. The most elastic, and therefore the
C. most compressible bodies, si
: ml the most familiar of these is the
*
iieric air, which varies in bulk, ac-

cording as it is near or remote from the

r,g. 4.
earth's surface. It may appear v. i ,

tli.it tli
.
hulk of the atm
represents a cubic inch of rold
5
should . 'is the case,
we will suppose contains six-
ich
and 1 will .
xplain
teen atoms of nir, but v
ment. iagsof
same space only contains nine atoms, (as seed or flour, nn.l
placc tin :

the vo! the size of >

above tin-
but when the air again '

i will easily
it will return to the original size. i
how
:nch of air contains the same
those at th.
r of atom*, ii* the same
torn of the pile
as before.

39. T. You have on ::ie two as those at tho

illustration*, the one relating to a fluid, top.
the other to a gaseous body. Can you
illus" v a solid bo illustrated by inrrn^n^ thr i.

P. \
bags, urn! 1. It in
employing
canter has become firmly fixed, s >
on account : of the bap abovo
li NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. [Lesson IV.

pressing upon the lower ones. So it is therefore very evident that the atoms arc-

with the particles of nir at the surface of not in immediate contiguity wi:i,

the earth they are pressed upon hy those

: other. The spaces between the atoms are
above them, at a pressure of about 15 Ibs. capable of being compressed or extended,
to every square inch. If you examine the and therefore the volume of the body may
bags, you will perceive that a is very much
be diminished or increased.
compressed, b not quite so much, c less, 49. T. What do you call the spaces
and d almost uncompressed so that as we ;
between the particles of bodies ?
ascend you observe the pressure is less, the P. They are called pores.
same as it is with atmospheric pressure.
50. T. Have all bodies spaces or pores
4K T. Can you compress gases the
between their particles ?
same you do atmospheric air ?
as P. Yes every body is
;
porous.
P. Yes all gases can be compressed
; ;

and one of the most familiar illustrations 51. T. Then the property of being
of the truth of this, is the compression of porous is a general one ?
carbonic acid gas in the manufacture of P. It is and the quality of being so
;
is

soda-water. called POROSITY.

45. T. Are fluids or liquids compres-

sible ?
P. ;Yes but in so slight a degree
that,
GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON IV.
in a hydrostatic sense, they are considered 1. When bodies have their volume en-

incompressible yet they are not abso-

;
larged without increasing their ma
lutely incompressible, but only yield slightly what term do you express this prop.
to very intense pressure. 2. What is the volume of a body ?

46. T. Are you certain that 3. How is the volume of a body es-
liquids
have been compressed ? timated ?

P. Yes. Canton proved this by ex- 4. Prove by experiments that the volume
of a body may be enlarged without increasing
periment in the year 1761. He placed a
tube with a bulb, similar to the one we the mass.
5. Are all bodies capable of being ex-
employed [Experiment 6], in a condenser,
and submitted the surface of the liquid to tended ?

a very intense pressure of condensed air. 6. What relation has the volume of a
The result was, that the level of the liquid body to its figure ?
7. Can bodies be diminished in bulk
fell perceptibly, and rose again to its
without decreasing their mass ?
original height upon removing the pressure.
8. What term has been applied to
47. Can solids be compressed?
T.
this property of diminishing the bulk of
P. Yes. You observe this piece of bodies?
lead is round, in fact, it is what is called a
9. Are all bodies capable of being com-
bullet; now immediately that it receives a ?
pressed
stroke of this hammer it will be partially
Give some familiar examples of the
10.
compressed. [Experiment 9.] You see
compressibility of bodies, and illustrate
that it is somewhat flattened, and now that the fact by experiments.
ithas received six strokes, the size of it is
11. How do you account for the com-
diminished, but its weight is the same. In
pressibility and extensibility of bodies ?
the same manner, iron, steel, gold, and
12. What term has been applied to the
other solids may be compressed.
spaces between the particles of bodies?
48. T. How can you account for this ? 13. What is the name of the general
All bodies have interstices between " that all
P. law, bodies have spaces between
the different particles of matter, and it is their particles?
"
 \\.\L PHILOSOPHY. II

SOX V.
ve learned how
bodies may be extended, and how

compressed, and hare also ascertained that bodies are porous. Now these facts are
all

all tery important, especially when they are associated with other matters which we shall

consider hereafter. They are intimately connected with the affairs of every-dav life, and
are therefore of great consequence. Hallam had become conversant with the laws which

regulate them, and was led on step by step until he applied the knowledge he thus
acquired to useful purposes. He learned that even solid bodies may be made to expand
or contract without diminishing their mass, and he also learned that solid bodies have

pores or interstices between their particles. Hallam had yet to learn more of tho
principles of Natural Philosophy so have we. ;

QUESTIONS.
52. T. You said that all bodies have 56. T. How can you prove that bodies
pores or interstices between their particles ;
have pores ?

now do you know this ? /'.

By a very simple experiment. [Ex-
P. It has been discovered by experi- 1 have here a
periment 10.] piece of wood,
ment, and I know it by reading. More with a wire fastened to it, and a tumbler of
than two centuries ago it was proved lu- water. I will plunge the wood into the
cent, at the Academy !)! Cimento, water, and keep it at the bottom of the
.11Florence, that gold was porous the ex- ; tumbler by means of the wire [performing
perience was the result of accident, but it the experiment]. You sec tint
established the fact that water may be made bubbles of air are rising to the surface, they
to pass through gold. have escaped from the pores of the wood.
which are bein-j filled with water i:
53. T. Then you would imply, that
If there were not any int. rst ices it wouM
because all bodies arc compressible, there
be impossible for the air to be in the sub-
are interstices between tlu-:r j>:irticles.
stance of the wood, because it is contrary
P. Certainly, but the sire of the pores to one of the established general laws of
varies in different substance-.
Natural Philosophy.
substance may contain 10,000 pores in a
square inch, and another 100,000 pores in /'.Is the knowledge of the porosity
the same space. In the former case, the of bodies applied to any useful or scientific
than in the
pores are considerably larger ^es?
latter. P. Yes; filtration is based upon, ami
54. 7 the effect of the ports
i electrotyping is under obliga:
of a body being closer together I
58. T. Can you adduce any further
P. The substance itself is rendered
inon- di-r.s.-.
proofs of the jHiroiity of bodies f

P. Yes ; many bodies are capable of

55. T. What do you mean by being compression merely by merit. mi. M
den,.- ? and this will explain by a simple
I

P. '} !.
-ponds upon ill 1 1
|
I li.ive

the pr<> .
basin of water, and a piece of cork floating
of any sub- I will take an
tancc, the less will be the porosity. The -
(n* it i* commonly
density of a body ia the relation of its with air) and invert it orcr
filled

weight to its volume, and therefore in- the cork, so that the edge shall just ..

dicates its specific gravity, a we property the water; the air is now confined within
hall consider on another occasion. the tumbler and occupies a given space,
16 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. [Lesson V.

but if I plunge the tumbler below the sur- a block of wood by a blow from a ham-
face, and keep it tbere.it will be found that mer, and has displaced the wood by com-
the water rises to a certain height above the pression. The substance of the woo;l is
level of the brim, and the deeper that it is dividing, because it cannot be compressed
plunged the more the cork rises in the tum- any more.
bler but as the pressure is removed and the
:
03. T, If you remove the wedge, does
goblet rises, it will be found that the water the wood resume its former shape, and
descends and the cork with it, because the
occupy the space it did before the wedge
air expands. Thus you will see that air is was driven in ?
capable of being compressed a sufficient P. No; because, unlike the air in the
proof of its porosity. tumbler, it is not elastic, otherwise it would
59. T. Why did not the water fill the resume its former dimensions.
tumbler when you plunged it below the 64. T. Are not all bodies elastic ?
surface ? P. No lead or iron may be
;
com-
P. Because, as the air was in the tum-
pressed or diminished in size, but they
bler, the water could not occupy the same cannot resume their former volume; and
space at the same time, and, therefore, the thereforewe learn, that elasticity does not
experiment also proves the IMPENETRA- always accompany compressibility.
BILITY of the air.
65. T. Then am I to understand that
60. T. What do you mean by impene-
elasticity is the power by which a body
trability r
resumes its figure or volume, after that
P. By the impenetrability of bodies is
figure or volume has been altered by the
meant, that no two particles of matter can action of any force ?
occupy the same identical portion of space P. Yes, undoubtedly, after the force
at the same moment.
that caused the alteration of the figure has
61. How can you prove this ?
T. ceased to act not otherwise, and tint
;

P. By
experiment. [Experiment 12.] power is found in solid and fluid bodies.
I have here a piece of clay, and a bullet,
which 1 will enclose within the clay. Now
it is quite
impossible to make another bullet
occupy the cavity that contains the first GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESFON V.
bullet as long as it is there. This you will 1. How do you know that all bodies have
readily understand, because it is like trying pores between their particles ?
to pour a pint of water into 2. What the result of the greater
is
a pint measure already full
proximity of the pores of bodies
?
of water. Again, if I drive 3. What is meant by the density of
a nail into a piece of wood, bodies ?
the effect is only to compress 4. Can you provethe porosity of bodies?
the wood, because it is im- 5. Ispossible for two bodies to occupy
it

possible that the wood and the same space at the same time ?
nail can be in the same 6. What do you call this natural law of
identical space at the same bodies ?

precise time. 7. How can you prove the impenetra-

62. T. Has this know- bility of bodies ?

lodge of the impenetrability 8. Hasthe knowledge of the impenetra-

of bodies been usefully em- bility of bodies been practically applied
?

? 9. Do all bodies possess the property of

ployed
P. Yes principle of the wedge
; the resuming their former volume after being
is founded upon In the above diagram
it. compressed ?
will see the explanation of the law the 10. What is this property of matter
you ;

point of the wedge has been inserted into named ?

Lesson VT.] NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 17

LESSON VI
VPITI -LATION, &c. WHEN Hallam commenced
the study of Natural Philosophy,
he learned that there were certain laws relating to bodies, called Natural Laws, which
have been in force since the creation and having stored his mind with the information
;

the gift-book of the pedlar-astrologer, having reflected upon the various

iL-d in

applications of the principles he ha.l learned, and experimentally proved the practical
use of his knowledge, he was enabled to overcome the many difficulties with which he
was surrounded. He discovered that the stones in the vicinity of his hut were fit for
building, and by means of the application of the wedge, he was enabled to separate
large masses from the parent rock. Thus, he applied the knowledge of the impenetra-
bility of bodies to a useful purpose. He read, that all bodies near the earth's surface, if

left to themselves, descend in straight lines towards that surface, and that the direc-
tions in which they fall in different places of the earth, tend nearly to the centre of it.
This is a general natural law, and is seen daily. He also learned that philosophers had
red by observation, that matter is incapable of spontaneous change, a fact of
great importance.

QUESTIONS.
CG. T. Do bodies possess the power of I
1
.
Certainly. It cannot be reduced

spontaneous action ? from a state of motion without the agency

/'. No; all bodies, when at rest, must of some force. Tims, the wheel of an en-
rfmain passive or inactive, unless influ- gine continues to move after the force
;

>y some external force. which impelled it has been arrested, and
would continue to run on for ever if the mo-
67. T. What does this prove?
tion were not constantly impeded by friction.
P. That mere matter is void of life ;

for spontaneous action is the only test of 72. T. Do you think that merhanicvil
the pretence of the living principle. or friction, are the only i

whieh moving bodies on the same

/'.Then impossible for any
it is
>!' the earth are 1:
body of itielf to commence to move from
P. No. The air <> '.icrnhlc
a slate of rest.
resistance; and no dot.
1

P. It is. A
body cannot be in a state
running fast with
of motion and rest at the same instant ; and,
;

a cloak on, that you have fc>

as I have explained before, all bod;.
speed increased, th.it the resistance of the
remain pasMve unless put in motion I

air also increased.

/'. Can you tell me the name of
this quality of mv 73. T. Can you give me a good exam-
/'. It is called INKRTIA, or i'< ple to prove tint liodii-s will continue to
when not impeded .'

'/'. Can you give me an example of /'. The

vast bodies of the universe,
1.1 ? which received motion from the Creator,
P. A stone, if left to itself, cannot pos- have continued to move with u:-< '

sibly move; but if I kick the s velocity since the time they were lai..
will continue to mote with unc! into space.
velocit .til its
course is arrested by son force.
74. T. Are organised bodies an
lion to the law nf inertia?
71. '/'. \ '
rstand, that when / n horses are
a body is
put in has not the always pass far beyond the
power to arrest its progress, and become winning-post befoi
quiescent ? and a man standing uptight
1
;
in a
IS NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. [Lesson VII.
boat or carriage will fall backwards when an unchanging speed, because of them-
the boat is suddenly pushed from the shore, selves they cannot change the i

or the carriage starts and when either of

; motion. An increase of its rate could
them stops suddenly, the man will be thrown only be the result of some applied force,
forward--. and a diminution of it must be caused l>v
some impediment.
75. T. "Why would the man be thrown
backwards when the boat or carriage
started ?
P. Because his body, by obeying the GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON VI.
law of inertia, remains where it was but ;

his feet being pulled forwards, his bo.iy

1. Can bodies move of themselves '

2. "What is the only test of the living

falls backwards.
?
principle
76. If such be the case, how docs it
T. What name has been
3. applied to pas-
happen that the man falls forward when siveness of bodies?
the carriage or boat stops? 4. What is inertia ?
P. Because his body has acquired the 5. Give me some examples of inertia.
same velocity as the boat or carriage, and G. Have bodies the power to arrest their
is impelled forward with that speed, while ?
speed
his feet remain passive. How are organised bodies affected"
7. by
77. T. Do you think that bodies can inertia ?

increase or diminish their velocity? 8. Can bodies increase or diminish their

P. Certainly not they must move with
; velocity ?

LESSON VII.

RECAPITULATION, &c. THE fact of matter being inert, and unable to pass from a
state of rest into one of motion, is important, and therefore when we see that a body
commences to move the instant we deprive it of its support, we know that it is in eon-
sequence of the force of gravity. But there are other phenomena in connexion with
gravity that require our attention the air-balloon, the falling rain, the rising smoke,
:

are all familiar illustrations of the attraction of gravitation but there is also another ;

attraction to which bodies are subject a mutual attraction. For example, [Experi-
ment 13,] place two balls of cork or wood in a basin of water, and they will be at-
tracted and come into contact with each other. If, however, two balls of wood or lead
be suspended by strings, they cannot approach each other, without moving out of
the vertical line of the earth's attraction and as their mutual attraction cannot o\
;
(

this, they remain at rest. Hallam learned all this by studying Natural Philosophy. It
was the knowledge that bodies are possessed of inertia, and the law of the attraction of
gravitation, that enabled him to apply the mountain-streams as a motive power for his
machinery ;
but this he could not have done, if he had not also learned other important
laws in Natural Philosophy, which we shall consider hereafter.

QUESTIONS.
78. TVWhat is GRAVITY? 79. T. Is this power limited to this
P. which compels bodies
It is the force action, or not ?
to fall. Thus, a stone or any other body P. No; the actions produced by its
thrown by a person, when left to itself, will influence are various; for example the
fall until it reaches the earth, or any other rising of a piece of cork from the bottom
object that impedes its progress. of a tumbler of water to the surface ; the
 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.
falling of an apple; and the direction of the lines do. If the ball c was let fill at
rivers to find their lowest level, are all the that part of the globe, it would descend in
effects of the force of gravitation. a straight line (c c) so as to form a right
ith the line a A.
80. T. How can you ascertain the di- /'. Is gravity a general property of
rection of the force of gravity ?
allbodies ?
P. Fasten a string at one extremity ().
and attach a small heavy
PS Yes ; fluids, solids, and gaseous
bodies are alike subject to its laws.
Jit (w) to the other end
of the string. The direc- 86. T.Suppose that the body is inter-
tion of the string, when it is
rupted in its descent by some other sup-
:oned and at rest, will porting body, what is the result ?
give the direction of gravity P. The action of the force of gravity

r^ v with accuracy.
(a) is
The weight
called a plummet and
the line which the string (t>)
;
does not cease but expends itself by pres-
;

sure upon the object intervening.

87. T. What is the weight of a body ?
forms in a state of equili- P. It is the amount of pressure exer-
brium, the vertical line. cised by one body upon another body on
81. T. Can you always which it rests the pressure increasing with
;

determine the direction of the number of the material particles of

9 7'
'
the body.
?
gravitation
P. Yes by means of the plummet, it
; 88. T. What
is the mass of a body'

may easily be ascertained at all times and P. quantity of matter of which

It is the
in all places. it is composed and therefore the larger
;

the quantity of matter, the greater the

82. T. Where is the force of gravity
resistance it will offer.
always directed ?
P. Towards the centre of the earth. 89. T. You have stated that gravity is
the force which compels bodies to fall. K\-
83. T. If this is the case, the direction
plain to me how it is that smoke, clouds of
of the plummet must be different in various
vapour, and air-balloons ascend, if the theory
parts of the earth. of the attraction of gravitation is cor
P. So it is ; the directions of the plum- P. These are only additional proofs of
met. at two different parts of the earth, are not the effect of gravit i

ike a certain angle

.tponr, and balloon are
lie point of which coin-
upwards solely by the force of the
cides with the central point of the earth.
spheric air through which they pass; as
r. Can you explain to me how it they are lighter than the air, they ascend,
is that bodies do not descend in parallel ami displace or thrust down portions of air
10 their volume.
.is
tbcy appear to do ?
1 have a diagram here that will ex- 90. T. This does not prove to me that
plain it very easily. Let A u c i
,

they are in!'

ofil ,iore fully

a9 CJ5 apart gravitation: expl f

,cc of P. All substan

'ih, and the atmospln irface of the
a & 6 two balls earth, v, ich that part
of lead. of the air that is not so dense and as two ;

these balls are bodies cannot occupy the same space at

left to the sail! ke, vapour, or bal-
! air equal to
1

in the ilk. The s:no',.

'I till its particles unite

\ and b and form flakes of soot,which
air, dcicrnd; n
** was POK.V
the balls to descend to the <

earth they would meet at o, the same as

20 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. [lesson VIII.

Suppose that I could remove

/'. wards, which may be easily proved by
the air-pump [Kxperimei
".osphere from the surface of the
>f

^1 i; e, while the smoke, vapour, and balloons You observe that place a small piece of
1

were suspended, what would be the result? candle with a long ignited wick, upon
P. They would fall to the ground, he- -e of the air-pump, and cover it
cause their support would be withdrawn. with the bell-glass we used in our last
experiment. The smoke from the wick
!'J. T. How can you prove this ?
ascends because the air in the glnss de-
/'.
-By an experiment. [Experiment Ik] scends and pushes it up, but when the air
:
:.ere a tall bell-glass (a), open at the is exhausted the effect will be very di.
a, bottom, which shall
-J he placed on the plate and, to illustrate it better, I will place the
-,
f,
candle upon an inverted wine-gl'iss. [Per-
A"ii~T7\ of an air-pump (/),
forms the experiment] Now you see that
K -L !i and the air it con-
the smoke falls to the bottom of the glass.
tains exhausted. You
observe that the top 93. T. Are there other kinds of at-
is closed by a brass traction ?

cap (4). which has P. Yes ; there is the attraction of

two small stages (cc) cohesion, capillary attraction, chemical
attached to its sides,
attraction, magnetic attraction, and elec
and a wire ()
pass- trical attraction.
ing through the cen-
tre, but lilted so that
will turn without
y GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON VII.
admitting the air.
The ends of the WHAT meant by gravity
^ /itstages being made to
1. is
2. Can you discover the direction of the
?

fry- 9- rest upon the lower force of gravity by any means ?

part of the wire, a piece of lead (d) is placed ;>. What is the direction of the force of
upon one, and a feather (e) upon the gravitation, and how can you determine it ?

other, or any two bodies differing in den- 4. Does the direction of the force of
sity. I will now exhaust the air, [performs gravity diiFer ?

the experiment,] and as soon as the han- 5. How is it that falling bodies do not
dle of the wire (a) is turned, the stages will descend in parallel lines ?

fall, and the lead and feather also. Ob- 6. Are all bodies subject to the laws of
serve, you see the lead and feather have gravity ?

loth reached the stage of the air-pump at 7. What

do you mean by the weight and
the same instant. I will now replace the mass of
a body ?
them and admit the air, and you will see 8. How can you account for smoke rising?
that the lead reaches the stage long before 9. What would be the result if the globe
the feather. So it is with the air; being was not surrounded by the atmosphere ''.

heavier than the smoke, it descends, and 10. How many kinds of attraction are
pushes the smoke, vapour, or balloon up- there ?

LESSON VIII.
RECAPITULATION, &c. The attraction of the earth's mass binds the atmosphere
around its producing what is termed atmospheric pressure, a force equivalent
surface,
pounds on the square inch at
to about fifteen level of the sea, but less as we ascend
',' ;

a fact we have considered before. If this pressure, or force, were not exercised, we
should not be able to remain upon the surface of the earth, but would be thrown off the
same as the dirt from the wheel of a carriage, or the water from a mop, when the
servant causes it to revolve rapidly. We have now to consider other forms of attraction,
of equal importance in their way with the attraction of gravitation.
 Lftson VIII. ]
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 21

QUESTIO
/."What is meant by the ATTRAC- it comes into contact with another
body of
TION ov CO a similar nature ?
It is that power which causes parti- P. Yes it is a law of nature, that the
;

cles of matter to stick together, or cohere ? particles of matter are attracted towards
a common centre, and therefore they ar-
T. Are all bodies kept together by
this
range themselves thus.
power ?
P. Yes ; but it is much stronger in
103. T. Can you give me a familiar
(tome bodies than in others. It is stronger, illustration of the attraction of cohesion ?
or more powerful, in solid bodies, than in P. You see that I have two pieces of
fluids, and weakest in gaseous bodies.
lend with flat and smooth surfaces.
[Ex-
periment 16.] Press the surfaces firmly
96. T. What is the effect of the influ-
together with a twist, and you will find
ence of this power ? tint it will require a considerable force to
P. That some bodies are hard, others
separate them.
tough, soft, brittle, elastic, and so on. 1K T. If a sponge is placed in a plate
/'. attraction of cohesion
Is the of water, what is the effect ?
limited to the particles of the bodies ? P. The greater part of the water is
P. No. It may exist between the drawn into the pores of the sponge by
molecules of bodies, and between bodies
capillary attraction.
themselves and in the former case is
;

d molecular, or atomic attraction. 105. T. What do you mean by capil-

lary attraction ?
98. T. Give me an example of mole- /'.It is the force by which fluids nrc
cular attraction ? r.UM-d above their levels, the attraction that
P. A piece of lump-sugar is kept to- causes hair-like tubes to raise liquids.
gether by molecular attraction, because
the atoms mutually attract each other;
106. T. How can you illustrate this ?
P. I have here a ^. which
and other bodies are operated upon in the
contains some infusion of logwood, and
tame manner, in a greater or less degree.
there is a piece of wood fitting to the
/'.
Suppose that this force was not
exercised, what would be the result ?
' a a s
P. The bodies would be without form
or figure, and the molecules would be a
confused mass.
100. T. Is actual contact necessary for
the exercise of this pro;
P. No it acts at insensible distances,
;

the particles appear to us to touch

one another; but we learn, by means of the
microscope, that they do not
101. 1 '
tint I break a stone
by a bl ninner, will the various
ilcs unite a;- /If. It.
/'.No. The attraction of cohesion has
put. which has fis :
^hs* in it.
been overcome by the force of the blow ;
ment 17.] Im;
;clcs have not sufficient mu-
in the
i
li.juid. it will rise
tual attraction to unite again, indcj
in each t:;ln-. but will vary in tin- I).
of other causes. the liquid is raised ;

/'. Can you explain to me how it will not have any great hei>
dew, or a r
> bccau*! tube is in<-
of mercury, unites and forms a sphere when tanl from the circumference than ;
 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. [Lesson IX.

,md so on until No. 5, in which the the water will be extracted from tli
fluid is raised to a considerable height it ;
by the force of capillary attraction, and fall

an established rule, that tlu- smaller into the tumbler I now place beneath.
being
ti.elube, the gre tier will be the height of
the surface of the fluid.

107. T. Give me a familiar example CLNKKAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON VIII.

of capillary attraction .' 1. What the attraction of cohesion?

is

P. [Experiment 18.] I have a basin of '1. What are its effects I

water here, and a skein of cotton. Yon 3. How can you prove the property ?

observe that one end of the cotton is im- 4. "What is capillary attraction?
mersed in the water, and if this basin is left 5. How does it act ?

sufficiently long in its place, the whole Prove that

of 6. it exists.

LESSON IX.
RECAPITULATION, &c. When a plate falls it breaks into several pieces the attrac- ;

tion of cohesion being overcome by the force of the fall and when a piece of wood ;

with a chisel, the power of cohesion is

is split

overcome by the force employed. These are

examples we may witness every day. We have
also learned that the force of gravitation
may be overcome by the force of capillary
attraction, (from capilla, the Latin for a hair),
and that fluids may be raised above their levels
by its power we proved by tubes of
;
this
different diameters being immersed in a
coloured fluid, but we can demonstrate it also
by another simple experiment, [Experiment
19.] Take two sheets of glass of the same
Fig. 11.
size, and place them in the contact at a, b,
but separate them by means of a piece of cork (c) at d, e. Immerse them in a solution
of logwood, or ink and water, contained in the trough/. It will then be found that the
fluid will ascend higher between the glasses at a, b, than at e, where it is scarcely above
the level, because the attraction is greater at a, b, than at e. You observe that the
fluid is curved from a to c ; this curve has received the name of the hyperbola. Wlu-n
we consider the other branches of science, we will enter into the phenomena attending
chemical, magnetic, and electrical attraction, which do not essentially pertain to
Natural Philosophy.

QUESTIONS.
108. r. What meant by REPULSION.
is 110. 71 What is the great agent of
J
7 . It is that power by which the par- rapulti
ticles of bodies, or the bodies themselves, P. Caloric or heat, which pervades all
are made to recede from one another. things.
109.T. Does the power of repulsion 111. T. What is caloric?
exist in all bodies ? P. It has
been called an imponderable
Yes ;
/-*. the particles of material
all body, because it does not cause any per-
substances possess the power of attraction ceptible difference in the weight of any
and repulsion. body.
 HAL PHILOSOPHY. I)

1 1 2. T. Can you give me a more definite metals are the best conductors ; then fluids,
.:' it ? and last of all, u
/'. Ills a very subtile, elastic fluid, which
US. 7'. What do you mean by the
its effects, and th
radiation of heat?
tions it
produces. It penetrates all bodies,
P. It simply means, th:tt the heat is
more or less, and exists in all bodies, but
given ofF in rays or lines.
cannot be wholly separated from them. It
in zfree, and in a latent or concealed 11!'. T. Can you give me some other
state. Its particles are peculiarities and properties relating to
supposed mutually
to repel each other, and its rays are
c ipable of reflexion and polarization, and /'. Yes but they will be more suited
;

irangiblc.
to the subjects of Chemistry and Pneu-
matics.
113. T. How do you know that heat
120. T. Although you have explained
P. Because I can detect its presence in to me that heat is the great agent of repul-
various ways for example, it' I rub a but-
;
sion, yet you have nol given me a single
ton upon my coat, it will soon become so example to prove that.
hot that it will ignite a lucifer-match and ;
ily done: [Experiment

if I hammer the end of a

piece of iron wire- 20] Take two feathers, rub a glass tube
it will become hot enough to ignite phos- about 1J inch in diameter pretty briskly
with a silk handkerchief, and then touch
phorus or gunpou
both feathers, one after the other; the lir^t
114. 7*. What is the reason that heat effect will be attraction. Now
produced
is developed by friction, and hammering em
near to each other, and the
i

the iron ?
result will be repulsion they will separate :

Because the atoms of which the themselves.

materials are composed are compressed,
and the heat which was latent or concealed
i'.AL QUESTIONS ON LESSON IX.
i* forced out, and made sensible, or
1. What name ha* been given to the
7*. What effect does heat produce
property which causes the atom* of bodies
upon bodies ?
to separate, or recede from each other 1
iifies attraction, and regulates !> all bodies?

their solidity or density.

<>*thispri
.use of its acting .'

)iunicated? Vhat is cal><:

'y conduction and radiation. >ve that it exists,

117. 7*.- What do you mean by con- hat are the sources of heat?
.it illict docs it produce upon
Vhrn the heat passes from atom to
atom slowly along a body, it is con hr.it cominunic
end of a small
i action
thus, i: ! .< i

ami r.ulia'.ion of heat?

a can-
die, the heat will soon be conducted or
t

xamples of the repulsion of

'

bodies.

[Tli* pupil should gire other example! than

i' ba --hut Mill the heat is
m ihe
o lmiUr bodies, like wood, to
reason of this that
is, prove that heat is latent, *c. ftc.J

LESSON X.
rm LATIOX, &c. WEhave learned that heat possesses remarkable properties ;

and although it is
unequally distributed over the sui t has a con-

y to preserve , .-,> in all fixations. When we know mote

24 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. [Lesson X-

respecting heat, we shall be able to understand how the heat-measurer or thermometer is

constructed, and in what manner it acts, and many other phenomena connected with it.
ll:ill:un observed, that when all the forces acting upon a body counteracted each other,
it remained in a state of equilibrium, or was balanced; and having gained a knowledge
of the properties of matter, he applied it to the study of the laws of motion and forces.

QUESTIONS.
121. T. What is MOTION ? siderable force, its velocity will be aug-
P. It is the very reverse of rest, and mented.
means the change of place, which may be 127. T. What do you mean by velocity?
uniform or variable, according to its rate P. It is the degree of speed that bodies
or relative velocity.
possess, which is increased by the space or
122. T. What do you mean by rest; distance passed over.
because it appears a direct contradiction 128. T. But does not this speed vary ?
to the laws ot nature ?
P. Unless any impediment is presented
P. There no such thing as absolute
is
to moving bodies their velocity is uniform,
rest, because the earth upon which we stand
and their speed is calculated by the time
isalways in a state of motion, therefore the
term is only relative, and not positive. they take to pass over a given distance or
space. Thus, any body that takes thirty
123. T. What do you mean, by saying seconds to pass over sixty feet, is said to
that rest is only relative ?
possess a velocity of two feet per second.
P. If I let a stone fall from my hand,
the same place and in
129. T. Is motion always uniform ?
it will remain in

the same position where it fell, until re-

P. No ; it may be retarded or accele-
rated.
moved by some applied force and, there- ;

fore, we say it is now at rest, but we mean 130. T. Explain these terms.
to say that it is at rest only as regards the P. If it decreases gradually, it is said
earth, because we know that there is no to be retarded if it increases, it is accele-
;

such thing as absolute rest in creation. rated, and the force that governs or regu-
The earth, the planets, and the sun move ;
lates this, is called the retarding or accele-
in fact, all creation moves. rating force.
124. T. Which is more natural, for a 131. T. How are forces distinguished ?
body to be in a state of rest or motion ? P. They are called instantaneous or coa-
P. Rest, of course because bodies
; tinued forces.
must be arrested in their progress by
132. T. What is the difference ?
atmospheric pressure, friction, the attrac- P. An
instantaneous force is an im-
tion of the earth, or their own gravity.
pulse ; sudden, like a blow, but a
it is
1 25. What causes motion ?
T. continued force has always the same degree
P. causes are various, but it is cer-
Its of power, and is called a constant force
tain that all bodies must continue at rest when it has no intermission.
unless acted upon by some force or forces
-ed upon them. In the animal
133. T. Can forces vary
T. Yes of course they vary when the
economy it is produced by a principle of
;

power is not constant, or when there is

life, which we do not quite understand;
intermission.
inanimate bodies are put in motion or
arrested by certain forces or powers. 134. T. What is meant by absolute
motion ?
126. T. Is motion variable or constant ?
P. It is variable, and must ever be so,
P. When any body moves towards an-
other body at rest, or passes it, or moves
although its degree of velocity is in accord- from one point of space to another, it is
ance with the force applied. Thus, if I
influenced by absolute motion.
push a cart with one hand, it will move
slowly with two hands faster, but if six or
;
135. T. What do you mean by relative
seven men all push at once, and with con- motion ?
Lesson XI.] NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.
P. It is the motion of one body con- momentum. If the velocity of a cannon
sidered in relation to that of another body ; ball, weighing 30 Ibs., be 1,800
thin suppose I roll two balls, one of wood
:
second, its momentum will be 54,000.
and the other of lead, along a table, and 139. T.
>th move in the same direction, the
Suppose that I let a bullet,
ice between their motions is the
weighing an ounce, fall at the same mo-
mentwiih a thin sheet of lead, weighing an
relative motion.
ounce, which will reach the ground sooner ?
136. If I let a bullet fall at the same
T. P. The bullet because the resistance
;

moment as cork, but of the same s of the atmosphere impedes the descent of
there be any great difference in the descent the sheet
of tlv
/'. Yes ; because it will depend upon
the momentum. GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON* X.
T. What do you mean by the 1. What is meant by motion and rest ?
momentum ?
2. accordance with the esta-
Is rest in
P. the raotal force of a body. All
It is
blished laws of Nature f
whether light or heavy, may move
.

3. What is meant
with the same speed, but the momentum
by the terms absolute
and relative rest?
of a body being proportionate to its in iss
4. Is it more natural for bodies to be in
and velocity, it is very evident that the a state of rest or motion ?
difference will be relative.
5. What are the causes of motion?
138. T. How can you estimate the 6. Is motion constant or not ?
momentum of a b< 7. What is the difference between the
/'. If you multiply the weight of a body velocity and momentum of a body .'

by the number of feet it passes through or 8. How can you estimate the momentum
over in a second, the produce will be the of a body .'

LESSON XL
rnt LATION, &c. HALLAW
found that the velocity of every filling body is uni-
formly increased as it approaches the earth, no matter from what height it falls; th.it
i<, without taking into account atmospheric resistance.
Experiment determined his
observations, for he found that the motion of falling bodies is increased in regular arith-
metical progression, and, by computation, he was enabled to ascertain the s;>nce follrn
through in a given time. Thus he found that a dense or compact body passed through
a space inch during the first second of time that it was descending towards the
1

earth; and, in order to ascertain the time a body occupied in falling, he multiplied the
square of that number by 16, and the result was, the number of feet the body hid fallen*
For example, he observed that a stone occupied 6 seconds in falling from a certain height,
and he took the square (the number multiplied by itself) of 6, which IB .

multiplying 36 by 16, the result was 576, or the number of feet fallen. In making these
calculations, he omitted the odd inch, because it is near enough for all practical purposes :

and he knew that even the best calculation would only be an approximation of the actual
distance, in consequence of the gravity of bodies, a fact he had learned by experi-
ment [Sec Experiment 14].

QUI . &c.
ll'>. T '-'' '
do you mean by the the influence of gravitation in, as it were,
con and upon which a bod.
P. It is that point in all bodies at which rest if it be freely suspended it is;
 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. [Lesson XI.

quently the central point of parallel and necessary to the equilibrium of any body
is, that the centre of gravity should be
equal forces.
141. T. If a body is not suspended with suppn:
clue regard to the centre of gravity, what 146. T. How will you find the centre of
will be the result? gravity of an irregular
P. It will move until it settles in a po- tigure ?
sition in which the centre of gravity cannot P. Very easily or ;

fall lower. that of any body. If

142. T, What is the use of finding out you suspend the body at
a point a, (Fig. 13,) the
the centre of gravity ?
direction of the string
P. When we know the weight of bodies
and their centre of gravity, we can substi- supporting it will pass
tute the weight for all the forces acting
through the lower part
of the body at l>, and
upon the body, and a single point (the therefore it is very evi-
centre of gravity), for the collective points
dent the centre of gra-
forming the body. vity is in the direction
143. T. Have all solid bodies a centre of the line a b. Again,
of gravity ? suppose we suspend the
P. Yes the centre of gravity is sure
; same body at the point
to be in the centre of all round, square, and d (Fig. 14), the centre
regular bodies of the same density and ; of gravity is still in the
no mattr what form a body has, it is sure Fig. 13. direction of the sus-
to have a centre of gravity. In irregular pending string de, and therefore the ci litre
bodies it is situated at that point which of gravity lies where the two lines a b and
will place the body in a state of equilibrium d e cross one another at c. Although it
when fixed or suspended from it. iseasy to determine the centre of gravity
144. T. Can I stand an egg, or place of some bodies of regular form and uniform
it in a state of equilibrium, upon its narrow density by geometric principles, yet there
end?
P. Not without following the example
of Columbus. Because, if there is not any-
thing to support
the egg, it will as-
sume such a posi-
tion, that a line
drawn the from
centre of gravity
to the point below,
where the body
Fig. 12. comes in contact
with the surface, will be the shortest that
can be drawn from the centre to any other
If you observe this Fig, 14.
part of its superficies.
diagram carefully, you will see that the egg are certain bodies in which it is difficult to
could not remain in the position it is in ascertain the line of direction exactly.
the figure; it would roll over, and instead 147. T. What do you mean by the line
of the line a c being perpendicular to the of direction?
line d t, it would be the line c b.
P. It is the imaginary line drawn from

145. T. If the centre of gravity of a the centre of gravity of a body toward the
itself will centre of the earth therefore it is evident
body be a fixed point, the body ;

always be in a state of equilibrium,

no that, if the line of direction fall within the
matter how we turn or place it. Is this base of any body, it will stand if not, the ;

so? body will fall over, or, what is generally

P._Yes; the only thing that is actually termed, over-balance itself.
Imim XII. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 27

T. Where is the centre of gravity P, No ; because in a circle or ;

light line? is in the centre of the circle, and in a drum

In the centre of the line, so that it
I'. it is in the axis of the drum.
will be maintained in a state of equilibrium ? [The pupil should give some other illustra-
tion* of the situation of the centre of ^
T. How would you find the centre such as coaches heavily laden upsetting:
of gravity of attitudes of men and women dancing upon
a the tight-rope, tendency of trees to grow in
homogeneous a direction perpendicular to their base, &c.]
triangle ?
P. By draw- l~>\. T. If I attempt to stand upon one
d fall down, is it because I cannot
ing straight
lines from two keep the centre of gravity ?
of its angles to P. Yes; the equilibrium is not pre-
bisect the op- served, and therefore you fall over.
posite sides, and
the point of in- HAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON XI.
tersection, d, of 1. What is the centre of gravity ?
these two lines,
is the centre of gravity. hy do bodies fall down when in-
Thus, the point one side ?
o
e is the centre of gravity of the line b, c,
... Have all bodies a centre of gravity ?
and any line drawn parallel to 6 c in the
4. How can you find the centre of
triangle must be bisected or divided by of a body ?
the line a e, which proves that the cen-
5. Give some examples of the direction
tre of gravity lies upon the line a, e, as re-
of the centre of gravity >
gards all lines parallel to be, and, by the 6. Are the animal and
tame reasoning it would lie in the line a b. vegetable king-
doms subject to its 1..
T.ls the centre of grav:' ive some examples of other bodies

body always in its substance ? being affected by it.

LESSON XII.

"RECAPITULATION, &c. IK Hallam had not known anything about the centre of gravity,
it is possible that he might have built his house in such a position tint it would have

fallen down, or he might have overloaded his waggons, and then there would have been
a probability of 'their upsetting when they ran over any urn-ven Around. The only
requirement for the equilibrium of any solid body is, that its centre of gravity should
be supported, which may be done in various ways. body attached to an axis may A
cither be in a state of stable, unstable, or iiuiii! lihrium, according to
whether the centre of gravity is below, above, or within the axis.

QUESTION&
152. T. What do you mean by the term, the line of direction falls outside its base,
stable <
it is said to be in a state of unst<il>i>

d from brium, because it must fall. When a man

its position by very *i. ,uid re- carries a weight he must change his posi-
covers its former state, the equilibrium is -ht and the rnan-
aid to be .
. otherwise t
1

unstable equili: of the

a body is in such a ( body and the load would be beyo;
that it may easily be disturbed, .v base, and he would fall. For iiut..
able to recover its former state, because he carries a bale of cloth, or any load upon
28 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. [Lesson XII.

his back (Fig. 1(5) he must bend lor ward ; 157. T. You havenot explained to \\\<*
and if he carries a load in his left hand how it is that the pendulum swings to and
fro.
P. When the ball of the pendulum is
raised to a height upon one side am!
liberty, it has a tendency to fall to the
ground by the force of gravity, but being
confined by the rod it makes a sweep to
the point of rest, and having acquired a
certain degree of velocity it sweeps on
until it ascends on the other side to nearly
the same height as that from which it was
set free. Its weight again draws it down,
and its velocity raises it to nearly the
same height as the point from which it
originally fell, and thus it continues to
swing to and fro until the force of gravity
overcomes the propelling force, and it
ultimately settles in a state of rest in its

original position.
Fig. 18. Fig
158. T. Then it appears that each sweep
(Fig. 17), he must bend the upper part of of the pendulum decreases the length of
his body to the right.
the arc. What is the reason ?
154. T. What do you mean by in- P. The resistance of the atmosphere,
different equilibrium ? and the friction at its axis or point of
P. When any body is balanced in all
suspension.
it is of indifferent
in a state
positions 159. T. What is the length of the arc
equilibrium. For example, when the wheel
traversed by the fall of a pendulum ?
of a carriage is raised from the ground to P. It is impossible to fix any certain
wash it, we have a body in a state of in-
length, because it will depend upon the
different equilibrium, upon a fixed axis.
force exercised in setting the pendulum
The common balance is an excellent ex-
when both scale-pans
free it
; may be made to traverse any
ample of this state,
number of degrees under 180, which is
are of equal weight.
half a circle but generally the extent of
;

]')">. T. We
try an experiment
will the arc is from ten to twenty degrees.
[Experiment 21]. I have here a bullet Does the length of the rod by
with a hole in it, through which a string 160. T.
which the weight is suspended make any
passes, and you will see that when
the
difference in the oscillations of the pen-
bullet is drawn out of the perpendicular
and let go, that it will swing backwards dulum ?

and forwards. [Performs the experiment.] P. Yes ; the one with a long rod
vibrates or oscillates slower than the one
You observe that it swings or oscillates, as
and in doing so describes with a short rod, and here we have a mo-
it is termed,
tion analogous to that of falling bodies?
a segment of a circle, which is called its
arc. Can you tell me what is the cause 161. T. Why is the vibration analogous
of this? to the falling of bodies ?
P. Gravity, which causes bodies to fall.
P. Because we have learned (see Les-
15(5. 7\ What is the name applied to a son XI.) that the motion of falling bodies
rod of iron with a weight at the lower part, is increased in regular arithmetical pro-

like my bullet and string? gression; and, in the case of the pendulum,
P. A pendulum which hangs perpen-
;
their lengths are as the squares of the

dicularly when at rest. The uppermost times of vibration. Thus, if the times
part is called the axis or point
of suspen- occupied by one vibration of two pendulums
sion, and the part where the ball is placed
be 2 and 3 respectively, their lengths will
is called the point of rest be as 4 and 9.
 Lesson XIII. 1 N VI IKAL PHILOSOPHY. 29
T. What is the use of a pendulum
to a c! GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON XII.
/'.On account of uniform vibration
its
1. How many kinds of
equilibrium are
otion, for without it the and how are they distinguished
there, ?
wheels would go very irregularly. 2. What a pendulum
is .'

T. As pendulums are required 3. "Wh.it causes its oscillation?

-
only sixty times in a minute, 4. Why does the
ite
sweep of a pendulum,
. neither slower or quicker ; how is left to itself, decrease in length each time ?

Managed ? hy does the length of the rod affect

P. By adjustment of the length. the vibrations of the pendulum ?

LESSON XIII.

RECAPITULATION, &c. IT is quite as natural for a body to be in a state of motion

as rest, according to the laws of Natural Philosophy, because it has been shown thnt
is passive, and must therefore be influenced by some external force to make it

change its condition from a state of rest to that of motion, or vice versa. Sir Isaac
i laid down three propositions, which have been called the " laws of motion."
They are as follow :

1st " Every body must persevere in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a
straight line, unless it be compelled to change that state by forces impressed upon it."
"
2nd. Every change of motion must be proportional to the impressed force, and
mutt be in the direction of that straight line in which the force is impressed."
" Action must
3rd. always be equal to and contrary to reaction or the actions of ;

two bodies upon each other must be equal, and directed towards contrary sides."
.1 he our duty to consider these laws, and examine the phenomena they

present We have already found that bodies cannot possibly continue in a state
of motion for any length of time upon or near the earth for the attraction of ;

gravitation, atmospheric resistance, and friction, would operate so powerfully, that the
bodies would be arrested in their course. It is therefore evident, that permanency or

uniformity of motion can only be fully demonstrated by the heavenly bodies, which
have continued to move, with uniform force, since the time the Creator launched them
into space.

QUI
164. Suppose that there are two
r. n ply that a
single
equal forces acting upon one point from force would produce the same cil<

oppOM .-, what is the result .'

-this single force called?

l>ody acted upon will
/'. The rctultant or rywjeW, <.'
in a state- of equilibrium. *
! \vlicn a ship is impelled by tho
\.r.nj .

two forces act in the <d action of the stream. rml<i

same direction, what in wind, it will move in a d
P. i ill he equal hut if the actions of those force* v

to that of a double load, and so on for cease, the ship would he in.-.
every additi< loving n ;.

:<-h as a rope, which

ami tl,. iev can only rcction a*

produce one motion in ouc definite dircc- -1

hy the three forces ; const';
 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. [Lesson XIII
the single force (the rope) would be the reach e in another second. Therefore it
resultant of the three forces. is certain, that if the two forces acted at

167. T. How can you explain the same instant, that the ball would reach
the
action offerees ? the point e, and the single force that
would produce the same Jesuit, if applied
P. By means of diagrams. Thus, the
various lines are made to represent in the direction of the line a e, in the re-
the
sultant.
quantity or intensity of the forces, the
eilbcts produced, and the directions in 171. T. What is meant by the com-
which they act.
position of forces ?
168. T. When several forces act in P. It is the process of finding a single
concert upon a given point, what are they force that is equivalent to two or more
termed? forces.
P. The system of forces. If, however,
we speak of them in reference to the
172. 2'. What is the resolution of
forces ?
equivalent or resultant force, they are then
termed latent or component forces.
P. It is the process by which we can
find forces that will produce a motion
169. T. How can you determine the equal to that of a single force.
resultant of forces ?
P. When two or more forces act in the 173. T. Give me an example of this.
same P. Let ^/represent a boat,/ithe rope
direction, their resultant is the sum
of the separate forces but if they act in
;
by which it is drawn along, and also the
opposite directions upon one point, their
resultant is equal to the difference of the
two, and the line of action is in the direc-
tion of the greater force.

170. T. Suppose that two forces act

upon one point, and make an angle with
each other, how will you find the resultant Fiy. 19.

of them ? force of draught. It may then be assumed

P. By means of the law called the
parallelogram of forces, which is explained
by this diagram. Suppose that a ball is
placed at the point a, and two forces are
Fiy. IS.
acting upon it at the same moment, the
one in the direction a f, the other in the
direction a d. Now let us take it for
granted that the one force will move the
ball of itself in a second from the point a to
b, while the other force will only move it from
a to c in the same space of time. It is, there-
fore, very evident that the same result would
ensue, as if one force acted upon the ball
in the direction of the line a c, because if
in one second the ball would !>< impelled
as far as a b, and then the action of ihe
force cease, and the ball only subjected to
the action of the second force, it would
that there are two forces acting, /#, which
draws the boat forward, and f //, which
would draw the head in the direction f h
were it not counteracted by the helm e d,
which is parallel to the line/z. When the
boat is moving the resistance of the water
acts upon the helm, which may be explained
thus. If c a represents the resistance, it
may be resolved into a d and e c. Now, as
a d produces no effect upon the helm, it is
evident that the pressure is in the line e c t
which tends to turn the stern of the boat in
the direction b c k, and thus counteracts
the force f h.
174. T. How can you prove the correct-
ness of the law of the parallelogram of
forces ?
P. By experiment. For example, sup-
pose that we have three forces, each equal,
and opposed to the resultant of the oilier
two, a state of equilibrium will be the re-
sult. You observe that I have two \
pieces of wood attached to the table, and
that each of them has a movcable slide, to
which apv.lley, that turns easily upon its axis
Lesson XIV.] NA'ITRAL PHILOSOPHY.
in a vertical plane, is attached. Let the ver- the angle a b c measure 75, and a 2, b=
tical planes of both pulleys coincide, then and b c =
3 (the length being given), then
pass a line having a weight (a) at one d the diagonal
end, and another weight (c) at the other ; = 4. To
now suspend a weight (b) at any point prove this,
if we attach
a four ounce
weight 19
we
the line,
shall find
that the an-
gle p o q
measures
75. From
this
ap- it

pears that
the greater
the weight
at o the less
will be the

(o) between the pulleys, the whole will be angle p o q, and the less the weight the
in a state of equilibrium in any definite greater the angle.
position of the lines. There arc three
forces acting upon the point o, in the GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON XIII.
directions o p, o q, and o r, and we 1. How do you define force?
may ascertain the resultant by construc-
'2. What are the laws of motion laid
tion.
down by Sir Isaac Newton ?

r. Will vou explain this more 3. NY hat is the resultant 7

4. What is meant by the diagonal of the

P. Suppose that the weight a was equal
ml c. to 3 ounces, the force or hat is the parallelogram of forces ?
u'ht at b requisite to produce an Prove the correctness of the law of the
6.

angle of 76 must be four ounces. Let parallelogram of forces.

LESSON XIV.
RECAPITULATION, &c. THE laws of equilibrium in all simple machines are <i
from the knowledge of the parallelogram of forces for example, the inclined plane, ;

the screw, the wedge, the pulley, and the lever. We have now to consider the motions
produced by gravity, where the directions of the force of gravitation in various points
longer parallel. Bodies have a tendency to proceed in a straight line when Hying
we may see every day and this property is termed the centri-
>
;

fugal or centre flying force.

QUESTIONS.
Vhat rr.NTKIFirOAL FORCE?
is r. Is the earth subject to this
/' It in that force which causes all force ?
bodies to fly ofTfrom t: /'.
Certainly. Win-never tin re is rota-
hould pir. example of
pupil nnd a fixed axi*. And the separate
fug.l force, tuch a, tbr trundling of A mnii, 'g from
tht whirling of lirg with a tone in this axis in any way, this force must
it. I
32 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. [Lesson XIV.

178. r. Does the centrifugal fon-t- \ .u y 179. T. Can you give me any other
with the distance from the earth's axis ? examples of centrifugal force overcoming
P. Yes all the different points of the
; the force of gravity ?

earth are not equidistant from the axis of

P. A at a circus, when stand-
horseman
rotation, and this force is greatest at the
ing upon the horse which is running round
equator, and diminishes as it approaches the ring, inclines his body inwards, and
the poles, acting against gravity, and
when the horse is going round at full speed,
lessening its intensity. This apparatus
will how it is that
any one may see both rider and horse
(Fig. 22) explain influenced by this force.

180. T. Why
does the horseman incline
his body inwards ?
P. To counteract the centrifugal force.

181. T. If this force impels bodies out-

wards, how do you account for bodies
inclining towards the centre when going
round a circle?
P. Because there is another force acting,
called the centripetal, or centre-seeking force,
which draws them towards the centre, so
that all bodies moving in circles are acted
upon by both forces.

Fig 22. 182. T. What is the axis of a body ?

P. The real or imaginary line round
the earth is flattened at the poles. You which a body rotates.
observe there are two discs, which re-
volve horizontally. When the handle 183. T. The other matters in connec-
m Is turned it
conveys the motion of the tion with Natural Philosophy must be left
larger disc by means of the string d to the for another occasion.
lesser disc, which has the vertical axis c
fixed in its centre. A spring a b, is fas-
tened by its lower end to the axis, and the
can be moved GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON XIV.
upper part up and down,
and when the machine is at rest it forms a 1. What centrifugal force 1
is

spherical figure, but assumes an elliptical 2. How does it act ?

figure when the axis revolves rapidly, owing 3. Prove its existence.
to the centrifugal force
acting upon those 4. What is centripetal force ?
points most remote from the axis. 5. What does a body rotate upon ?

W. EGL1NUTO.S-, :.r.T, LONDON,

IL-NATU1UL HISTORY.

imODUCTOBI NARRATIVE.

LESSON I.

THE celebrated Carl Von Linne", or Linnaeus,

was born 21th May, 1707, at Kashult, in the
parish of Stemlrohult, in the province of Sma-
land, Sweden. His fat In r, Nils I.iim;t ;.

descended from a humble peasant; but after

struggling with polity, and overcoming many
difficulties, obtained the ofliee of cu:

"hull, and resided in a beautiful

.spot
upon the borders of a lake,surrounded liy
woods, hills, and valley-
Of botany, einj.lnyod all his leisure hours in

ting his garden, wluci.

Si INTRODUCTORY NARRATIVE. [lesson I.

rare and foreign plants. Here the young Carl followed his father as soon as ho
could walk, so that, as one of his pupils has remarked, "from the very time that lie first
left his cradle, he almost lived in his father's garden." There cannot he a doubt that
his eariy acquaintance with the beauties of nature laid the foundation for the study of
those sciences which he afterwards so greatly adorned. His own relation of the manner
in which his first lessons in botany were given, are worthy of notice. When about four
years old, he went to a feast at Mokler with his father and, as the evening was fine,
;

the young Carl was seated upon a flowery bank with many of the guests, listening to
the eloquent and instructive remarks of the curate upon the various plants around
them. His curiosity was awakened; hut one so young could only ask questions, the
answers to which were speedily forgotten, especially the names of the plants. As he
grew remember names was a source of constant annoyance to
older, his inaptitude to
his father; but,by perseverance and practice, he overcame the defect. When Linmmis
was seven years old, he was placed under the private charge of John Tiliander, and two
years afterwards, was sent to school at Wexio, being intended for the church and ;

here, and at the gymnasium of the same place, he remained until nearly eighteen,
without making much progress in languages, literature, or the studies his father
desired, although he eclipsed most of his schoolfellows in physical and mathematical
science. All his leisure hours were devoted to the study of botany; and his library,
consisting of a few books, showing a decided taste for that science, his fellow-students
dubbed him the "little botanist." The father was so disgusted with his son's distaste
for that he determined to bind him apprentice to a shoemaker, or
clerical studies,

tailor,but was fortunately prevented by the kind offer of Dr. Rothmann, a provincial
physician, who proposed to receive the young Linnaeus into his own house, and instruct
him in medical literature. This offer was not without its service, for we find that he
made considerable progress in physiology and botany, and therefore, the following year,
was sent to the university of Lund, with the following introductory certificate from the
" Youth at school
head master of the gymnasium :
may be compared to shrubs in a
garden, which will sometimes, though rarely, elude all the care of the gardener, but if
transplanted into a different soil, may become fruitful trees. With this view, therefore,
and no other, the bearer is sent to the university, where it is possible he may meet with
a climate propitious to his progress." An old tutor and friend suppressed this
extraordinary document, and introduced him as his private pupil.
At Lund, he lodged in the house of Dr. Stobaeus, physician to the king, and
professor of medicine, who soon became aware of his acquirements,
and was delighted
to find he possessed such a knowledge of botany. This excellent man allowed Linnaeus
free access to his library and collection of shells, minerals, birds, and plants instructed
;

him how to form a hortus siccus, and first turned the attention of Linnaeus to other
branches of Natural History. Next year he repaired to the University of Upsala, with
only eight pounds in his pocket, which was all the money his parents could give him;
and after a short time was reduced to such a state, that he was often obliged to trust to
chance for a meal, and mend his shoes with folded paper instead of sending them to a
cobbler.
Linnaeus, notwithstanding all these difficulties and privations, studied early and late,
and soon attracted the attention of Professor Rudbeck and Dr. Celsius; and the latter,
requiring an assistant, received him into his own house. It was here that he contracted

a friendship with the celebrated ichthyologist, Artedi, and composed his Spolia Hotanica,
 X J INTRODUCTORY NARRATIVE. 35

which wan never published. Soon after this, he drew up a sketch of his system of
botany, and submitted it to Dr. Celsius, who showed it to Professor Rudbeck. The
latter was so pleased with it, that he appointed him tutor to his children, and eventually

employed him as his assistant in lecturing.* He lectured publicly, improved the

garden, gave botanical excursions in the vicinity of Upsala, and commenced several
of his works.
fame was now established, and the Royal Academy entrusted him with the care
of the scientific expedition to Lapland, which started on the 13th of May, 1732,
Linnaeus being only twenty-five years of age. In this expedition he encountered many
hard-hips and dangers, travelled over the greater part of Lapland, and, skirting the
borders of Norway, returned to Upsala by the Gulf of Bothnia, having travelled more
than 4.000 miles. He arranged the plants, and other natural productions collected
during the journey, and lectured publicly upon the result of the expedition. In 1736
.ted England, afterwards repaired to Holland, where he remained some time,
:
Stockholm, where he took up his residence
sited Paris, and, in 1739, returned to
as a physician, having married the daughter of Dr. Moreus. In 1741, he was appointed

professor of medicine at Upsala, and by a private arrangement with Dr. Rosen,

^or of botany, he effected an exchange, receiving the superintendence of the
Botanic Garden, and charge of the Natural History department. In 1758, he was
created a knight of the order of the Polar Star, by King Frederic Adolphus of Sweden,
was admitted member of most of the scientific societies of Kurope ; and, in 176*1, having
received letters of nobility from the king, his name was changed to Von Linne*. His
various appointments and an excellent practice placed him in affluent circumstances,
and he therefore purchased the villa of llarmanby, about a league from Up-ala, where
he spent the last fifteen years of his life, and died on the 10th of January, 1778, in the
seventy-first year of his age. He was buried at Upsala, near the main door of the
cathedral, with his wife by his side, under a stone, without tun Ins name upon it; but
at a short distance from the grave there is a bust of the great naturalist, in ultu rclitvo, on
black marble, with the following inscription engraved on a tablet of Swedish porphyn :

BOTANICORUM PRINCIPE,
AMICI ET DISCIPULI.
M.DCC.XCV1II.

memory was most comprehensive, seizing upon the useful, and rejecting the
" In
i; and his love of order most remarkable. winter," he tells us in !;:
"he si lie to six; in summer, from ten to three," and that, as soon as he

felt tired, he ceased to study. He noted everything in its

proper place immediately,
As a teacher, he was kind, made himself easily understood,
and never f.nled to interest his pupil* in the subject under eonsideratinn. He was
frugal in hi living, and very t
iiuught much, read slowly, and was most devout.
OR \ MI has given his pupils this sketch of the life of one of tht
most celebrated naturalists, because it in instructive both to the young and more aged:

him the ; latter to repair l!n ir

misspent time,
by studying the great kingdoms of nature around
i niitr t " w, -
I .
Variant's TrcaUtt on Ikt Suet of PtanU, which he
read * short tune before it* ilmw up hi* kttch.
,36 NATURAL HISTORY. [Lesson 1.

It was Linnaeus who first practically pointed outthe necessity and utility of studying
natural history by some system, and to him we are indebted for the fir-t I'IMNCITLES OF
CLASSIFICATION.

NATURAL HISTORY.
QUESTIONS AND EXPLANATIONS.
1. T. WHAT
is Natural History ? 8- Is there more than one
T.
system ?
P. the study of Nature in all her
It is P" Yes; there is a natural and an arti-
departments, treating of, and examining ficial system, and various naturalists have
abstractedly, each of the properties of all established systems of their own.
moveable and extended bodies, animate
or inanimate, and having for its object
9. 7'. What is meant by a natural
the special application of the laws recog- system ?

nised by the various branches of GeneraJ

P- A classification and arrangement of
the objects in nature, based on certain
Physics to the numerous and different fundamental principles, which, so far as the
beings which exist, in order to explain the laws of Nature are known, are found to be
phenomena they each present in their sin-
general throughout all her productions.
gle characters and relation to each other,
to the proximate objects among which they 10. T. What, then, is an artificial sys-
are found, and to nature generally. tem ?

2. T. What
a naturalist ?
is
P. A method established to elucidate
P. A who
studies nature, espe- the resemblances^ which one species bears
person
to others in all their varied and complex
cially the three great kingdoms.
relations, directing us to the precise point
3. T. What do you mean by the three
upon which we require information.
great kingdoms ? 1

P. The animal, vegetable, and mineral 11. I . What are the uses of these
kingdoms. systems ?

P. The
natural system depends upon
4. T. Does not Natural History in-
clude natural objects existing in space?
all
the artificial. Thus, we turn to the latter
to arrive at a fact but if we desire to know
P. Yes but as the subject would be
;
;

how that fact bears upon other facts, we

too extensive, it has "been divested of
turn to the former.
such sciences as astronomy, meteorology,
geology, and metallurgy, &c., that pro- 12. T. You have made use of the terms
perly belong to it. and is now generally
nature and natural very often will you ;

understood to signify only the three great explain their meaning?

kingdoms. P- NATURE is used to denote the laws
5. T. How have these divisions in which govern the beings that surround us
Natural History been accomplished ? in the works of creation nature is em- ;

P. By learned
observing, men com- ployed to denote the peculiarity of a body
thus it is the NATURE of some bodies to
paring, and classifying the bodies that
surround them. burn others; to become converted into
;

vapour, &c. and nature may be intended

;

6'. T. What is the use of classifying

to convey to the mind that such bodies are
objects? not altered by art or civilization, that they
P. To establish systems or methods.
are, in fact, in a state of nature. Natural
7. T. What do you mean by a system? may be applied to express to another that
P. A sjstem is a great catalogue, in such a body is not artificial or made by
which all objects have their appointed human agency it may be used to particu-
;

place, distinguished by known names, dis- larize certain qualities in an object thus, ;

tinctive characters, and relation*. it it natural for a do>* to krk, and walk
Lesson II. ] ttAL HISTORY. 37

'o w.ilk of that science is termed a

botanist, or one
upon four legs, r.i.-
upon
who studies the vegetable kin-
U. /'. -A :i division of
17. T. What is the study of earths, tall*,
objects that surround &c.. termed .'

P. Into the organic and inorganic P. MINERALOGY; because it tenches

kingdoms. the properties, composition, and relations
/'.What chss of objects belongs to of mineral bodies, and the art of de-
the ur^nn c kin^t. set ibing and distinguishing them; the
/'.Animals and vegetables of every student of this branch of Natural History
kind. is termed a minrrafogitt.

1 \. T. What class belongs to the in-

(ilNKRAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON I.
organ
P. every kim; -trute of the 1. Natural History
\Vhat is ?

viulprinci-.M--. or i.fe; Mich as anh-, mine-

<
J. How is Natural History divided?
3. Mow do you define the three great
v

rals, >alls.

/'.What is the study of the animal

kingdoms ot Natural History ?
Ijtttaii and its ue
I

\V if ,, |
1 :i ?

kii.gdo 5. How in are there ?

/'. / from two Greek words,
ii. What is the difference between the
a discourse upon life ; and the
iiitf
na'ural and artificial -\s.em .'

who studies the science is called a 1) fine the terms nature and natural.
7.
zoologist, or observer of life.
8. How is the realm of Nature divi.icd ?

1 ,;. r._What is the study of vegetables 9. Give the definition of the terms 20-
tern.' .
>t
any, and mineralogy.
/'. rrom a Greek word, which
i
in. \Vh.,t do you mean by a zoologist,
means an herb or grass ; and the student botanist, or mineralogist .'

LESSON II.

IT is absolutely neces?arv for us to have names and places

for animals, vegetables,

and minerals, the same as for the \arious articles in an ironmonger's shop.

means we are enabled U) another

By this
and by the wliole of m ;

the animal kingdn nt group*, we can, l>y paying attention

to the peculiarities of nn in ividual, at once assign a proper place for it and the same ;

applies to the v. mine;al kingdoms.

.
It has been found desirable, in
1

studying Natural li with the highest and descend to the

divisions or groups, which are nine in nnmlii 1. Kin-d,m
-
: 2. Sub-kingdom; ;

8. Clns Subfamily; S. Genus or kind ; 9. Sub-

\i> intends to follow the system laid do\\n l>y r, (

because it is >
cm, although excellent and prac-
^

of the most essential parts for we find animals grouped ;

together, which d. us systems and general anatomy.

QUKST10NS.
18. '
iiy a Kis<.- P. Three grand one tlir animal, the :

vegetable, nnd tlic mineral kingdoms.

P. It is a grand or "ion of
;

20. T. What is meant by a SUB-

nature. <>M t

my divisions are there? /'. It in a nnm.uy division of a king-

 NATURAL HISTORY. [Lesson III.

dotn. Thus, the animal kingdom has tour 28. T. Isthere not another division
sub-kingdoms, each of which includes all which naturalists notice ?
animals possessing certain peculiarities, P. Yes, varieties. These are generally
which will be noticed as we proceed. the result of accident, such as food, si-
tuation, or malformation, and do not per-
21. T. What is a CLASS?
sub- petuate their peculiarities.
P. It is the first division of a
[The pupil should be required to give some
kingdom. examples of the causes of varieties, such as
unusual heat or cold, scarcity of food, &c.]
22. T. What is an ORDER ?
P. A division in eluding several families. 29. T. You have now learned that
there are certain points for the practical
23. T. What is a TRIBE ?
naturalist to attend to and, as the vege-
P. A group between a family and an
;

table and mineral kingdoms will be exa-

order. Thus
the order Incessores, or perch-
mined hereafter, we must now confine our-
ing birds, has several tribes, which are selves to the principles of classification in
again divided into families or groups, con- the animal kingdom alone.
taining many sub-families.

24. T. What do you mean by a GENUS ?

P- It is a number of
GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON II.
species closely
resembling each other, but yet differing 1. Why do we have fixed names for

slightly in some point; in fact, a collec- objects of Natural History ?

tion of sub-genera. 2. What is the usual method of dividing
Natural History ?
25. T.What is a SUB-GENUS ? 3. Why is the Linnaean system not so
P. Several species, all of the same type as the Cuvierian
good ?
of formation. 4. What do you mean by the terms
26. T. What is a SPECIES ? kingdoms, sub-kingdoms, classes, and
P. an animal distinguishable from
It is
orders ?

another animal on account of certain pe- 5. Explain the meaning of the terms
culiarities of structure, size, or otherwise. and sub families.
tribes, families,
6. What is the difference between a
27. T. Are all the individuals of one genus, sub-genus, and species?
species alike ? 7. Are varieties perpetuated ?
P. Yes, they all resemble the parent. 8. Why are not varieties perpetuated I

LESSON III.

IT is the aim of scientific men to classify and arrange the various objects of Natural
History that surround them and, in doing so, they have to confine themselves to
;

certain laws. They observe the difference in structure of animals from plants the
and peculiarities of each. Those animals or plants that closely
habits, actions or functions,
resemble each other are grouped together, and naturalists have found that certain
individuals possess the means of perpetuating their species : thus we know that pointers
will not produce spaniels, or vice versa ; and therefore we commonly call such a series
of families a race. It is our duty to endeavour to discover whether these races have a

common origin ;
for instance, Is it
possible that all dogs, of whatever breed, are
descended from two parents? Naturalists must pay attention to the anatomical struc-
ture of animals, before they can classify them correctly. The Animal Kingdom is
divided into four sub-kingdoms VERTEBRATA, MOLLUSCA, ARTICULATA, and RA-
DIATA ;
and we shall now consider their principal characteristics
consecutively.
Lesson III.] NATURAL HISTORY.

QUESTIONS.
30. T. You have said that the Animal largest animals belong to this d
Kingdom divided into several parts
is ; and are remarkable for possessing a greater
what is the name of the first sub-kingdom ? degree of intelligence than any other class
/'. VKKTEBRATA, or vertebrate animal*, of animals.
so called because the individuals comprised 38. T. Do
all the animals
comprised
in this division have a backbone or verte- in this classpresent the Fame peculiarities ?
bral column, composed of several parts, P. Yes, there may always be found
each of which is called a vertebra.
some analogy, even in the most remote
31. T. Why have these animals a back- species, of an unifonn plan.
bone or spine composed of several parts ? 39. T. You named another sub-king-
P. Because it affords them nmre dom. What is it called?
strength and flexibility, and gives their P. ARTICULATA, or articulate animals.
movements more precision.
T. Is there no other use for this
40. T. Why
are they called articulate ?
P. Because the skeleton is in pieces,
vertebral column ?
jointed, or articulated together.
P. Yes it protects a bundle of nervous
:

confined within a sheath, which is 41. T. In what respect do they differ

called the spinal marrow, or medulla from the vertebrate animals ?
tpinalit ; and also supports the skull. P. The skeleton is external, covering
the whole body; while, in the former, the
33. T. What
the use of the skull ?
is
muscular part is external. The nervous
P. To protect the brain, and organs of
is not so highly developed, the
tense connected with it.
organs of hearing and smell being generally
34. T, What is attached to the other deficient. The legs are frequently nume-
end of the spine ?
rous, but never less than six. T:.
P. It is prolonged, and contracted into always open laterally, and they usually pos-
a the size and length of which usually
tail, :e than one
pair; and the blood
increases in proportion as the skull de-
creases.
42. T. What is the second sub-kingdom
85. T. What other attachments has
called ?
the spine ?
P. MOM.USCA, or molluscous animals.
It i connected at the sides with a
series of peculiar shaped bones, called the 43. T. What is there peculiar in their
ribs, which are again attached in front to organization ?

a breast-bone. /'. I \ have not any skeleton the

36. 7*. -What is the use of the ribs ? I attached to" the skin.
utes a soft contractile env.
To enclose and afford prote
i

P.
which strong plates, called shells, are found
the organs of respiration, circulate
in in >(.. .c .mil
production posi-
there peculiar in t In-
is .
lu.-h are analogous to thoM
struct urr of vertebrated animals ? and <-era i

P. They have an mi, mat skeleton, a system, which are composed of several
ire en- misses connected by nervous
i

dowed with all ih- / biood, ts, are contained within thin general
through the system by
tiellrd
envelope. The brain is pin
iiUr heart, and
separate sexes oetophaftu, or gullet, and i

organs of 1.;o not exceed two

principal ronj).. -ting nervous filament.
;
:nily only J.M^M-VM .
the organs of
two jaws, placed one ahont or
iily
hearing; and Uute and vision are the only
Vbrr the o- ng sideways, senses, with this which this .

and usually furnished with teeth. class presents ; frequently vision is wanting.
40 NATURAL HISTORY. [Lessen IV
They have a complete circulatory system, I

p._Y es by Maclcay,
,
formed, who
and particular organs for lesuhaiiou. another called ACRITA, or acrite animals;'
4k '7'. What is the last sub-kingdom j

I
hut as we have yet to learn more of the
named !
we must wait
peculiarities of each, until
P. KADI AT A, or radiate animals. They we commence Zoology.
have their organs of sense and motion
aiTcinged as rays around a centre. They
have- no very distinct nervous system, or GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON III.

particular organs of sense; and in some of 1. What is the aim of all scientific men
them it is is
extremely difficult to discover when studying Natural History
any circulation. The respiratory organs 2. How is ihe Animal
Kingdom divided ?
are generally on the surface of the body. 3. Describe the peculiar characteristics

4"). T. Have not the radiated animals of the sub-kingdoms Venebrata, Mollusea,
j

been divided, so as to form another sub- Articulata, and Hadiata.

4. Are there only four sub
kingdom? -kingdoms ?

LESSON IV.
THE celebrated Baron Cuvier, whose method we shall adopt in this Catechism, observes,
that "the habit necessarily acquired in the study of natural history, of mentally classi-
fying a great number of ideas, is one of the advantages of this science which is seldom
spoken of; but which, when generally introduced into the system of common education,
will perhaps become the principal one. It exercises the student in that part of logic
which is termed method, as the study of geometry does in that which is called syllogism ;

because natural history is the science which requires the most precise method, as
geometry is that which demands the most rigorous reasoning. Now, this art of method,
when once well acquired, may be applied with great advantage to studies the most foreign
to natural history. Every discussion which supposes a classification of facts, every
research which requires a distribution of subject, is performed after, the same manner;
and he who has cultivated this science merely for amusement is surprised at the facilities
itaffords for disentangling all sorts of affairs."
Those who desire to master natural history must adopt a system to facilitate its study,
and this is only done by observing and noting the characters and attributes of the vast
numbers of objects in organic and inorganic creation. It is absolutely necessary, just
as much as it is to arrange the various matters in a house. If you wanted a spoon, and
had to look for it amongst a heap of knives, forks, scissors, and other things, you would

:iich time, and perhaps after all your labour it might not be there. So it is with
1
history; if you wanted to find the description of a kangaroo you would refer to
Division I. Vertebrata, Class I. Mammalia, Order IV. Mar.tiifiitita ; and then you would
procure the information required; and nothing is more easy, because every animal has
some leading feature, which fixes its position in the catalogue of nature, and this is

chiefly determined by its organization.

QUESTIONS.
46. T. Why did Cuvier place the ver- 47. T. Explain how this is.

tebrate animals first? P. In the first place, the nervous system

P. Because they are more highly or- is better developed,, consisting of a brain

ganised than the others. and prolongations ; whereas in the mollus-

Lesson IV.] NATTRAL HISTORY. 41

cous animals, it is only two loner chords, out to which of the nine orders of
find
running longitudinally through the abdo- Mammalia it belongs and without running ;

men, and enlarged at intervals into small
knots, which are called ganglions Secondly,
the muscles cover the bones, which form
the framework of the body, and the impor-
tant organs are inclosed within a
or framework.
through all the peculiarities of each. I
know that it should be placed in the
order, among the four-handed animals, or
qiindruiHtinu, which are divided into three
bony case genera the monkeys, marmosets, and
lemurs. It therefore belongs to the mon-

48. T. How can you assign the proper keys.

place to an animal in the Cuvier: t

50. T. How do you know that t!
tern? cimen you have does not belong to the
P. Because every one of them must be lemurs or marmo-
P. Because these two genera present
placed in one of the four great divisions .

and the peculiarities of the animal deter- such distinct peculiarities that it is
impos-
mine the naturalist whether it belongs to sible to make a mistake.
the first, or the other three. [The pupil should explain what these pecu-
liarity* are.]

51. T. How is it that the vertebrate

animals have been subdivided into so many
parts, if they all agree in respect to their
general character;-'
/'. Because, as I have explained before,
[
(Jm'-:ion -JliJ they diller in some impor-
tant particulars.

52. T. Explain this more fully.

P. If we examine the sub- kingdom
ita, we shall find that tin
three distinct divisions of animal-
adapted for the earth, the air, and the
water.
5-?. T. I thought that the vertebrate
animals were subdivided into four classes;
how is it that you only make three .'

/' I do not make three classes. In

divisions; and, as those that are a

.iion the earth are divided into
two Mammalia and llcptilia. tin ;

still four classes of animals ; viz. 1, Mam-

malia; 2, Aves; 3, Reptilia; 4, Pisces.

*,. !. 64. T. Give me the reason that the

rate animals are arranged thus.
49. T. How can the naturalist know P. The first group Mammalia, or ani-
where thr individti.il is to he classed, after mals that suckle tlieir young i- ranged
he has ilHrrmim-d that it belongs to the
first, because the an n this
first ml
class are superior organization to the
in
P. !

I'pose that I have a spe- other t!r are formed for an espe-
eimen of a
cial residence upon I'
purpose
hat it does not belong to and fishes nave
while the liinls <

the b -
h'uhes ; and mint and although the
:

>',H that
rirlly vpraUng. inhabit ther.irth.

We
;st class
I'hiluoun. N
of vertebrate animals. have now to
:H; they are also coU- bbodtd n \

or howliof
66. T. What do you mean by
, monkry
blooded animals I

el
42 NATURAL HISTORY. [Lesson V.

P. It has been found necessary to sepa- only two cavities, one of which receives the
blood from the system, and the oilier propels
rate the quadrupeds into two district divi-
it through the gills, &u.j
sions, the warm-blooded and the cold-blooded
animals. The former maintain a constant 59. T. Do not some reptiles and fishes
elevated temperature, or nearly so are ;
produce their young alive ?

covered with hair, or something resembling P. Yes.

[The pupil should name the species that do so.]
it;
bring forth their young alive, or are
viviparous, and nourish them by suckling. 60. T. Are there not peculiarities in
The latter never have a uniform tempera- Mammalia, almost necessary
that render it

ture, but one varying with the atmosphere, to separate them into another class ?
and seldom rising above it are covered ; P. Yes, there are peculiarities, but not
with scales and are oviparous, or produce
; sufficient to warrant us to form another
their young from eggs. class. Thus, one tribe possesses the power
of rising into the air, like birds, and another
56. T. How do birds differ from mam-
lives in the water, like fishes, but then they
malia ?

P. The class AVES, de- or birds, are agree in all the essential characteristics of
the other mammalia, while they differ
cidedly oviparous constructed for propul-
sion in the air. The form of the body, the materially from the classes with which they
hollow bones, the light feathers, all demon- appear connected.
strate how fitted they are for the element
they chiefly occupy. Can we say that they GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON IV.
are devoid of some amount of intelligence ? What the best to study Natural
1. is way
They are superior to reptiles in their orga- History ?

nization, and therefore occupy the second 2. Why are Vertebrata placed first ?
class ; and differ from mammalia chiefly 3. How can you tell where an animal
in not suckling their young. should be classed ?

57. T. Why should Reptiles be placed 4. What isdifference between a

the
in the third class ? monkey, a marmoset, and a lemur ?
P. Because they are intermediate be- 5. How is the sub- kingdom VERTEBRATA
tween birds and fishes in their organization. naturally divided ?
6. Enumerate the four classes of vertebrate
58. T. Why
are fishes placed in the
animals.
fourth class?
7. Give the reason that Mammalia is
P. Because they inhabit the water, are
ranged before the other three classes, and
oviparous, not so highly organized as the
other classes, and possess distinctive cha- why each is placed where it is.
8. What is the difference between warm-
racteristics.
blooded and cold-blooded animals ?
[The pupil should state the peculiarities of each
9. Explain the terms Viviparous and
;

us, ii>iies respire the element they inhabit,

tli

by nieaus of branchiae or gills; the heart has Oviparous.

LESSON V.
WE have already seen that the Mammalia form the highest group in the animal
" Not
kingdom, and were placed at the head of this kingdom, as Cuvier remarks, only
because this is the class to which we ourselves belong, but also because it is that which
enjoys the most numerous faculties, the most delicate sensations, the most varied powers
of motion, and in which all the different qualities seem together combined to produce a
more perfect degree of intelligence, the one most fertile in resources, most susceptible
of perfection, and least the slave of instinct" In classifying animals, the naturalist
aims at establishing that system which is most natural, therefore he examines those
characters which are easily recognised and understood and, on this account, selects the
;

external appearance of each, so that those having the greatest resemblance are associated
Lesson V.] NATURAL HISTORY.
together. In order to do this, he examines the structure of the extremities, and the

arrangement of the teeth, which, with other peculiarities, enables him to fix each
individual in its proper place.

QUESTIONS.
61. T. What the use of examining the
is injured during progression or other mo-
general structure of the extremities of tions. By a peculiar arrangement of
animals ? muscles they are enabled to retract or draw
P. To enable us to learn something of back their claws, the same as a cat does ;
their habits. so you see that we are enabled at once, by

62. T. How will this give us a clue to examining the foot of an animal that can
retract its claws, to decide that it
their habits ? belongs
to a certain class of animals.
P. Because their extremities are adapted
for the mode of life they lead. Thus, 63. T. Explain how the lion is enabled
the external configuration of the orang- to retract the claws.

outang of Borneo at once indicates his fit- P. You will understand the manner in
ness for climbing trees and clinging to which they are retracted much better by
their branches : referring to this diagram, than by a mere
and the general
form of the lion
denotes greater
strength in front
than behind ;

the thick neck.

and broad chest
shoulder*, and
are well adapted
tin the weight of his prey and his .

fore-limbs exhibit a beautiful arran.

forstrength and seizure, the paws being
armed with most powerful, hooked, sharp,

description. When the retraction takes

place, the ends of the two bones (/) are
pon the ground, between which and
.i

the hones, a pad of thickened skin is in-

I cannot
terposed. explain the itf
the projection of the claws better than by
drawing my hand forcibly backwards and
curving the fingers, and then suddenly
throwing it downwards, the arm being
horizontal at the time.

/'.Does not the perfection

organs of touch influence us in cln-
iltf

and hard dawn, suited and pro-

for tearing, Pig 4. Thtmtcl
tected by a l>< hanism from * I* rtr acted iportad tht laM
whirli ii K r

K'mlanx.
i't in retracted
(i <

the paw of a lion, mi U|.W.

,.w of . l,nn.
lhowin K the
-
I. ..', , >
!.
(/) paaact o**r ih up >f tli )a%t phalanx
-
tuition with > uowu at g and k,
uc. cuwrmg tiictu. act* with fritow.
44 NATURAL HISTORY. [Lesson VI.

P. Yes, it forms an important part in P. Yes the organs of the senses and
;

classification. digestion exhibit its habits in common with

the teeth and extremities.
65. T. How is the perfection estimated ?
P, the power of prehension or
By 71. T. Can you distinguish an herbi-
animal. vorous animal by its teeth !
grasping possessed by the
P. Yes they have flat-crowned grind-
Then all the Mammalia have
;

66. T.
not the power of grasping. ing teeth, with irregular ridges on their
surface, for triturating their food.
Certainly not, the lower we descend
j

P.
the more it is wanting. 72. T. How can you distinguish, by
means of its teeth, an animal that eat?
67. T.lf be correct, we ought to
this
various kinds of food .'

divide the class Mammalia into two parts.

P. The tops of the ww/ar teeth orgrinders
How should we do this ? are raised into flattened masses, like the
P. Into animals having claws Un- !

end of a pestle, and are intended for bruis-

and animals with hoofs Un-
ing and crushing, as in man.
guicitlated;
gulattd.
73. T. How are carnivorous animals
68. T. Give me
an example of each.
distinguished by their teeth ?
P. The orang-outang is a very good P. By the size of their cmiine teeth,
which are very large, to enable them to
seize firmly upon their prey.
[The pupil should give ex;tni|.les of the varioui
teeth, Mu-h as those ot" (he lion, hoar, monkey,
sheep, horse, &c. and state the numuer, and
;

Classes of each.]

GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON V.

1. Why does Cuvier consider Mammalia
should be placed first among the vertebrate
Fig. O.f animals I
2. Can you learn anything of the habits
example of the former, and the ox or deer
of the latter division. of an animal by examining its extremities
or teeth ?
69. T. How can you determine the 3. How can the knowledge of the form
habits of an animal by examining its teeth ?
of the extremities of animals inform us of
P. Uecause they vary in structure and their habits ?
arrangement, according to the food of the 4. \\ hat other reasons have we for clas-
animal and therefore the character of the
sifying certain animals together
;
?
teeth and extremities generally guides natu-
5. Have all mammalia the power of
ralists in determining the habits of animals.
?
grasping
70. T. Does not the food exert its in- 6. Describe the difference between un-

fluence on other parts of the body ? that is guiculated and ungulated animals.
to say, can the naturalist ascertain the 7. Describe the diilen nee in the struc-
habits of animals by other parts of the ture of the teeth of herbivorous and car-
body? I nivorous animals.

LESSON VI.
WE haveseen that naturalists are guided by certain peculiarities in their classification
of the Mammalia, and indeed of all objects of Natural Uistory. Our purpose is not *o
enter into the peculiarities of the various orders of each class, but rather to show the

Fig. 5. Hand of Orang-outang. t Fig. 6. Foot of Orang-outang.

Lesson VI.] NATURAL HISTORY.
principles of classification. The
characteristics of each order, genus, and species, will
be given Catechism on ZOOLOGY and the remaining portions of Natural History,
in the ;

in those on BOTANY and (M:>I.(H.Y. Our present object is to consider the second class
of vertebrate animals Aves, or birds.
In classifying the birds, naturalists attend to the form of the extremities and the bill.
In some birds, we see the bill and claws sharp, hooked, and powerful as in the eagle ;

and Egyptian neophron, adapted for tearing the flesh and holding the prey ; in others,

Kt . T. fit- S.f Fig. 9.1

the beak is short and thick, suited for crushing hard seeds, as in the parrots and loriets ;
while some have long slender bills, or soft short ones, fitted for feeding upon insects.
The bill varies in length, breadth, and direction, as well as shape. The feet also differ
materially: thus we have perching, climbing, wading, and swimming foot. In addition
to these means of classifying the birds, the naturalist has to call to his aid the appear-
ance of the crests, eyes, ears, mouth, feathers, wings, and tail. The whole structure of
this class of animals is peculiarly adapted for motion in the element the mass of them

QUESTIONS.
74. T. Is there anything peculiar in the P. Yes: by the form of its feet, and
structure of birds ? other peculiarities.
P. Yes; the general adaptation of the [Tho pupil should name them.]
.trk to the purposes of life,
.

79. T. Is then at difference

and the covering of the body. in the form of a ,1's feet from
those of a swimming-bird
Why the body covered with
.'
/' is
I'. Yes. Tin- former h.ivc long slender
feath.
P. Because they are bad conductors of legs, bare ot md long straight
toes ; while the lat;>

rapidly, tl by a web, which forms

!

bodies is not decreased too suddenly. abroad surface \\!.. hat the

76. T. Do they possess a complete '

legs, arm
powerful, sharp, and hooked talci
P. Yes, and are called warm-blooded l

animals. front ; and th- perching birds have three

'

hind, anil
/' How the bois
;

light?
the interior of
:ies arc united by a very short mem-
/*. By th,
the toes are long, with long claws
hollow, and containing air, which lenem
their specific gravity.
lave natura'
78. 7*. Can y- s h a water- Ity in the subdivision of the
I
bird from another, and '

class Avc-s ?

I. S. U.d of llarpjria dt.tructoc.

I /'; 9. II vail of Pesopor ..
fortMSW.
 NATURAL HISTORY. [Lesson VEL
P. Yes, because there is a general con- raven, sparrow, &c. and in the third order,
;

formity of type, and therefore it is difficult the cuckoos and macaws.

84. T. Give some examples of the

fourth and fifth orders.
P. The fourth contains such birds as
pigeons, pheasants, fowls, peacocks, \c. ;

and the fifth, the rail, snipe, heron, crane,

and ostrich.
85. T. Give examples of the sixth
order
P. Here we find gulls, penguins, ducks,
geese, swans, &c.
86. T. Is there anything very peculiar
in the anatomical configur-ition of birds,
that assists naturalists in their classifica-
tion ?

P. Yes ; the form of the sternal appa-

ratus, and the modifications ef the diges-
tive organs.

87. Is there anything else ?

T.
P. Yes, many things; but especially
the modifications of the vocal organs.

Fig. 10.

to decide what characters are of greater or

lesser importance because there are not
;
GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON VI.
those prominent distinguishing charac- 1. What peculiarities have naturalists
teristics that we find in the other classes of paid attention to in the classification of
vertebrate animals. birds ?

81. Are there any orders of this class

T. 2. Is there any great difference in the
beaks or bills of birds ?
possessing marked peculiarities ?
P. Yes, there are six; 1, ACCIPITRES,
3. Why do the bills of birds differ ?

4. Is there any difference in the feet of

or birds of prey 2, INCESSORES, or perch-
;

birds? If so, why ?

ing birds; 3, SCANSORES, or climbing
5. Does the osseous, or bony structure
birds ; 4, GALLING, or scratchers ; 5,
ORALLY, or stilt birds; 6, of birds, differ from that of mammalian*?
PALMIPEDES,
or web- footed birds. 6. Why have birds feathers ?
7. Are birds warm, or cold-blooded
82. T. Give me an example of the first
animals?
order.
8. How are the various orders of birds
P. The golden eagle, or condor vulture. distinguished?
83. T Give me examples of the second 9. How many orders are there of the
and third orders. class Aves?
P. In the second order we find the 10. What
additional peculiarities assist
humming-birds, fly-catcher, thrush, jay, the naturalist in the classification of birds I

LESSON VII.
WE have now to consider the third class of vertebrate animals the Reptiles. There
is this peculiarity in the class, that their form is more varied than that of any other.
As their blood is imperfectly aerated, they only maintain a low degree of animal heat,

Fig. 10. a, foot of Egyptian neophron ; b, foot of nuthatch ; c, foot of thrush ; d, foot of solan gooM.
 Lesson VII.] NATURAL HISTORY. 47

and are therefore termed cold-blooded animals. Their peculiar characteristics are
oviparous reproduction ; low power of making heat ; peculiarity of protecting-surface.
by means of and a heart with three cavities, one of which
scales, or hard plates,
receives the blood from the lungs another from the system generally and the third
; ;

propels the blood which is mixed in it partly to the body and partly to the lungs so ;

hen each contraction of the heart takes place, only part of the blood is aflected
by the air, and the consequence is, that their motions are sluggish, their sensations
dull, and their digestion slow.

QUESTIONS.
88. 7". What
the chief reason rep- is I
95. T. Have not naturalists adopted
re separated from other animals ? other divisii :

P. Because the conformation of their P. Yes, but as they refer to other pecu-
body is different, and also the circulation liar characteristics, and the more
especially
of their blood. to extinct species, it does not belong to
this pan of our arrangement to consider
A Is not the blood perfectly oxy-
them.
genated
I
1
.
No; because the nutritive functions 96. T. Are reptiles easily distinguished
and power of circulation are feeble. from the other classes of vertebrate ani-
mals ?
90. T. Is it
possible for to
reptiles P. Yes, by their prominent peculiarities.
suspend their respiration?
I'. Yes because the smallness of the
;
97. T. What is the general locality
pulmonary vessels enables them to do so where reptiles are found ?

while submerged and thi> i> dom- without ;

P. In thickets, caverns, and dark
e circulation of the blood. moist places.

/'.Why are reptiles covered with 98. T. Is there anything peculiar in

scales, or hard plates ? the fourth order, orfrogi f
se, as they are not warm- P. They undergo a curious transform-
blooded animals, they are only covered ation, especially the loss of gills, upon
with a naked skin, which is not caj attaining their perfect state.
retaining heat like those animals covered 99. T. and give account of
Explain
with fur r.insformat.
92. T. How are reptiles sutxlivi P It is well known to country people
to <
who have been in the habit of seeing ditches
(ling

\NS, or lizards. .'3. 'J 'in -Oi-in

or serpents. 4. Th- I'.M u \ IUANS, or

frtft,
93. T. Is this
arrangement satisfactory
to naturalists
gent i

P. No; and therefore they have adopted

that proposed by M. Brongniart, viz.
\ss, or lurtifs a:
'

H, or serpents. 4. The
BATRACHIANS, or frogs.

94. T Do reptiles incubate their eggs ?

P. No. 1 : Batrachians
they h.i ami ponds dtirinp the npring, that thrre are
and in tin- Miakrv .ire tolerably mill. luM.I hU inatses, resembling
advanced in their form when the egg is
depos
48 NATURAL HISTORY. [Lesson VIII.

jelly, found floating in these places ; some 2. What peculiarity marks or dis-
that look like bunches of grapes, the others tinguishes the cl.i
like strings of heads. The first is the 3. Are they warm or cold-blooded
spawn of toads, the other of frogs and these ;
animals ?

necklaces of heads (as it were) gradually Why

4. are
Reptiles separated from
get heads and tails, and grow on until they other Vertebrate aninuils ?
have legs, and lose the long tail they each 5. Can they suspend respiration ?

had. The gills disappear, and they then
breathe hy means of lungs and from
vegetable they gradually ascend to insect
food, which they swallow whole, slugs and
beetles disappearing in large numbers.
GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON
1. What is the name
of Vertebrate animals?
6. Why are Reptiles covered with scales?
;
7. How many orders of Reptiles are
there according to Cuvier, and how many
according to other naturalists ?
8. Where are Reptiles (.-enerally found ?
9. State some peculiarities found or
observed in the fourth order of Reptiles.
VII.
10. When and where do the transforma-
of the third class tions of frogs, toads, and others of this
order take place ?

LESSON VIII.
WEdid not adcfpt the classification of some zoologists in our last lesson, and divide
the Reptiles into two parts, so as to make a fourth class, called Amphibious animals,
because the great Cuvier did not do so, and we wish to adhere to his system. GRANDFATHER
WHITEHEAD is a zealous disciple of Cuvier, and does not desire to depart from his
plan.
There may be good reasons for separating the Reptiles, into those strictly inhabiting the
land, and those that are amphibious but although the AMPHIBIA are intermediate
;

between Fishes and Reptiles, they are destitute of scales or hard plates a gooo reason, ;

some will say, that they should be divided from the Reptiles; hut GRANDFATHER
WHITEHEAD thinks differently, and therefore adopted the system of Cuvier. Perhaps,
some day, he will give his reasons, in his " Lectures to Little-Folk."
We have now to consider the last class of the Vertebrate animals Fishes. They have
a double circulation, respire through the medium of water, and. consequently, can live
beneath itssurface. Their structure is pe-
culiar, because they have little or no weight to
hear. Their bodies are formed for the purpose
of easy propulsion, being of nearly the same

specific gravity as the fluid they inhabit, and

furnisi'ed with fins, Ly means of which, and
the lateral movements of the tail and body, they
arc enabled to move without much effort. It is
the texture of the fins that is so important in
their classification, and therefore the proper
arrangement of Fishes is a very difficult matter;
but, nevertheless, we are enabled to divide them into two great divisions Bony and
Cartilaginous Fishes. The number of the fins varies in different groups, and assists in the

arrangement of the orders and species.

* 12. Whitebait, a, dorsal fin; candai or tail; anal fin;
Fig. b, iiu, c, d, ventral fin; e, pectoral
fin of one side.
Lesson VIII.] NA'ITilAL HISTORY.

100. T. Why are fishes called Oviparous /'. MALACOPTERYGII

nun ;t lins under
p. Because the species are reproduced the abdomen.
from eps. and the term signifies those 100 T. How many families are they
born from eggs. into ?

101. T. Where can you procure these P. 1, the CarFive. Pikes;

3, Sheat-fishes
the 4. 'ho Salmon or ,

'. From the roe, which is a mass of Trout family and 5. the Herrings. :

1 10. T. What is the third orderof Bony

102. T. Do any fishes bring forth their
young air /'. Ihe MALA ton,
P. Yes; but the description of them is rill ATI. or sot'.- r;i> i-il t.

more suited to a Zoological catcchis-m than the ventral tins under th.>
];ee'o.-als. and
the pelvis suspended to the shoulder bones.

103. T. What is the first order of Bony 111. T. What do you mean by the term
Fishi-s called ?

P. AcANTHOPTERYOti.orspiny-finned. P. Jointed- fins.

T. What is there peculiar in the 112. T. What families arc contained

order. in the third order ?

/'.They have spinous rays in the first P. I, the Cod family: 2 the Flat-
dorsal, if more than one, and spinou- fish ;
.v ventral fins
in tti- tirvt |.T! n 'h'Tconly one.
is The formed into a su<v.
anal fin has a! rays spinous, and 113. T The third family of the third
each ventral fin has generally one such ray. order of Uoi.\ :
;
give
T. What do you mean by the ray ; le of the !'>

of a /'. i tick ing. fish,

P. 1 -he rib : and when we say which att.iches il^cll to th

that is, nearest to the head

1 I
4. 7'. Why AP- i
ovided
of th
P. 1

7*. What do you mean by the rays to rock-* and oil <

bein j
bone, - V-
I 1-1. '/'.
whether stiff '<> 1><

;.il 1) ones or
/'." i ifOIf APOI
ihe ray is said to
eel tr.l union
orfi
T. Knumeratr the families of the
ll-i. / i' e examples of this
lies.

Bar
/'
,.ly : 2. tl
/'!>,
-iicna, anil the ^minxus. c

the Lsiv 117. j-. WIni is thenaiw nl i:

in the pl>
.
order > >es T
ti to the / l...i-iior.u\N mi. >r
'' pec-
tor;.!' tins ; ] f Ihf .Its Ml Mil":*
r
and l. >, :!
What
r. peculiarities arc oi
in the second order of in thi
Bony Fishes called I P. 'I
 50 NATURAL HISTORY. [Lesson IX.

rows, like the teeth of a comb, are arranged P. ClIONDROPTERYGII BRANCHIIS

in small rounded tufts the body is coveied
; FIXIS, or fishes with fixed gills. These
with hard plates instead of scales the jaws ; fish have the edges of the gills fixed, instead
are united, except at the very end, so thrt of being free at the edges, and the water
they appear to have a tubular snout or enters through a number of small holes on
nose, especially in the sea-horse and the ; each side of the head, as in the shark tribe.
male is provided with a pouch, in which
the female deposits the spawn, where the
young are hatched, and retreat when
alarmed. GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON VIII.
119. T. What is the sixth order of the 1. Howare fishes divided ?
Bony Fishes called? 2. What is the most
P.
important object to
PLECTOGNATHI, or fishes with sol- attend to, and guide us in the classification
dered jaws; so named because the bones
of fishes ?
of the jaw are immovable. The gills and How are the and the
3.
young of fish
gill-covers have a covering of thick skin. ?
species reproduced
120. T. What is meant by CHON- 4. What do you mean by spinous rays ?
DROPTERYGII ? 5. What is the ray of a fin ?
P. Fishes with cartilaginous, instead 6. How many orders of Bony Fishes are
of bony skeletons. there? Name them.
121. T. What is the first order of this
7. Explain the meaning of the various
division called?
terms applied to each order ?
8. Give some examples of each order ?
P. CHONDROPTERYGII BRANCHIIS LI-
BERIS, or fishes with free such as
9. How many orders of Cartilaginous
gills,
fishes are there?
sturgeons.
10. Name the orders, and their pecu-
1 22. T. What is the name of the second liarities ?
order ?

LESSON IX.
WE have now to consider the second great division of the Animal Kingdom the
AMMALIA MOLLUSCA, or soft-bodied animals. These animals present many pecu-
liarities, being without an articulated skeleton, or back-bone, and without brain or
spinal marrow. Their blood is of a bluish tinge, or white ; and their muscles are
attached to the integuments instead of to bones. Cuvier says, " that their organs of
motion and of the senses have not the same uniformity in number and position as in
the vertebrated animals; and the variety is still more striking with the viscera, par-

ticularly in relation to the position of the heart and respiratory organs, and even in the
structure and nature of the latter ; for some mollusca breathe the free air, and others
the fresh or salt water." Some of the molluscous animals have naked bodies, while
others are protected by shells. Cuvier divided the molluscous animals into six classes,
which we have now to examine.

QUESTIONS,
123. T. What Is the first class of P. Because the animals in this class
molluscous animals? propel themselves by means of appendages
P. The CEPHALOPODES, or head- connected with the head.
footed animals.
125. T. Name some examples of this
124. T. Why are they called thus ? class of animals.
Lesson IX.] NATURAL HISTORY.
P. The nautilus, and cuttle-fish. P. The former have protecting shells;
[The pupil should name the peculiarities of and the latter are naked, or without shells.
both these example*.]
136. T. What is the name of the fifth
126. T. Wh.it is the second class called ?
class of the Mollusca?
P. PTEROPODES, or fin-footed animals. P. BRACHIOPODES, or animals with
127. T. State the peculiarities of this arm-feet but we do not know much about
;

them, except that they have two fleshy

P. Cuvicr says that, like the cepha- arms, furnished with numerous filaments,
" swim in the
lopodes, they ocean, but can which they can protrude from and draw
neither fix themselves to any object, nor within the shell when they please; the
crawl on the ground, because they are mouth is situated between these arms.
without feeL They move from place to
137. T. What
the sixth class called ?
is
place by means of tins, placed like wings or animals with hair
on each side of the mouth."
P. CIRRHOPODES,
feet, like the barnacles (Lrpat), which at-
128. T. Name the third class.
P. They are called GASTEROPODES, or
animal* that move on their stomachs, such
as snails and .-lugs.

T. State something more about

this class.
P. It is divided into nine orders,
containing many species, some of which
are entirely naked; others have a concealed
shell ; but the greater number a complete
covering as snaiK, which shelter
from the .vt .( kx of other animals. Most
of those that live in the water have an
door, attached, which
optrctilum, or little
protects the animal when it has retreated
within the -

130. T. What animals with shells are

d in this class ?

/'. ! : I ivalvft; or mollus-

cous animals with shell* in one \
.

do you call the fourth

elass?
P. ATI. IMI u.rs. or animals without
heads. Thin is n-*' rcct, as they
have heads.
T. Give me an example of this
tnrh thnmclves to
ships and posts by long
-, mussels, and all bivalve fleshy M. ms In c \^ class we also have
oca. in-shells (balantu). The principal
133. 7*. What do you mean by bivalve part of the shell consists of a hai
with sn opening at the narrower pai .

Soft-bodied animals, with shells in or leas closed by two or lour valves.

two pieces,
mny orders are tl
KAL QUESTIONS ON LE89O
/' IA i.
.irrpkalaUttactai and 2,
1 Vfhatbl ft he second great
nn, in n of the uniinal I
Acrphnln
7'. What is the difference 1
V- Bunch of LtjMuAt
to part of a j.ir.
5-2 NATTRAL HISTORY. [lesson X.

2. I low do the Molluscous animals differ i. What is tin- meaning of the terms
from the Vertebrate ? applied to each class .'

o. Name the \arious classes of Mollusca. 7. What is an ti/ii'rculuni ?

4. (Jive examples fro-ii each class. 8. Kxplaiu uli.it is meant hy a univalve
State the peculiarities of the Mollus-
5. and bivalve.
cous animals.

LESSON X.
EACH great division of the Animal Kingdom presents some generality of form. We
have observed the peculiarities of the first t\\o divisions, and we have now to notice
those presented by the third ANIMALIA AKTICULATA, or animals with articulated
bodies. That great naturalist, Cuvier, observed that "this third general form is as
well characterised as that of Vertebrata ; the skeleton is not internal, as in the latter;
neither is it wanting, as in the Moliusca. The
articulated rings which encircle the

body, and frequently the limbs, supply the place of it and as they are usually hard, ;

they furnish all the necessary support for the muscles by which the body is moved ;

so that among the animals, as is the case of the Vertebrata, those which have limbs
are able to w.tlk, to s^im, or to Hy. Thus they have some general resemblance, more
particularly in their internal organisation, although in most respects they differ from
each other to the utmost degree."

QUESTIONS.
In what respect do all articu-
138. T. supplies nerves to all the parts near to the
lated animals resemble each other most? head, and two chords whi'-h encircle the
P. In their nervous system. ;

oesophagus are continued along the abdo-

1
men, and connected at intervals by ganglia,
MO. T. Is there anything peculiar from which the r.ervcs are sent to the
in it ? j

various parts of the body and limbs.

P. Yes, the brain, which is very small,
j
140. T. What oflice does a ganglion
?
perform
P. It seems to act like a brain, con-
ferring sensibility on the parts with which
it is
intimately connected.
HI. Are there any other pecu-
T.
liarities tobe observed in the Articulata .'

/'. Yes, their jaws arc invariably lateral,

and shut together like a pair of scissors
that is, horizontally, and not upwards and
downwards and besides this, we observe
;

that they have not any distinct organ of

smell.

142. T. How are the articulated ani-

mals classed ?
///. 14.
P. Into four principal classes 1. The ;

is placed over the oesophagus or gullet, and ANNELIDES, or red-blooded worms. 2. The
* CRUSTACEA, or hard-coated animals 3. ;

t'iy. H.
the
..MII!
Nervoua iyiniof Carubus Clftibnt-
ci.Hiii of g;iii;:ll;i Connected by
'

l ^ AEACHDA, <>r animals like spiders ;

double chord. 4. The INSECT A, or insects.

Lesaon X.] NATfUAL HISTORY.
1 13. T. Why have the Annelides been distributed about the body, espe-
separated from (he other three classes ? cially themiddle portion. The Ar
P. Because they have red blood, and have beautiful little gills in tufts upon the
are the only invertebrate animals that have.
The circulation is douhle, consisting of
arteries and veins; almost all of them live
in water, except the earth-worms. The
body, which is more or less elongated, is
always divided into little rin^s, whence
the name (the Latin word annetltu signify-
ing a little rinp), and they respire by
which are either spread over the
of the body, concealed internally,
ioped externally.
m. T. How are the Annelides di-

P. Into three order*, the first of which

iscalled the Tt'Blcot^E, or worms inhabiting
tubes. Some of these animals form tubes
of fragments of shells, sand, and mud,
which are lined by a membrane; others
form an uniform calcareous tube and o:h< rs ;

have their tubes composed of membrane

only.
T. What is the name of the middle part of ti
ry fifth ring
second order ? larger than the others, and the feet
/' The DORSIBRANCIIIATA. and gills attached to it. In the same or-
ime their peculiarities.
-
der we have the Nereids, and many other
/'.They have their bronchia or gills
1
curious and interesting genera.

1 17. 7' -\\ h t is the name of the third is destitute of external respiratory
order of Annelidrt f and they M-CIM t<>

ABHANCHIA. This order of animals surface of the skin, or, a* in the letc

intern*! some have bristles, and others ar. f them, they

j

moving. I di.-idnl into t --\

^fffmlm Contorlnplicata, with a portion of the body protrudtd from UM

* tub* of *nd n I fr.imrnt of (hells.
4. \l. ArrnKoin fUcatotmm, .
\ lul
54 NATURAL HISTORY. [Lesson XI.

148. T. What are these two families ?

P. The ^bronchia C.I.XF.RAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON X.

setigera, provided
with silky bristles, as the earthworm 1. What is thename of the third great
division of the Animal Kingdom ?
2. What are articulated animals ?

3. How many classes of articulated

animals are there ?
4. Describe the
peculiarities of the first
class, and give examples of each order and
family?
5. Why have the Annelides been se-
Fig. IS.*
parated from the other classes ?
tribe and 2, the Abranchia nuda, or the
; b'. Is there anything peculiar in the
^bronchia without bristles, such as the leech nervous system of the Articulata ? If so,
tribe. state the peculiarity.

LESSON XL
LINNJEUS classed the Crustacea, Aractmida, and Insecta together, under the general
name of Insects ; but other Zoologists have thought
proper to divide them. The second class of articulated
animals is, properly speaking, the crustaceous or hard-
coated animals. They have a great many genera and
by branchiae, or a kind
species, articulated legs, respire
of sometimes enclosed, and in other species
gills,
external to the shell the circulation is double, and
;

resembles that of the Molluscous animals; and the

nervous system is of two kinds, which will be noticed
in another Catechism.

QUESTIONS.
149. T. How are the Crustacea divided?
P. Into the MALACOSTRACA and ENTOMOSTRACA.
150. Describe the peculiarities of the former.
T.
P. The shell of the animals is hard and calcareous;
they have ten or fourteen legs, hooked at tlie tip and ;

some have fixed eyes, while others have theirs placed

on a moveable piece.
151. T. What is there peculiar in the second
division ?
p._The shell is slender, and generally in two parts ;
the eyes are fixed, and frequently there is only one
of these organs. The legs vary in number, have only
one hook at the extremity, and appear more suited
for swimming than anything else.

* ffirudo nflicinalis, or leech.

Fig. 18.
d t Fit. 19. A vertical longitudinal section of the common
lobtter (AstacHs marinus). a. mandibles and palpi b, the ;

otoinach c c, intestinal prolongation of the same

; d, the outlet; ;

e, the heart / g h i. a system of KI eat blood-vessels distributed to

;

19 -t
the posterior portion of the animal kl m, great blood-vessels ;

distributed to the sternal or anterior aspect of the body; n n n, lobes of the liver.
 XIL] NATURAL HISTORY. 55

T. How many orders are there in P. They are destitute of wings, do not
the first division ? undergo any changes of form like insects,
p._Five. The first called Decapoda
is and differ in their nervous system.
or ten-footed, all of which have ten feet, How
157. r.
furnished with nippers; and the common are they divided ?
lobster, which is included in the second P. Into two
family, is an excellent example of the order. .orders. 1. T'.ie

153. T. What is the name of the true spiders and

second order? scorpions, and 2,

P. There is very little of interest in the The Miiall animals

second, third, fourth, or fifth orders, which
known as
are called Stomopoda, Amphipoda, Lcemo- scorpions, such as the book-scorpion, and
and Itopoda. the mites.
dipoda,

T. How is the second division of GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON XI.

a divided ?
1. How are the Crustacea divided?
P. Into the Branchiopoda and Pcecilo-
2. Describe the peculiarities of each
poda, which have each certain peculiarities.
division, and give examples from them?
T. What is the third class of 3. Name the various orders of each
lataf
division, and the reason they are divided
P. The Arachnida, or spiders.
from the others ?
ite the peculiarities and rea- 4. How is the Arachnida, or third class,
sons why they have been classified by divided ?

themselves. 5. Give examples from each order?

LESSON XII.
comprises those creatures called Insects whose peculiar and beautiful
Tiir. fourth class

form, colour, and instincts, have captivated all enthusiastic naturalists. In a treatise
like this, we can only take a glance at them a mere transient glance. They undergo
various changes during their brief existence, wonderful to behold, and yet \\
man's existence and future state. They are divided into twelve orders, each charac-
terised by C- ..
here, but will be particularised in
the Zoological Catechism.

QUESTIONS.
r. What iniects are found in the P. The common flea (Pulfx irritant)
first *
'la? which every one of us is, no doubt, well
which ar<- .:ited with.

/'. NVli.it are the names of the

159. is there peculiar to the (if li. sixth, and M rs T
/' 1 tilth is call.
do not change ;*, sixth, Orthoplera; and the seventh, Himi-
md have peculiar organs of ptrra.
locomotion at the side* or end of the body. / "hat animals do we find in the
A What is the third order called? lini. on
/' /' r
parasites, such aa ticks, /'. (inn rally beetle*.
&c.
r. What kind of insect do we find 4omttHt*4. or ehM
fig. 20.- Jrirui '
mtt*,
in the fourth on: (liijhij mmguiflMl) atucJuag a ptoo* of <
 N ATl'RAL HISTORY. [Lesson XIIL
164. T.~ "What
kind of insects or ani- know more of Natural History, especially
mals in the sixth order ? Zoology.
P. Such kind as cockroaches and ear-
wigs.
165. T. Give me an example of the GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON XII.
seventh order.
P. The bug tribes. 1. Why are insects placed last?
2. Is there anything peculiar in their
166. T. Name the remaining orders. ?
organisation
P. 8. 9. Hymenoptera.
Neuroptera. 3. How many orders are they divided
10. Lepidoptera. 11. Rhipiptera and 12. ;
into ?
Diptera. 4. Give a familiar object under each
167. T. Give the peculiarities of each. order.
P. They shall be described when I 5. Name the peculiarities of each order.

LESSON XIII.

THE fourth, and last great division of the animal kingdom, is the radiated animals,
or RADIATA. are called thus because they generally agree in one respect
They that
of having the parts of which they are formed arranged round an axis or central point
Their organs of motion, when they have any, consist of moveable spines, or flexible
papillae, capable of inflation, attached
to the skin. They are divided into five classes,

according to their organization.

QUESTIONS.
168. T. What is the last class of radi- rous small holes, from each of which pro-
ated animals called ? trude small tubes, terminating in suckers,
P. Echinodermata, or bristly skinned which enable the animals to walk, or adhere
animals. to rocks.

169. T. State their peculiarities.

P.- They have a digestive and a vascular
system a well-organised
;

skin, and a nervous sys-

tem which partakes of
their general form.

170. T. How is this

cl;i^s divided ?
P Into two orders;
Fiy. 21.*
those with feet, or vesi-
cular appendages, serving as feet ; and those
without.

171. T. What is the name of the first

order ?

P. PEDICELLATA.
Fig. 22.
172. T. Is there anything peculiar in 173. T. Are
the animals in this
all
this order ? order alike?
P. Yes ; the skin is pierced with nume- P. Not individually, but generally;
* * The Axttriai aurantin, showing the
Fig. 21. Nervous system of Star-fish a the Fig. 22.
mouth. osseous plates audition^ moveable spine*.
Lesson XIII.] NATURAL HISTORY.
therefore they have been divkled into three crush the shells of the fish on which it

f.nnilies. 1. The Attervu, or star-tish. feeds.

2. The Erhinida, or sea-eggs. 3. The
176. T. Can you tell me anything about
IIu!o!tiuri<r, or sea- slugs.
that curious animal, the Sea-slug .'

/'.Describe the star-fishes. P. The flololhurue are sometimes called

The mouth on the underside, and "
P. is
sea-cucumbers," and have a number of
licijiit!
lu-rve surrounds it, and sends
ot!' iilainenis to eacli or ray [see Fig.arm
21] ; the anus or rays are five in number,
:ieciesare covered with osseous
c Miles furnished with strong
moveable spines.
17'.. T. What is there peculiar about
the sea-eggs ?
P. The body is enclosed in a calca-
Fig. 15.
reous shell, composed of various segments,
curious looking tentacula distributed over
their bodies, which they can retract at
pleasure. They have a leather-like skin,
with an aperture at each end, and a most
complex structure.
177. 7". NVh.it is the second order
called?
P. APODA, or animals witho;
which are chiefly found in th
nd resunhle the II iol/iurt.r,
with the exception of their skin, which
is devoid of tentacula, and the \\.iui
fig. *>.

which closely together, and are arranged

fit

in alternate rows of plates, with tubercles to

which the spines are at-
GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON
tached, and perforate i 1. NV-i.it is t'.ir :.e last great
for the mem- ii of anima;
plates
braneous feet to pass i.ils
arranged
mouth last?
with live
-'i.d >w are the Iladiata divi
flat, calcareous terih, 1. N\

winch are pointed DERMATA ?

with hard enamel. 5. Is there anything peculiar in the

The whole dental ap- nervous syti :
lass?
paratus consists of the first
twenty - five >f bristly-sk dsf
J*f . i. t

-, which < animal to lie reason the animals in (his

ive been eparat< others.
H.
Kckinut, or tea-urchin; the right
tide covered wilh tpmea (he left hat them re- ;

moved to how the pUte* of the hell. Fig. K.-Hololk*ria. howin< the t.
t Fig. 24. The Uttfa of Ma-urchin, showing amond In rows on the surface of the UUj,
their arrangemrut. nd ihe irce-hke mpiralury vr*m
 58 NATURAL HISTORY. [Lesson XIV

LESSON XIV.
have the remaining four classes of the Radiated animals to examine, viz. 2. The

ENTOZOA, or intestinal worms. 3. The

ACALEPHJE, or sea-nettles. 4. The POLYPI,
or animals with many feet. 5. The IN-

FUSORIA, or animalcules. The Entozoa are

remarkable for being the inhabitants of the

internalparts of other animals, especially the

Vertebrata, but the other animals are scarcely
ever affected with them. Some of them at-
tain a large size, especially such as the taeuia,
which are often twenty feet long, and some-
times more than a hundred feet. The Aculepha
have been divided into the simple and the
hydrostatic, and include all those animals.
The Polypi are capable of producing new
individuals, both by putting forth a kind of
bud and by eggs, .which are left to the
mercy of the waters. The Infusoria are
little known, although Ehrenberg, Pritchard,

Owen, Grant, and others have written

upon them, yet much remains to be dis-

covered, as regards their organization, and still more in classifying them.

QUESTIONS.
178. T. For what are the Entozoa re- P. The order Nematoidea comprises
markable ? several genera which are remarkable for
P. Inhabiting the interior of other having no circulation that we can discover,
animals, where they can only exist. and a simple nervous system which is only
Is there
seen in some species, consisting of two
179. T. anything peculiar in cords extending from a ring round the
their organization ?
mouth. The thread-worms ;md ascarides
P. Yes they have ;no breathing ap-
are familiar examples of this order.
paratus, which shows that the nutriment
they receive is aerated by animals upon 182. T. Give me some examples of the
which they are parasitic. second order, and state something about it.

180. 7
1
. Are the species of the Entozoa P. The order Pareiichymata contains
numerous ? four families, and is remarkable for an
P. Yes ; and they are divided into two absence of an alimentary apparatus, and
distinct orders the Nematuidea, or cavi- no visible signs of a nervous system. The
tied entozoa, and the Entozoa Parenctn/v/afa, fluke found in the livers of sheep ; the
which have the viscera obscure, the body tape-worm (see Fig. 26'*) and hydatids,
;

are all examples of this order.

being filled with a pulpy matter.
181. T. Give me some examples of the 183. T. What is supposed to be the
order Nematoidea, and their peculiarities. use of the Entozoa ?

* The Taenia tolinm, head with suckers,

Fig. 26. or solitary worm, exhibiting the alternating pores,
and the narrow anterior, or neck part.
Lesson XIV. J NATt'KAL HISTORY. 59

P. Fromtheir habits being concealed |

ISti. T. How
are they divided ?
from observation, we are unable to ascer- j
/'. 1. Into the Camosi, or fleshy polypi,
tain the part they play in the economy of 2. The GeUitinosi, or gelatinous polypi;
and 3. The Coralliferi, or corals.
71 Name the peculiarities of the 187. Name some examples of each.
T.
or sea-nettles ? P. The
Actinia Mesembryantftemum is
P. They float upon and swim in the an example of the CARNOSI the Hydra ;

water, propelling themselves by alternate viridi* of the GELATINOSI ; and Madrepore*

Of the CORALLIFERA.

contractions and dilatations of their gela- Hi.

tinous bodies. They do not appear to have
188. T. What is there peculiar in the
circulation, and their bodies
INFUSI
of a net-work of animal filaments, filled up
P. The greater part of them have a
with water, which exudes from their inter-
stices when they are cast upop the sea-
gelatinous body, and very simple .structure.
shore. They are very small, and require the aid of
a microscope to study their organisation,
185. 7*. What is there peculiar in the as they differ somewhat in th-
tve been divided into the ttuttfera
They have a visible stomach, and and Homogenea.
tentacula around their mouths, which vary
18ft T. What is there peculiar in the

/'. The body is oval and gelatinous,

usually ending in a kind of tail while the ;

fore part has a singular mbrs, :

with teeth at the

brate rapidly. iur <>f
toothed wheels revolving. V>

r. What is supposed to be the

use of this apparatus that appears to re-
volve ?

It has been stated to be cm

/'.

with respiration ; and a* it does not assist

the food, there is good reason
d with the <

he body is* u of respiration.

always
Irical, and the viscera
oawtimr* ..

Pig .
tfyrfrorirM*. poofrmh-wttr
F,9 n i the body, containing cn>
(th to-
IT. il, i.ucrM * * icuucula, wUor.b> u lay*
.

/ >y. 28. Acttmto mutmbrgaiUJumitm. bold oi tu pr*y.

 GO NATURAL HISTORY.
191. T. What is there peculiar in the on its axis, and contains several small
y lobes, each of which, it is thought, con-
P. There does not appear to be any tains a numerous emhryo race. Wh-n the
mouth, viscera, or nervous system. Volvox arrives at maturity biusts, and the
it

globe escapes to perform like offices.

GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON XIV.

1. Name the second and third classes of

Radiata.
2. Name the fourth and fifth classes.
3. Give examples from each class.
4. Why have the classes been arranged
thus ?

5. What is an infusorial animal?

*
Fiff. 30. 6. Into how many orders are the infu-
192. T. Give me an example of an soria divided ?
infusorial animal. 7. Give me an example of an infusorial
P. The Volvox globator, which revolves animal.

RETROSPECT AND REMARKS.

MAN, like the other animals, is subject to the law of death, but after his soul has left
its earthly habitation, it shall continue to exist for ever. Some naturalists have
excluded him from their system, because he is too exalted in the scale of creation to
be classed with the "beasts that perish." Among these, Aristotle, Hay, Willoughby,
Swainson, and others, maintain that he should not be classed with animals, but hold a
distinct position. Let us see why he has been classed with animals. It is argued that
as he is suckled at the breast of his mother, he naturally belongs to the mammalia he ;

is placed animals, because he has nails upon his fingers and toes ;
among unguiculated
and is classed with the apes because some of them have a hyoid bone, (a bone situated
between the root of the tongue and larynx, or windpipe). Respecting this, Swainson
" What can be a
judiciously remarks greater violation of nature all other considera-

tions apart than to place a solitary species of creature walking erect upon two limbs,
"
among others which walk upon four ?
The various systems that have been put forth by naturalists from time to time, only
tend to mislead the beginner; he gets within a labyrinth of them, where each is
striving to prove how superior it is to all others. It is on this account that GRAND-
iviiiKK \VIHTI:UEAD recommends his pupils to follow the system of Cuvier, until

sufficiently grounded in Natural History, and then to lead the others, at the same time
making such observations as they may think necessary in a note-book.
M. Lamark errs in his system, by placing all animals with an internal skeleton in
one division, and those with an external skeleton in the other division because by such ;

an arrangement, animals with the rudiments of an internal vertebrae will be classed with
apes, lions, and other quadrupeds. As we have already remarked, Cuvier divides the
animal kingdom into four great divisions, and bases his classification upon the organi-
sation and nature of the animals themselves. It is true that there are objections to the

* The Volvox globltor, exhibiting the minute hair-like and the small globes
Fig. 30. cilia, inside,
with the voung escaping.
 01

entireadoption of the Cmie: but no easy task to form any xyMcm that
it is

shall be perfect, lor we have such vast numbers of animated beings, with liistinc; pecu-
liarities to examine, understand, and classify, that it
requires the undivided attention tf a
lifetime to arrive at correct conclusions.Suppose, for instance, that we saw a sprat, and
were ignorant of its name and position in the animal kingdom it is not an easy matter
to fix upon the exact spot it should occupy in Nature's catalogue, for there are upwards
of eight thousand varieties of fishes. We could, however, at once decide that it did not

belong to quadrupeds, birds, or reptiles; and a ivry little further inquiry would determine
that it belonged to the fishes, and not the amphibious animals. It does not require much

should be classed with the hony fi>hes. and a little attention to

o decide that it

other peculiarities of structure, such as the position or ab>ence of the ventral fins, which
we hve already noticed, will enabl* us to place it in the second order of hony fishes ;

and then, by examining the scales, upper jaw, gills, &c., we know that it
belongs to the
fifthfamily of the second order.
It is quiteevident that the primary types of nature are very few, the variations almost
s. Any person can tell a bird from a pig or quadruped, yet as there are nearly
7,000 species, it is not an easy thing to know a parrot from a barbet or other bird,
unless by attending to the external characters we have pointed out in this Catechism*
and the general organization.
.re has arranged the animal, like the other kingdoms, with admirable pr

and her disciples or pupils can discover most of the groups by diligent observation and
patient attention.
Could any sensible being mistake a cat
for a sloth ? Certainly not. The habits,
form, and construction, all point out the

difference. The cat is nimble, can

the claws, has loi . the sloth is

ill at case on the ground, he moves slowly

and the

:.<1 and sole of i' not he

I'lte sloth does n
. ramble upon the ground, soar into
.

.1
habits,
' tlu m susjuiuKd fro;..

fast

IIRATA,
orvrrlrl

perhaps some of n ! nxk what

.plained that th

bone or spine is made up of several j

each of which ii <.,!!. I a rrttrhra; and if a na urn lint has one -en of boi.e
;im to rximiiie. he c.v nally formed par

fig. 31. The tiirce-tuitl tloln. usj.cudvd from the branch of trtt.
62 NATURAL HISTORY.
of. have no doubt that a great
I many of ycu have read or heard that Professor Owen,
the great anatomist, was enabled to stale the form and structure of an extinct bird of
New Zealand, and even the kind of food it used, by examining some of the bones that
were brought to England. We know he was
correct, because since he examined the bones,
other parts have been discovered, which verify his
statements.
A natural system should have such a thoroughly
scientific basis, that it should connect all the links

in the chain of relationship. We

all know by

observation that there is a scale in nature, and

that each kingdom gradually merges into, or is

blended with, the other. The difficulty is, there-
fore, to know where we are to draw the line of
demarcation ; hence the complexity of natural
Fig. 32.* systems. It may be remarked that there are
several Natural Systems, and that the pupil may request to be informed which is the best.
GRANDFATHER WHITEHEAD considers the best Natural System to be that which
approaches nearest to Nature's own plan, and exhibits a unity of classification he has ;

explained the difference between a natural and an artificial system in this Catechism.
To become a good Naturalist, it is necessary to observe things accurately and quickly,
so as to be able to distinguish differences in the structure of animals almost at a glance.
This will be acquired by practice; and I would advise my younger pupils to acquire
the habit of observing all things closely and quickly, but not slovenly. Let them place
a number of specimens of birds before them, such as swallows, swifts, sparrows, wood-
peckers, &c., and endeavour to find out and describe the peculiarities of each, how
they differ, and how they may each be distinguished or let them examine the skeletons
;

of a dozen quadrupeds, and exercise their minds in discriminating between one genug
and another.
and economy of animals, and make notes upon them
It is well to learn the habits
in a book arranged alphabetically the number of young they have, or eggs they lay;
;

the changes the young undergo giving examples of longevity, temper, &c.
; food, how ;

they capture their prey, and all interesting traits. Let the young read White's Natural
History of Selborne, and endeavour to form such another history of the place they reside
in. In after years, such a book will afford them many hours of amusement and
instruction.
Cuvier has been blamed for arranging his animal kingdom upon anatomical principles,
and severe remarks have been made upon his system for that reason. More than one
author censures him for giving anatomical descriptions of the animals. Is it more
difficult for a naturalist to study anatomy than an artist? Which is the more necessary
that the artist or the naturalist should make it their study ?

The insect tribes THE INSECTA

form the largest portion of the animal kingdom,
having nearly 600,000 species and yet, by attending to the principles of classification,
;

naturalists have not any difficulty in assigning the proper place to each of them. We

* and front view of the vertebra of a salmon, a, the the processes

Fig. 32. Side body; b, b, ;

c, vertebral canal.
 RETROSPECT AND R KM ARKS.
hare only to look at the accompanying diagrams, to see how the external appearance of
an ant differs from that of a bee and if we examine a beetle such as the Elm- destroying
;

scolytus, we immediately nee how differently it is formed from either the auu, the

*9- 3 <-t
Fiy. 33.

bees, or butterflies ; in fact, the wings are protected by hard covering, which the others

do not possess; we could not, therefore, place them in the same ordrr or genus.
One thing for the naturalist to remember; that the mere collect-
is especially necessary
ing of specimens, without any other object
than that of acquiring a heap, as the miser
does of gold, is useless, unscientific, and
attended with many inconveniences, the
least of which is
expense.
Students should not be alarmed at the
difficult looking names employed in
Zoology, or indeed any other science, they
are necessary and after reading them
;

over a few times, they will become almost

as familiar as the names of their school-
fellows. The best way to master the dif-

ficul v of reading and speaking th-- t chnir.il

names if ar i to copy them out

several times in a book, < 1
tables,
then ask some scientific friend to pronounce
the words, and write the pronunciation
Opposite tn them; thus fttrmica nifa
'.lid
roofha). Do not let >our only
object be to learn a long list of scientific
name* to Ml frirmN. but endeavour rather to thoroughly urns.-
D

you do learn. Commence by getting a gcnertl knowledge of the great divisions

of any one clam of animals, such as tin- quadruped*, of which there are about 1,200
r
j>eruli..ritics, names, orders, tribes, fan copy these names
over and over again, and persevere in mastering all the uifhVultirs that start up before
you. If one name appears more difficult than another, underline it with ml ink, and

study that more than the others. \Vln-n you line brrome acquainted with their name*
and peculiarities, endeavour to discover the reason each animal is classed as described,

fiy m MJmit. mnlr and fml-/orm,V-t rw/a.

.rnn. qur*n, ml worker.
3.V .Vro/y/w rflre/r , or Kim demoting tcolrtos, txhibltlnf thttxptndvd w!ng ami wins
eoTr of the intect.
 NATURAL HISTORY.
and you appear doubtful about the matter, consult some books, or note it in your
if

common-place book, so that you may consult some scientific friend upon the subject,
when an opportunity occurs.
you desire to be a naturalist, if you wish to excel your equals or betters, if you
If
would gain a wreath of fame remember that the worm of idleness will destroy the
;

result ol your previous labours, undermine your plans, and eat away the green leaves

you have ordained for your brow. It has been said thai " it is a mistake to imagine
th only the violent passions, such as love and ambition, can triun.ph over the rest
it

Idleness, languid as she is, often masters them all; she, indeed, influences all our
designs and actions, and insensibly consumes and destroys both passions and
virtues." Beware of her influences; live like a hermit; work like a slave; bow to

experience; store your golden grains of knowledge confirm reading by practice; ;

and. whatever method you adopt, first draw out your plan, and then abide by its PRIN-
CIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION.

GENERAL QUESTIONS ON RETROSPECT.

1. WHY
have some naturalists excluded 8. Can we readily distinguish a cat from
from the animal kingdom ? a sloth ?

2. AY by have Cuvier, and others, in- 9. Is there anything very peculiar about
i^U'ied Man in the animal kingdom? a vertebra ?
3. What objections does Swainson urge 10. What can we learn from the examina-
Man
aprainst being classed with the tion of a vertebra ?

Mammalia ? 11. What is the object of Natural

4. Why is recom-
the system of Cuvier Systems ?

mended by GRANDFATIIKR WHITF.IIKAD .' 12. What Natural Systems are the best?
5. How does Lamaik err in his classifi- 13. Why has the arrangement of Cuvier
cation ? been blamed ?

7
14. Is anatomy essential to a naturalist
[The pupil should, if sufficiently advanced, 15. Is there much difference between an
t:ivu :he division proposed and adopted by ant, a bee, and a beetle ?
M. Virey.]
16. State how these insects differ?
fi. How is the classification of Cuvier 17. What should naturalists always havt-
arranged ? in view ?

7. Are the primary types of nature very 18. What arc the best means to adopt tc
numerous 1 become a naturalist, or student generally ?
IIL-MECIIAMCS,

NAlillATIVE.

LESSON I.

A FEW miles from Keith, a little

village in Banflshire, lived a poor in .n,

who supported afamily by an

large
occasional day's work, and the profits

arising from the cultivation of a few

acres of land which he rented ; but
although poor he was honest, and n
iis duty towards liis Maker. 1

nd late he was seen working in the

fields, or busy about his house, v.

was situated on a hi^li

in the midst of groves of beautiful trees.
66 INTRODUCTORY NARRATIVE. [Lesson L

The country was truly picturesque, and from some points of the surrounding
scenery
" The cottage chimneys, half conceal'd from view
By their embowering foliage, sent on high
Their pallid wreaths of smoke, unruffled to the sky."

Afar the river might be seen, like a glistening serpent, winding amidst the luxuriant
off,

trees that decked its hanks.

Sometimes, when the labours of the day were not quite so severe, the father would
instruct the elder children to read and write; but this was only in his leisure hours.

Although his family was large, yet it was still further increased by another boy, who
was born in the year 1710, and duly christened at the proper time James Ferguson.
Thehistory of Ferguson, written by himself, and prefixed to his Select Mechanical
Exercises, published in 1778, (second edition,) is so instructive and interesting, that it
urill to give it in his own words.
be better
When writing respecting the manner in which he acquired a knowledge of reading,
he tells us that it was during the time his father was teaching his elder brother to read
the Scotch Catechism.
11
Ashamed to ask my father to instruct me, I used, when he and my brother were
abroad, to take the Catechism, and study the lesson which he had been teaching my
brother; and when any difficulty occurred, I went to a neighbouring old woman, who
gave me such help as enabled me to read tolerably well before my father had thought of
teaching me.
" Some time he was agreeably surprised to find me he there-
after, reading by myself ;

upon gave me further instruction, and also taught me to write; which, with about tJiree
months I afterwards had at tlie grammar school at Keith, was all the education I ever
received.
" mechanics arose from an odd accident: When about seven or eight
My taste for

years of age, a part of the roof of the house being decayed, my father, desirous of mending
applied a prop and lever to an upright spar, to raise it to its
it,

former situation and, to my great astonishment, / saw him,

;

without considering tJie reason, lift up the ponderous roof as if it

had been a small weight. I attributed this at first to a degree
of strength that excited my terror as well as wonder ;
but think-

ing further of the matter, I recollected that he had applied his

strength to that end of the lever which was furthest from the
prop ;
and finding, on inquiry, that this was the means whereby
the seeming wonder was effected, / began making levers (which
I then called bars) and by applying wights to them different ways,
;

I found the power gained by my bar was just in proportion

to the lengths of the different parts of the bar on either side of

the prop. I then it was a great pity that, by means of this bar, a weight could be
thought
* F iy. 1. " Let a
b be a wheel, c d its axle, and suppose the circumference of the wheel to be eight
times as great as the circumference of the axle then, a power, p, equal to one pound, hanging by the
;

cord which goes

,
round the wheel, will balance a weight, w, of eight pounds, hanging by the rope k,
which goes round the axle and as the friction on the pivots, e f, or gudgeons of the axle is but small,
;

a small addition to the power will cause it to descend, and raise the weight; but the weight will rise
with only an eighth part of the velocity wherewith, the power descends, and consequently, through no
more than an eighth part of an equal space, in the same time. If the wheel be pulled round by the
handles. *, the power will be increased in proportion to their length,
, g is a ratchet-wheel on one
nd of tbe axle, with a catch, A, to fall in its teeth." Ferguson's Lecturet, 10th Edition, p. 55.
Lesson L] INTRODUCTORY NARRATIVE. 7

raised but a very little way. On

soon imagined, that, by pulling round a wheel,
this, I

the weight iiii_-ht be raised to any height by tying a rope to the weight, and winding the

rope round the axle of the wheel and that the power gained must be just as great as the
;

wheel was broader thin the axle was thick and found it to be exactly so by hanging one
;

weight to a rope put tound the wheel, and another to the rope that coiled round the axle.
So that, in these two machines, it appeared very plain, that their advantage was as great
as the space gone through by the working power exceeded the space gone through by
the weight ; and this property, I also thought, must take place in a wedge for
:i wood but then I happened not to think of the screw. By means of a
;
t,.

lathe u-hich fattier had, and sometimes used, and a little knife, 1 was enabled to makt
;/.-//

wheels and other things necessary for my purpose.

hen wrote a short account of these machines, and sketched out figures of them
with a pen, imagining it to be the first treatise of the kind that ever was written but ;

found my mUtake when I afterwards showed it to a gentleman, who told me that these
things were known long before, and showed me a printed book in which they were treated
of; and I was much pleased when I found that my account (so far as I had carried it)
agreed with the principles of mechanics in the book he showed me. And from that
(1 a constant tendency to improve in that science.
" Bi.
me while I was in pursuit only of
her could not afford to maintain
these matters, and was rather too young and weak for hard labour, he put me out to a
I

neighbour to keep sheep, which I continued to do for some years; and in that time I
began to study the stars in the night. In the day-time I amused myself by making modeU
itcels, and such other tilings as I happened to see.
" I ; a considerable farmer in the neighbourhood, whose name waa

James 1 found him very kind and

<

indulgent but he soon observed that in ;

the evenings, when my work was over, I went into a field with a blanket about me, lay
hack, and stretched a thread with small beats upon it, at .1:
aeye and the stars; sliding the beads upon it till they hid such an
my ..

stars fr in order to take their apparent distances from one another

, and then, ;

laying the thread down on a paper, I marked the stars tin beads, according
to the:: .ons, having a cat rat first laughed at me;
but when I explained my meaning to him, he encouraged me to go on and that I ;

might make f.iir

copies in the day-time of what 1 had done in the night, he often worked

nt him with a message to the Rev. John Gilchrist, the minister

at Keith, and Ferguson carried what he t- tar papers"

show the clergyman, who was examining some maps. Mr (ul hust had
OHM conversation with Ferguson, lent hint a in ip to copy, and gave him a ;

k, and paper for the pui| >'. n c MI, \>'.< ted this task, and
passes, a ru
-
Il<

while : ..itii the

map and copy under his arm, lie observed a
man, named Alexander Cantli-y, painting a sun-dial on the wall of the school wl,>
formerly had three months' r .ml while staying to observe him, the
master came out, and asked Ferguson what he had under his ami. Ferguson showed
him the map In- had drawn, which pleased tin- -rh..;n 1 . .u i v< ry imu-h, and the \

also pi a the same timeilhat it was a pity such a lad o

nconngtoi
r he arrived at the minister's, and while convening with him, a neighbouring
 INTRODUCTORY NARRATIVE. [Lesson I.

gentleman (Thomas Grant, Esq.. of Achoynaney,) called, and was so pleased with Fer-
guson and what he had done, that after asking him a few questions about the construc-
tion of maps, he promised that if he would go and live at his house, he would order his

butler, Alexander Cantley, to instruct him. Ferguson thanked Squire Grant for his
Kindness, and promised, when the tima of his servitude had expired, he would avail him-
self of the offer.
" When the term of "
my servitude was out," writes Ferguson, I left my good
master, and went to the gentleman's house, where I quickly found myself with a most
humane, good family. \Ir. Cantley, the butler, soon became my friend, and continued
so till his death. He was the most extraordinary man I ever was acquainted with, or
perhaps ever shall see ; for he was a complete master of arithmetic, a good mathe-
matician, a master of music on every known instrument except the harp, understood
Latin, French, and Greek, let blood .extremely well, and could even prescribe as a
physician upon any urgent occasion. He was what is generally called self-taught but, ;

I think, he might with much greater propriety have been termed GOD ALMIGHTY'S
scholar.
" He me decimal arithmetic and algebra for I had already
immediately began to teach ;

learnt vulgar arithmetic, at my leisure hours,from books. He then proceeded to teach

me the elements of geometry ; but, to any inexpressible grief, just as Iwas beginning
that branch of science, he left Mr. Grant, and went to the late Earl of Fife's, at several
miles' distance. The good family I was then with could not prevail with me to stay after
'hewas gone so I left them, and went to my father's.
;
He had made me a present of
Cordon's Geographical Grammar, which, at that time, was to me a great treasure."
From a description contained in this book, Ferguson constructed a globe of wood
covered it with paper delineated a map of the world upon it and made a graduated
horizon, and meridian ring of wood, covered with paper.
Finding that his father could not support him, he went into the service of a miller,
who spent most of his time tippling at an ale-house, leaving the whole care of the
.mill to Ferguson, who was almost starved by his master, so that he was often glad to get
a little oatmeal mixed with cold water to eat; and at the end of a year was obliged to
return home, being in a very weak state from want of proper food. Having recovered
strength, his father advised him to go
.his as a labouring servant to a neighbouring
who practised as physician in that part of the country, telling him that the doctor
ifawner,
liad promise^ .to instruct him. This proved a great temptation to Ferguson, who
accordingly entered the doctor's service, but was so over-worked, that he was obliged
to leave it at the end of three months, without receiving anything for his services, and
o much disabled in his left arm and hand, that he despaired of ever recovering

their use.
In his Autobiography, he complains bitterly of the conduct of Doctor Young, for not
while in his service, or visiting him after he left it, and
giving him any medicine
attributes his recovery to some medicines sent to him by Cantley. While at his
father's, in order to amuse himself, he made a wooden clock, the frame of which was also

of wood ;
and the bell, on which the hammer struck the
was the neck of a
.hours,
broken Ferguson tells us that this clock kept time pretty well, and then adds
bottle. :

"Having then no idea how any .time-,kceper could go but by a weight and a line, I
wondered how a watch could go in all positions and was sojry that I had never thought
;

of Mr. Cantley, who could very easily have informed me. But happening one
asking
Lesson!.] INTRODUCTORY NARRATIVE. 69

day to see a gentleman ride by my father's house, (which was close by a public road,)
I asked him what o'clock it then was he looked at his watch, and then told me. As he
;

did that with so much good begged of him to show me the inside of his watch;
nature, I

and though he was an entire stranger, he immediately opened the watch, and put it
into my hands. I saw the spring-box, with part of the chain round it, and asked him

what it was that made the box turn round he told me that it was turned round by a steel
;

spring within it Having then never seen any other spring than that of my father's pun-
lock, I asked how a spring within a box could turn the box so often round as to wind all
the chain upon it He answered, that the spring was long and thin that one end of it ;

was fastened to the axis of the box, and the other end to the inside of the box that the ;

axis was fixed, and the box was loose upon it. I told him I did not yet thoroughly
'
understand the matter. Well, my lad,' says he, 'take a long thin piece of whalebone,
hold one end of it between your finger and thumb, and wind it round your finger:
fast

it will endeavour to unwind itself; and if you fix the other end of it to the inside of

a small hoop, and leave it to itself, it will turn the hoop round and round, and wind up
a thread tied to the outside of the hoop.' I thanked the gentleman, and told him I

understood the thing very well."

From the scanty information he had thus acquired, Ferguson constructed a watch
with wooden wheels, and made the spring of whalebone, enclosing the whole in a wooden
case, very little larger than a teacup but a clumsy neighbour, while looking at it, let
;

the watch fall, and while endeavouring to pick it

up, crushed it all to pieces with his foot;

which discouraged him so much, that he never attempted to make such another machine
again, especially as he felt convinced that he could never make one that would be of
1 use.

strength was sufficiently restored, hs carried his globe, clock, and copies
of some other maps, besides that of the world, to Sir James Dunbar, of Durn, who
lifed about seven miles from his fulu-r's cottage. Sir James was much pleased with

him, and desired that he would clean his clocks, which he did; and also paint*
Urge globular stones that stood on the top of the gate of Sir James's house, with oil
colours: the one representing a terrestrial, and the other a celestial globe. WhiK- at
uc, he was introduced to Lady Dipple, sister to Sir James, and was requested to
draw patterns for needle-work for her; and, soon after this, he obtained plenty of such
\ ment from other ladies in the country go that he was enabled, occasionally,
;

to supply the wants of his poor father.

'1 his astronomical observations ; and, as Sir James's house was full
ures and prints, he en : several of them with pen and ink and ;

severing, he was enabled, through the interest of Lady Dipple, to set up as a

urgh.
irph. he studied
anatomy, surgery, and physic, intending t.> Ix-romea
physician; but a native place put these thoughts nut of his head, u
visit to his

painting, which he followed for tu irs. He w<

ness, and commenced his astr mlirA again this was in 1739, the year he was
;

married, a >
,t; and, we may not w suppose,
good reason, as he and his if< lu.-.l
very unhappily togethrr. It i< related, that
whilst Ferguson was delivering a lecture in 1770, on astmi.
Mid upset several
pieces of 1m apparatus; but he merely
looked at her, and said, " Ladies and gentlemen, I have the misfortune to be married
 MECHANICS. [Lesson L

o this woman." He made several orreries; and, in 1747, commenced publishing his
works. The following year, lie began to deliver lectures on astronomy, and, subse-

quently, on mechanics, hydrostatics, hydraulics, pneumatics, and electricity. He died

in 1766, in the sixty-sixth year of his age, worth about 6,000 in property and cash,
having received 50 a year from the Privy purse for many years. He was very
properly elected a Fellow of the Royal Society for his scientific acquirements. ~\Ve
must acknowledge, that, however much astronomy, and the other branches of science,
were indebted to his untiring perseverance and research, yet he rendered most essential
service to the study of MECHANICS.

MECHANICS.
QUESTIONS AND EXPLANATIONS.
1. T. WHAT do you mean by Me- for some time, the metal is reduced in
chanics ? thickness by the mechanical action of the
P. It is the Philosophy of Machinery, particles of brick again, [Experiment 2]
;

or the Theory of Powers or Forces, being if a tin can, with a small hole in the bottom
a science which teaches us the proportion of it, is filled with water, and placed about
of the forces, motions, velocities, and even two feet above the brick we have just used,
the actions of bodies upon one another, and allowed to remain there for some time,
either directly or by means of machinery. the water will act mechanically upon the
brick, and wear it away.
2. T. What is the term mechanics de-
rived from ? 7. T. Have not some philosophers di-
P. From the Greek meelcanee (M7jx"^)> vided the science of mechanics, or as Dr.
vhich signifies a machine. Wallis terms it, the " Geometry of motion,"
into two parts ?
3. T. What do you mean by force ? P. Yes, into STATICS and DYNAMICS ;
P. The power exerted on a body to
but it is better to consider the subject as a
make it
change its
position. whole, and not adopt this mode of dividing
[The pupil should read Q. 131, 132, and 133, it.
p. JM.]
8. T. What is meant by Statics, and
4. T. What do you mean by a ma-
the term derived from ?
what is
chine ?
P. Statics is the doctrine of the equi-
P. In the sense it is here employed, I
librium of forces, and the term is derived
mean any mechanical instrument by which
from the Greek verb stao (Sracw), to stand.
force may be made to act.
9. T. What is the word Dynamics de-
5. T. How is this accomplished ?
rived from, and what is its signification ?
P. Machines can only convey the mo-
P. It is derived from the Greek word
tion imparted to them to another body;
(liin(t)iiis
(AIJVU/J.IS), force or power, and lite-
they cannot act of themselves, but may means the theory of force and power.
rally
regulate or modify the force employed,
although they cannot produce it.
10. T. When we have to apply a ma-
chine, what are the chief things to be
[Pupils should study Lesson X., p. 24, and then
they will be better prepared to understand considered ?
what is meant by motion, force, velocity, &c.] P. 1. The force which we have to over-
6. T. Explain what you mean by the come, sustain, or oppose. 2. The force
term mechanical. which will enable us to overcome, sustain,
P. Mechanical action is the result of or oppose the resisting force. 3. The ma-

the application of power or force acting chine by which the desired eflect is pro-
upon a body. For example [Experiment duced, by transmitting the requisite force
brick or power to the resisting force.
1], if 1 rub a metal button upon a
 II.} IIANICS.

11. /'.What name has been g: simple machines belong to one or

the force we have lo overcome, sustain, or .asses; and all complex machines,
or, in other words, the body which r
large, are only made up of part*
which are simple in themselves, and cume
It is technically termed the weight. under these three mechanic p<>
1-j. T. Why is it called the weL 17. T. Have these p< <'d any
/'. Because we can always obtain a particular name from philosop
weight of equivalent effect. P. Yes they are called the Primary
;

Mechanical Power*, from winch ail

/'. What is the force which is em-
are derived.
ployed to overcome, oppose, or sustain,
term /'. How many other mechanic
P. technically called the power,
It in powers are there ?

and communicates motion to the 1 P. 'Ihree: 1. The wheel and n

:om the Lei
/'.Then you would imply that the
ncd Pltine. S. The srrcu-, iiom the
sustains the weight.
Inclined Plane.
~t: il to say so, but this is not
actually the case, because it is quite im- 19. r. What are these powers called f
.- for the power of an ounce to sup- P. The Secondary Mechanical Power*
port the weight of two thousand pounds. 20. T. How many mechanic powers
w it cannot do so. yet by employing
are tin
:ue it appears to do so.
/'.Three Primary and three Secondary;
How can you account for this ?
/'. in nil, six, from which are deri\
1\ Kvcry machine has certain elements of every kind of machinery.
points, and it is so managed or contrived
that the pressure caused by the applied
!IAL QUESTIONS ON LESS
weight or power, or both, shall be thrown
ie fixed points of the machine. It
1
Kxplain what is meant by Mechanic?.
can be so arranged that the greater part of J. \\':i.t is the derivation of the word
the weight shall 1 <1 amon- tin-
Mechan
fixed points, and that the remaining part 3. What is a mac
shall not be greater than the power em-
\plain the difference betwe<
refore we can now
chanics and i:
understand how one ounce apprart to sup- 11
.".. has the science of Mechanics
<> thousand pounds, and when we .
idcd by some philosop
learn more about mechanic powers this the meanings ami <i. : ivations
\jil.iin
will be more easily understood. statics and dyi
/'. What do you mean by ID- 7. What are the

pow< r in mind in the application of machines ?

P. The most simple ma< '

8. Dclini- the t< and power.

:

II VSH '.' \\ r :, m
mtc-hanic powers, and how
H. which ar an- there ?
thr-c in n 2, the lt. How are the mechanic powers di-
'

Pulley or Cord ; 3, the Inclined Plant, All

LESSON II.

FEROUSOW Is an admirable example for us all. The young should endeav<

his zml :
liahiii, humility, and perseverance; and the
and that love of practical knovtedgt
only, which some persons extol so high uson's case, it waa his misf
 MECHANICS. [Lesson II.

rather than his fault, to be an empirical mechanic but, in the present age of cheap
:

scientific literature, those who reject the theoretical part of mechanics

altogether, have
only themselves to blame. Dr. PJayfair, in contrasting theory and practice, thus
" For a
happily expresses himself: long time practice, standing still in the pride of
empiricism, and in the ungrateful forgettulness of what science had done in its develop-
ment, reared upon its portal the old and vulgar adage, 'An ounce of practice is worth
a ton of theory.' This wretched inscription acted like a Gorgon's head, and turned to
stone the aspirations of science. Believe it not for a grain of theory if that be an
;

expression for science when planted, like the mustard-seed of Scripture, grow and
will,
wax into the greatest of trees. The pressure and difficulties of the age, and the rapid
advancement of intellect in continental nations, have been the Perseus to cut off this
Medusa's head from the industry of England, and to fix it on the shield of Minerva,
who turns to stone such as still believe that science should be ignored by practice ;

but, reversing that shield, wisely conducts those who would go further under her
guidance. It is now men who openly avow, although they actually enter-
rare to find
tain a belief in, a necessary antagonism between theory and practice. Theory is, in
fact, the rule, and practice its example. Theory is but the attempt to furnish an
intelligent explanation of that which is empirically ascertained to be true, and is always
useful, even when wrong. Theories are the leaves of the tree of science, drawing
nutriment to the parent stem while they last, and, by their fall and decay, affording
materials for the new leaves which are to succeed."

Ferguson saw his father lift up the ponderous roof by means of a lever, and he tells

us, that he did not consider the reason, but that the fact terrified him ; however, he goes
on to relate, that he thought further on the matter, and inquired if the theory he had
built up was well founded. To his great satisfaction, he discovered that his ideas were
correct. How few children there are, even at double his age, that would have thought
further of the matter, and inquired Many growp-up people would have observed and
!

passed on, without considering anything about the matter and if they had, their false ;

pride, in all probability, would have prevented them making any inquiries. Ferguson
did not stop here, he commenced making experiments
with levers, applying weights to
them and endeavouring to prove, practically, that which he believed
in different ways,

theoretically. His experiments were successful and, therefore, all that he knew was
;

not like the knowledge acquired by those who make learning a labour he knew what
had cost him so much trouble to learn, thoroughly, theoretically, and practically.

QUESTIONS.
21. T. What is a LEVER? sider as essential to the constitution of a
P. An
inflexible straight bar, or rod of lever ?

any material, which turns on an axis, is P. Three: 1. The power. 2. The//-

usually termed a lever. It is one of the crum. 3. The weight.
most useful and extensively employed 24. T. What do you mean by the
mechanical powers.
fulcrum ?
22. T. What is the principle of the P. It the axis upon, or about which,
is

lever founded on ? the lever moves, and is generally termed

P. The theory of equilibrium, like that the prop but is technically termed ihe
,

of all mechanic powers. fulcrum.

23. T. What things have we to con- 25. T. What is the use of the lever ?
Lesson II. ] MECHANICS,
P. It enables us to overcome a crum, the point on which it turns. A
ance, or move
a weight, bearing on one common claw-hammer, employed to raise

point, by applying a power to another.

T. What are the parts of a lever on
f the fulcrum called ?
P. The arm*.

T. How many kinds of lever* are

there ?

/'. Three, which vary according to the

relative situation of the power, fulcrum, %.*>
and weight nails, is a lever of the first class; but, in
this case, the line of direction of the power
28. T. How are these levers distin-
All
is perpendicular to the resistance.
guished ?
instruments for cutting or holding, which
/'. Into a lever of the firtt kind, where
are composed of two pieces crossing each
the fulcrum is placed between the power
other in the midd
and the weight a lever of the tecond kind,
;
as sci- pin-
the weight is between the fulcrum
ft,

cers, pliers, nippers. &c.,

of the third
are familiar
here the power is placed between
the pivot or joint being
rum and the weight. Fig. 2 is an
the fulcrum, the resis-
example of a lever of the first kind. B A tance or weight the pa-
per, grass, \'c. ID he
cut or seized, and the
"*~~UT ^T.
^ ^

JS
-
\ '\
3^ bar, applir.i to r:u-e
.
power applied hy the
hand. A common crow-

ft?' * stones or otht-r

t -

is termed the long arm of the lever, ni-.d

is another familiar example the fulcrum ;

represents some 1*
being another stone placed near to the one
Mich as a hand drawing down the to be raised, and the power
rig arm at A, and,
as t
hands who raises it [S
*--d to be weak or
'
red with
or the resistance 30. T.Are levers always straight
arm must have a /*. No; they are sometimes cur,
-
relative length than the one to in Fig. 5. The same advantage cai
he weight is attached.
ve me some examples of levers

P. When a poker i*
the bars of the fire-grate to raise tin

we have a f fa lever of
\*a. (Fig. 8.) When we use a pin
from its shell, we
a lever of
he Irvcr, and the hhell the fulcrum.
ike of a pump is a lever of the
f. M
'on nncl th<-
derived from a bent lever as from a straight
pump-ro<U
being
'
be raised, and the luU
i,t bar.
3.-A, th pok.r.
Is, or v*f<
Fio J A B P. the Irrrr. or Infltx,
4. a, tb hind, or jwvr; the nail,
rappoMd to b of t Fig. .
<
ihvoretirally
weight in every ,,rt DIP /-.. ; F. md/. lh//rrnin
MMT; n<l W. I>,P troy*/ Tl.o.r par- r.rtW b9tr. .upPOMtd by
each tide of the fulcrum arc Uie armt of rnm F. Th wtifkl W, Is atuchtd 10 B
74 MECHANICS. [Lesson III.

one of the same length. Let B E repre- 32. T. How is the mechanical ad-
sent a curved lever, which is .supported at vantage of the power and weight of a lever
F, having the weight (W) attached at B, described !
and the power (P) applied at E. If we P- By a line drawn from the fulcrum,
wish to find the momentum of the weight, at right angles to the direction in the
we have only to multiply its weight by which the forces are respectively acting.
the ideal lines A
F, or B C ; and the
momentum of power will be found by GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON II.
multiplying its weight by the ideal lines
D E, or F G.
1. What is the difference between theory
and practice ?
[See Q. 137 and 138, p. 25.]
2. What is a lever?
31. T. stated leads me
What you have 3. What is essentially necessary in a
to suppose that levers do not always act in lever ?

the same direction. Is this the case? Describe what is meant by a fulcrum ?
4.
P. Yes.All straight levers are sup- 5. What
is the use of levers and how ;

posed to have their powers or forces acting many kinds of levers are there ?
at right angles with them but bent levers
; 6. Describe and
give examples of levers
act obliquely, and not at right angles, which of the first kind.
is the reason bent levers are not so advan- 7. How do levers of the first, second,
tageous as straight ones, because the ob- and third class differ ?

liquity in their action diminishes the me- 8. How the advantage of the power
is
chanical gain. and weight of a lever represented ?

LESSON III.

FERGUSON tried many experiments with levers, to prove that the theories he had con-
structed were correct It would be well for us, if we always followed his example in

this respect. He applied weights to the levers in various ways, and was thus enabled
to determine the advantages gained or lost.
""

We
must examine the principles of the
lever experimentally, and endeavour to establish facts. One thing must always be borne
in mind, that what if gained in power is lost in velocity ; we cannot create either power or
velocity ;
but we may substitute the one for the other.

QUESTIONS.
33. T. Why
the power applied at a
is four pound weight placed there instead, the
greater distance from the fulcrum of a lever, fulcrum being situated nearer to the ten
than that at which the weight bears ? pound weight than to the lesser one, what
P. In order to overcome the resistance will be the effect ?
more effectually. P. Possibly the same because it will ;

34. T.Suppose that a pole, twelve feet depend upon how near the fulcrum is
For example if a weight of
long, resting in the centre upon a block of placed. ;

wood, is used as a lever, and that a weight twenty pounds placed on the short arm
is

of ten pounds is placed at each end, what of a lever, at the distance of six inches from
will be the effect ?
the fulcrum, it will require a weight of six
P. Provided the pole is of uniform pounds to be placed twenty inches from the
gravity, it will remain in a state of equili- fulcrum, to balance it.
brium, or in other words, it will lie balanced ;
30. T. How do you know that this is
but if one end of the pole is heavier than correct ?
the other, it will descend, and the lighter P. By experiment and calculation ; be-
end be driven upwards. sides, it is a general rule, that the force of
35. T. If one weight is removed, and a the lever increaset in proportion an the dis-
LeonIII.] MECHANICS. 75

small weight, descending a long way in any

tnnceof the power from the fulcrum increases,
proportion as the distance given length of time, is equal in effect to a
from the fulcrum diminishes. great weight descending a proper:,
shorter way in the same space of time. \V ill
T. How can we find out, by cil-
you give me an example of this, and state
culation, the requisite power to employ I
if it is correct ?
/'.\Ve must first of all establish P. It is quite true and it is on this ;

points, and
then act by rule. The points In this
principle that the see-saw acts.
are 1. The resp.-ctive lengths of the long
diagram we see that two boys are amusing
and short arms of the lever. 2. The units Ives with a plank, which is balanced
Jit and distance.

38. r. What do you mean by the units

it and uis-.i

P. If we fix ounces or pounds, or any

other weight as the unit of the short arm
of the lever, we must fix the unit of power
of the long arm the same ami if we make ;

the unit of distance of the short arm to be

an inch, we mutt have inches as the units
on a stone. The planlc A B, is a lever of
of length of the long arm.
t class, of which the stone F is the
39. What is the rule you mentioned?
T. fulcrum. As the boy E is heavier than
/'.A very simple one. Multiply the the boy o, it is necessary to place him
weight by its distance from the fulcrum ; nearer to the fulcrum. It is easy to see

its distance from that the lighter boy traverses a greater space
iltiply the power by
the same point if the products are equal,
;
from H to D, than the heavy boy from c to
^ht and power will counteract each A. Let us suppose that E rep-
other. a weight of ten pounds, and that
[See Q. 35, bore.]
s a
power of one pound. If the

40. have not told me yet how

T. You power is depressed too. the weight will be
to calculate the power we must employ at
oc; the space B D bears the same
'
ann of a lever, to balance a known
: 1
proportion to c A, as the arm B F to A P.
attached to the short
be ten times c A, which
in easily <i.
ihe power o, ol one pound, m
weight by the length of the short a:
,

result the power only raised

in the long is

/ r U 11
<
.
: ,

qualto
of the short nrm,) gives us 240 as the resistance overcome. \\hieh is the cause
f 240 by 24, saying that it
retpiir. * ten pounds
(which r to raise a weight of ten pounds ;

machine was enabled to over-

>unds we must employ ; iiis resistance with a Mini! ]><

mechanical ,tinct efforts instead of

because the weight only (

is twice that of the power.

41. T. Ifwe* levertoover- useful applic.r

eome ;>
preferable, a
long one or a hort
A short on.
an example, uh'-n srn
he long one, '

a scale
/'. It i s.ii<l to be a rule, /., acting upon the arm ac, and
 MECHANICS. [Lesson IV.
this kept in equilibrium by a movable
is

weight p, on the other arm of the lever. As

GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON III.
the weight j> can be slipped along the lever 1.
Why is one arm of a lever usuaJly
to any required point, it follows that the longer than the other ?
2. When a lever is balanced in its centre,
and equal weights placed at either end,
what takes place?
3. Give me a rule, to
prove that power
increases and diminishes with distance.
4. How can we calculate the proper
Fig. 1.
power we require to employ ?
heavier the weight is, the further must the {
5. Explain what is meant
by units of
movable weight be placed from the ful- { weight and distance.
crum a, in order to balance the weight. 6. "Why is a short lever
generally better
The common scale-beam for weighing than a long one ?

is another example of this class, and is 7. Explain how a see-saw acts.

generally prefered to the steelyard, because 8. Explain the principle of the steel-
the subdivision of weights is more precise. yard.

LESSON IV.

SUPPOSE that aline passed round a pulley, to the end of which a weight p was attached,
and that some force was acting in the direction ab, equal to the weight p. By the
theory of the parallelogram of forces, we are enabled
to decompose the forces meeting at a, and acting in the
direction a b, into lateral forces ; one of which acts in
the direction of d from a, being a prolongation of the
direction of the radius g a, while the direction of the
other force a e is parallel with h p. If the pulley is
fixed, the action of the force a d will be counteracted by
the resistance, altogether, of the central point g; we
"
may therefore take away the component force which
is acting in the direction a d without disturbing the
equilibrium and we may replace the active force a b,
;

by its component force acting in the direction a e. If

the line a c represent the force p acting in the direction
a b, then the line a e, will give the amount of the
"
^3J
f^o- 8 -
component force P, (Fig. 9) and without working out the
relations of size between a cand a e, or p and P, we can easily see thatP is larger than p-
Therefore, without disturbing the equilibrium, we may replace the force p, acting in the
direction a b by another force P, acting at a in a vertical instead of a lateral direction.

Snppose that, instead of the force P being allowed to act directly at a, we make it act
in any part of the line a e, we shall find that the equilibrium will not be disturbed.
For example, let the force P act at the point /in the line a e, where it is intersected by
the line ft g, and we shall then find that we have two rectangular forces p and P in a
state of equilibrium, at the ends of the line fh revolving round g, as in Fig. 9. The
two forces are unequal, as their respective points of action at / and /* are at unequal
 ..
IV.] MECHANICS. 77

distances from the fulcrum g. We must now find out the relation which exists
between the size of the forces p and P, and the lengths kg undfg. It will be seen
_ / that the triangles c a e in Fig. 8, and afg are similar to each
* ' ' '
and therefore a c and a e are
'
and a and
other, equal iofg g t

the lengths a c and a e are to each other as the forces p and P,

consequently we may say that these forces bear an inverse

ratio to the distances of their points of action from the
fulcrum g. We can now see that a lever does revolve round a
** * fixed point, as at g in Fig. 9.

QUESTIONS.
45. T. What is meant by the ttatic mo- P. The oar which urges a boat forward
ment of a f is an excellent example the blade forced
;

/'. the product obtained by mul-

It is against the water is the fulcrum, the boa;
tiplying the force by the arm of the lever, the weight, and the man's hands the power.
:hat force which, acting at an arm of The rudder of a ship acts in the same
on the opposite side of the fulcrum,
t manner. When we open a door, the hinge
is the fulcrum, the air the resistance, an.
^reserve the state of equilibrium.
the person opening it the power. If we
Explain this more fully.
/'.

crack a nut we use two levers of the second

suppose that the force to the
right of Fig. 9 is equal to 6, and the arm
kind, the hinge which keeps them together
of the lever equal to 4, the static n. forming the fulcrum, the nut the resistance
of the force will be 4 multiplied by 6, or or weight, and the hand the power. The
24 then if the force on the left hand is to
;
old sugar-chopper used by grocers is a very
be in a state of equilibrium with the former,
the static moment of the two must be equal,
and the force acting on the left side of an
arm equal to 2 must have a weight of 12.
/.What do you mean by a lever
of the second kind ?
P. It a lever which has the weight
i

IV n.
placed between the fulcrum and the power.
good example of a lever of this kind the ;

!"
-ing the fulcrum, the sugar ihe
resistance or weight, and the handle the
When a crowbar is placed under-
neath a stone, and the end of the bar raised,
it becomes a lever of the second kind, the

end resting on the ground being t:

crniii. the M ,,| the
/If. 10.
upward movement of the man's hand the
power.
Two men carrying a sedan-chair
A fam <
of this kind of lever is
. the fulcniM. t.irnung the
moving power and fulcrum with rov,
presses on the
each other, while the weight in the chair.
lii-ing the barrow and
Its load, wh ted l>v 49. T. What is meant by a one-armed
the two handles v- ui lifts, and
in
1
<n AS .s or shorten* / which has one end
It is a lever fixed,
propor .

handles, so is the power and two forces acting in opposite dir<

*. [See Fnmtbpttc*.] same idr

48. / familiar i
give me an example of
examples of a lever of the second class. this kind of lever t
78 MECHANICS. [Lesson IV.

P. In this diagram we shall see that it [

to overcome resistance, hut to move a
has been applied to the boiler of a steam- '

weight with great speed, or else for :-ome

engine. The valve p, which covers and sanicular purpose.

closes the opening of the boiler, is forced
54. T. Give me some familiar examples
up by the pressure of the steam, but this of levers of this kind.
P. The treddle of a turning-lathe is one
of the most common, the end which rests
on the floor is the fulcrum the foot of the
;

man, which presses on the board near to

he fulcrum, is the power; and .the crank
Fig. 13. upon the axis of the fly-wheel, which is at-
tached to the other end, is the weight. A
pressure is balanced by a smaller force man using a flail with two hands is another
(the weight u>, which acts downwards), be- example. But the most interesting ex-
cause it acts at a longer arm than the amples of the application of such levels
pressure on the under surface of the valve. are to be found in the structure of animals,
In this case the fixed point of the lever a particularly the arm and forearm of man ;
is the fulcrum.

51. T. What is meant by a lever of the

third kind ?
P. It is a lever with the power placed
between the fulcrum and the weight or
resistance (Tig. 13). The fulcrum is
placed at the extremity of the short arm, at

Fig. 14.*

and, although there is a mechanical dis-

advantage in the action of the biceps, yet
there is a corresponding increase in
velocity. The lower jaw also furnishes us

Fig. IS.
AvJ
F ;
the weight w is suspended from the
end of the long arm and the power, p, is
;

placed between them.

52. T. Is this form of lever advanta-
geous or not ?

P. What is is gained in
lost in power
velocity ; advantageous for
therefore it is 1?
some purposes, because a small power will Fiy. 15.
cause the long arm of the lever to move with an excellent example of the force
over a great space. exerted by muscular action, which, at times,
53. T. How is it that you tell me that cannot be less than three hundred pounds
is lost kind of lever and
in this in man, and even more in large animals.
power ;

then say, that a small power will cause the riif. 15 shows the arrangement of this kind

long arm to move with greater velocity ? of lever A represents the masseter muscle,
;

P. I spoke comparatively, because we

*
know that a grr-ater power must be actually Fig. 14. a, the humerux, or arm-hone; ft, <?,
bones of the forearm d, the muscle which bends
required than would be the case if the
;

the forearm, called biceps flexor cubiti, and is in-

power was applied directly to the weight ;
scried at e into the posterior part of the tubercle
and therefore this kind of lever is not used of the rodius c ; and/, the weight.
Leeson V.j

which chiefly c.mses this force, and is at-

tached to the lower jaw, B, at P. The :.VL QUESTIONS ON LKSSON IV.

fulcrum. F, is formed by the condylt or end
of the bone, which rests against the tem- Give an explanation of the decompo-
1.

sition of the forces acting upon a levrr. !>j

poral bone, T, while the weight or resistance
is at w. means of the theory of the parallelogram
of forces, and explain how equilibrium is
55. T. Give me some examples of maintained.
compound levers of the third class.
\plain the meaning of the static
P. A
pair of shears, such as ar moment of the force of a lever.
for shearing sheep, and a pair of tongs,
Define a lever of the second kind.
.'}.

.:.les. In both en-

4. Give spme examples of levers of the
action is, the same ; and here is a diagram
second class.
F r .'>. What do you mean by a one-arm-'d
lever?
t).
Explain how a one-armed lever acts.
7. Define a lever of the third kind.
8. Is there any advantage to l.e gained
in iiNing levers of the third class?
of a pair of tongs which will illustrate this.
9. Give some examples of third-class
i' P. the parts where we
levers.
lay hold of the tongs, represents the power; 10. Are levers of the third class single
and the coJ, W, is the weight or resist-
or compound ?
ance.

LESSON V.
IF we \vi>h to have a very long lever, or one possessing great mechanic il power, it is
10 arrange a series of levers, so that the power acting on the end of the first lever
hall raise the second, and that, depressing the end of the third, will raise a weight at
the further example, suppose tli.v loot) pounds by
means of one pound, the distance of the j>
.u, r from the fulcrum must he 1000 times
that of the weight, and as this would be very incoir. e levers for

the purpose of obtaining the same result. The relative length of the a
lever it a* ten to dne ; and if we /'/'#. 17, we shall see that the levers are so

arranged, as to bear upon one another. '1 liu.>, the power of one pound w,K balance the

r -tr

,\

weigh' md; and as the weight end of the first lev

econd lever, it Mill exercine a force of ten pounds upon it. Tiic

K raised with a f

ige as the first, v

with a force rqtul to loo pounds. This force of 100 pound*, being applied
: >S and raise
tiie ui-j;ii: ;. 1 ith a force of 1000 pounds.
 MECHANICS. [Lesson V.
In calculating the action of any compound system of levers, it does not affect the
principles of calculation if some of the levers are of the first kind, and some of any
other. The rule is, to " multiply the weight on any lever by its distance from the
fulcrum, and multiply the power by its distance from the same point if the ;
products
are equal, then the weight and power will balance each other." If we wish to calculate
the effect of the system given in Fig. 17, we must multiply the
length of the long arm
by the power, and multiply the short arm by the weight or resistance offered.

QUESTIONS.
ttb. T. What
is a compound lever ? P. If the centre of gravity of the lever
P. It a lever composed of several
is be in the vertical line through the axis, its
simple levers connected together, so as to weight will only increase the pressure on
act one upon the other. the axis by its own amount, without

57. T. How
can the force of a com- causing any other effect.

pound lever be regulated ? 61. Suppose that the centre of gra-

T.
P. Very easily because, as each lever
; vity of the lever be on the same side of
acts with a power equal to the pressure on the axis as the weight, what will be the
it of the next lever between it and the effect then?
power, the force may be increased or de- P. It will oppose the effect of the
creased by the kind of levers employed, power and, therefore, a certain amount of
;

and their number. power must be allowed for its support.

58. T. How can you determine the 62. T. How can this amount of power
advantages of a compound lever formed of be estimated ?

any number of levers ? P. By common calculation. First,

P. We must, first of all, call the arms you find the moment of the weight of the
of the various levers next to the power, lever collected at its centre of gravity,
arms of power ; and those next to the which done by multiplying that weight
is

weight, arms of weight; then we shall have by the distance from the centre of gravity
prepared the way. Now, if the length of to the fulcrum therefore, we know that
;

the arms of power and the power itself be the moment of that part of the power
successively multiplied together, we shall which supports because it must be
it,
obtain a product equal to the continued equal to it. Now we have only to find
product of the arms of weight and the out how much of the power, multiplied by
weight, when the power and weight are in double the distance from its centre of
equilibrium. gravity to the fulcrum, will be equal to the
59. T. What do you mean by the weight of the lever multiplied by the
distance from the fulcrum to the centre of
power of a machine ?
P. It is the number which represents gravity.
the proportion of the weight to the equili- 63. T. Suppose that the centre of gra-
brating power of any machine. Thus, if vity of the lever be at a different side of
one pound sustains a weight of six pounds, the axis from the weight, what will be the
the power of the machine is six. Again, effect then ?

if a power of three pounds supports a P. The weight of the lever will assist
weight of eighteen pounds, the power of the power in sustaining the weight.
the machine is six, because 3 is contained
64. T. How can you determine the
in 18 only six times.
amount of the weight thus sustained ?
60. T. There is one important thing P. Find out how much of the weight,
that we should consider in all our experi- multiplied by the distance from the weight
ments with respect to the lever the weight to the fulcrum, is equal to the weight of
of the lever itself. Can you tell me if this the lever multiplied by the distance from
makes any great difference in its effect? the centre of gravity to the fulcrum.
 Lesson VI.] MEGHAN 81

3. What is a compound lever?

GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON V. 4. Is the power of a
compound lever
1. How should we act when a lever is
capable of being increased or diminished?
required to possess very great mechanical 5. Explain what is meant by the
power
power ? of a machine.
_'. Hew is the action of a system of 6. State how the variation in the centre
levers calculated ? of gravity of a lever affects its action.

LESSON VI.
THERE cannot be a doubt that science is vastly indebted to the lever, but yet it* use
is limited, and its action intermitting; and, therefore, we must look for further
mechanical assistance, and, fortunately, we have not much trouble in obtaining it
You remember that Ferguson tried many experiments with levers ; and then he thought

that, by pulling round a wheel, the weight might be raised to any height by tying a

rope to the weight, and winding the rope round the axle of the wheel and, when he ;

tried the effect of his theory, he found that it was correct. GRANDFATHI.K WHITKJIEAD
wishes his pupils to imitate Ferguson, and make some machines for themselves, and
try the mechanical experiments he is going to perform for them. Ferguson tells us
that, by means of a turning-lathe which his f.ither had, and sometimes used,
and a little knife, he was enabled to make wheels, and other things nee

for his purpose. It is not everyone that can avail themselves of a turning-
lathe; but they may get some old cotton reels, and, by sawing off the two ends
and glueing them together (as in the annexed diagram,) very tolerable wheels
for pulleys may be made ; and by means of them, a few pieces of boar.:
stout wire, a pair of pliers, a knife, and a saw, many excellent temporary blockt

may be constructed. In the frontispiece is an illustration of a man drawing

a bucket up a well. The principle is the same as the wheel and axle, although the
.' i> only one of the many varieties of this mechanical appli.uu <
Ciitt
so many important advantages.

QUESTIONS.
T. What and axle ?
is the wheel it has sometimes been called
P. A more complicated form of thft "the perpetual lever," and son
lever, contiting of a wheel or large flat
T, with a smaller cylinder passing
68. T. Did you not tell me that a lever
through its centre, which has received the moved upon or about a fulcrum, or a fixed
t axle.
axis?
66. T. Is the wheel fixed to the axle, /'. Yes; and I have given you
to prove that it nrnim upon or
P. The wheel is sometimes fixed to its fulcrum and shall now be able to
;

that both r about show that it moves about a fixed axis

the same centre, a i

its axle ; but wr 1. r tin-

ver received i
31. Take a
any other name ? of wood, bore a hole in its centre (a), and
82 MECHANICS. [Lesson VI.

insert a piece of wire into the hole. If you phery of the wheel has another rope coiled
push one end down (/;) with your right round it, in a contrary direction, with the
hand, taking care to hold the wire fast with power suspended to it.
[See /'/>. 1, and
the other, you will cause the opposite end description in foot note.]
(c) to be raised, and vice versa. Now, 74. T. What is the fulcrum of the
this is just the principle on which the
wheel and axle?
acts.
P. The centre of the axle, which is
69. T. How can a wheel act like the common to the whole machine.
straight piece of wood?
P. We
have only to call the parts 75. T. How does the machine act ?
P. When the wheel revolves, of course
by other names, and you will immediately the axle does the same and as the rope
see that it is so. Let us call the wire at ;

is fixed to the axle, with the

a the fulcrum, or fixed axis, and b c the weight hanging
at its end, it is wound round the axle, and
arms of the lever we shall now have two
;
so raises the weight.
arms, spokes, or radii of a wheel, and we
have only to multiply or increase the 76. T. How can you balance this ma-
number, and we shall then increase the chine, or produce an equilibrium ?
leverage, as in the case of the wheel by P. By proportioning the two powers to
which a vessel is steered. the diameter of the wheel and the axle, so
that the one power or weight may be made
70. T. What do you mean by the peri-
to balance the other power or weight.
phery of a wheel ?
Suppose that the machine is made to move
P. It is the circumference or rim the
rapidly, it will then be found that the
;

name being derived from two Greek words,

velocity of the power will be to that of the
peri about and fero I carry.
(irfpi) (<j>fpo)
weight as the circumference of the wheel
;

71. T. What do you mean by the radii is to that of the axle; because it is quite
of a wheel ? clear that the power must sink through a
P. They are the spokes or arms, which space equal to the circumterence of the
radiate from a centre therefore that part ; wheel, before it can raise the weight
of a wheel which is situated between the through a space equal to the circumference
centre and the circumference is said to be of the axle. Now that we know this much,
a radius. If we draw a line directly through we have next to find the momentum, which
the circle or circumference of a wheel, so is done by multiplying its velocity and
as to touch both its sides, it is called the weight together. It is therefore evident,
diameter, which is nothing more than two that if the number of inches of the circuit
radii or semi-diameters joined together in of the wheel, multiplied by the number of
the same line of direction. All the radii pounds in the power, produce a sum equal
or spokes of a wheel are kept together in to the product of the measure of the axle
the centre by a cylindrical piece of wood, multiplied by the number of pounds in the
which serves as the common fulcrum for weight, the machine will remain in a state
all the wheel, and at the circumference by of equilibrium.
the rim.
77. T. What does the effect of the
72. T. Have all wheels their axes in wheel depend upon ?
the centre ? P. The superiority of the radius, or
P. No, some have not, and are called diameter of the wheel to that of the axle.
eccentric wheels but we must leave the
, In 7-V/r. 20, we observe that the weight (T)
consideration of them for another time. corresponds to the counteracting force (P)
in an inverse ratio to the arms of the lever;
73. T. What is the usual arrangement
that is, inversely to the radii (A B, and r> c)
of a wheel and axle ?
of the wheel. Let us suppose that the
P. The wheel is fixed to an axle or
radius (A B) of the axle, is lour times less
spindle, which revolves horizontally on
than the radius (D c) of the wheel, we may
its two ends, which are supported in some
manner (usually by upright equipoise a weight of eighty pounds by a
pieces of wood),
and around this axle is coiled the rope, force of twenty pounds.
which sustains the weight, while the peri- 78. T. Give me some examples of the
 -VI.] MECHANICS. S3

application of the principle of the power has to descend through a propor-

.le. tionably greater space, in order to rai-e the
::st'in is. perhaps, the most through the same space in the same
^ and only differs from amount of time.
udUss in having its revolving axis 82. T. Can you tell me how the very
great inconvenience of having a large
wheel on a very slender axle may be avoided,
without diminishing the mechanical ad-
vantage?
P. Yes ; by employing a machine,
which is called the Chinese wheel and axle,
because it was introduced into this country
from China. It consists of two cylinders,

Ftg.M.

placed vertically. The circumference is

pierced with holes, which receive long
levers,by which it is worked by men, who
walk round the capstan, and make it re-
volve by pressing the ends of the levers
forward "l-mill IB another variety.
In this case the weight of several people
Fif. JU
on the circumference of a long
.

- it to revolve.
paddle- The one larger than the other, turning about the
on the sam'- prin-
f a tteam-boat arts \is. The weight is attached to a
the water, which offers a res pulley, which plays on a long cord, which
to the motion of the paddle-board- is coiled round both axles in contrary
ciirecti 'lie winch is turned, one
power.
end of the eord uncoils from the smaller
>
>e it not sometimes happen
cylinder, and is wound round tlv !

that these machines will stop for a short

thus the weight is <-le\ turn, ;

to recoil ?

Ye ; order to previ nt the

hut. in through a space equal to half of the differ-
ence between file circumt'errnrr of the
rrcoil, it is UMI.I! to have a wheel,
:

whffl. fixed to the axle

. witli its ]n. c ratio
to as to allow it to turn in one ciir
prevent it going back,
half its excess above that of the lesser one.
x a catch
placed at the aide, which
falls into the space between the teeth, and

prevents the \L QUEST

we make a wheel larger in
7*. If '

circumference, what will be the effect? >

ihriraxles?
It will
lengthen the long arm of is the machine been son
the lever, consequently we shni
weight how a wheel and axle re-
axle. pluin

/'. If ihi bo the case, do we not 'i*rr of a wheel'

itn ?
/*.- a a little as .ve all wheel* central
Advantage i
7. Where is the fulor.
but then we lose it again, because the !
placed
 MECHANICS. VII.

8. How is
equilibrium maintained with 10. How is the effect of this machine
thismachine ? governed 1
Give the rule for finding the
9.
equili- 11. Do we gain or lose by increasing
brium of this machine. the size of a wheel t

LESSON VII.
BEFORE we can understand the pulley, we must consider what it consists of. Now,
if we examine a pulley attentively, we shall see that it is nothing more than a wheel
and axle, with the multiplied cord ;
so that, in fact, it is a compound machine. It is
therefore evident, that we must understand what the multiplied cord really is, before
we can consider the uses and mode
of action of the pulley. The multiplied cord has
sometimes been called the funicular machine, or rope machine, the term being derived
from the Latin word funis, a rope. You observe that I rest the ends of this rope upon
the backs of two chairs. [Experiment 4.] It is not in a straight line, and will not be
so, whatever force may be employed in stretching it, because its own weight will

prevent it. Suppose that I hang a pound weight in the centre of the rope [performs
the Experiment], the chairs, which are the resisting points, are dragged towards each
other thus proving, that a very small force, if properly applied, will be sufficient to
;

overcome a great resistance a practical fact that seamen avail themselves of when
bracing their sails. We know that ropes are not perfectly flexible, and that, as their

strength increases, their rigidity is in proportion if they were flexible, we should be ;

able to dispense with the assistance of the pulley in many instances. For example, if
we could bend a rope over a sharp edge (F), as in Fig. 22, and
the rope could be moved without friction, we should be enabled
to transmit a force in any one direction, overcome resistance,
or impart motion in another direction. The force P 0, could
be transmitted to T W, so as to support or overcome the resist-
ance (W) ; or, a motion in the direction of O P could be
made to produce another motion in the direction But, as W T.
the cord not perfectly flexible, the angle sharp, and friction
is

exists, the force employed would cause the cord to snap and, ;

Fig. 22,
therefore, we find it is necessary to employ a curved surface for
the cord to pass over. If the weight is only to be sustained, then a simple curved
surface will answer the purpose but if the cord has to move over the curved surface, it
;

will be subject to friction, and corresponding wear; therefore, it has been found more

advisable to cause the surface on which the rope runs to move with it, which is the
case in the common pulley.

QUESTIONS.
83. T. What a pulley 1
is called a ; and, when the whole
tackle
P. It consists of a round thin disc or machine complete, and in working order,
is

wheel grooved at its edges, called a sheave, it is called a block and tackle.

turning upon an axis or pivot, passing 84. T. How are pulleys divided 1
through its centre at right angles with
its
P. Into fixed and movable.
in a case
plane, the whole being enclosed
called a block. The ropes and cords are 85. J. What are fixed pulleys 1
Lesson VII ]
ilANICS.

P. Th'-y are pulleys fixed to some place, ! forces meeting at f, which could only be
such as a beam. The object of the fixed in equilibrium if their resultant were so.
pulley is not to gain power, but to afford If the two forces meeting in/, and acting
a mure convenient mode of raisinga weight; I in the directions/ 6 and/e are equal, their
and as requires the same amount of resultant will bisect, or cut into two, the
it

power to raise the weight as the amount of angle bfe, and will then pass through the
the weight itself, it is evident that it does fixed central point c on the axis the effect ;

not possess any mechanical advantage. of which will be a state of equilibrium, but
ii-n:
in frontispiece raising a cask if one of the forces (f b) is greater than the
with two fixed pulleys.] other (ft), then the resultant will not pass

86. T. What are movable pulleys? through the axis, and equilibrium cannot
be maintained.
/'. Th< y are of the same form as the
fixed pulleys, but instead of being fixed or 89. T. How can you estimate the pres-
stationary, they sustain the weight, and sure which the axis of the pulley has to
are suspended by means of the cord that
f .hangs under them. In P. Easily. It is evident from what we
23 we have a re- have learned before, that the pressure to
A presentation of a fixed be sustained is equal to the resultant of the
(A) ard a movable
pulley (B). C repre-
sents a hook inserted
into abeam, and sup-
porting one end of!
a cord, which passes
under B, the movable
pulley, and proceeding
M. upwards, passes over
the fixed pulley A -ends to P,
is the power, acting against the
ce or weigi

s the use of the fixed

two forces. But if the directions of the
pulley in the machine you have des> forces be parallel, as in f'/> 2*>. the pres-
o change the direction of the
1
power. sure upon the axis um of
88. T. How is
equilibrium maintained forces (p and w), and the weight of
in a pi tlu-
pulley. [See Catechism I. Fig. 20.]
nay be explained by looking /'. How i* a movable pulley main-
which represents a pulley tained in equilibrium ?
(c) moving round P. By the lorers which si-
d axis or ends of the cord being equal to one
pivot, and tlie line
r, and causing their resultant to
forces
pUB through the central point
acting in tli< The action of this resultant is not stopped
tions a b and d t. hut because
\
owing to the axis i

If we could pro- a third in tlie axis, in the

I
power
long these lines, he resultant, which is equal
they would n and opposed to it.
the point/ and u
it therefore evident
91. T. What is the third power you
have in'
that if / were a

1
* .
we usually attached to a hook fastened
y,

from a T. What advantage H<

and it to /, without alter able po**?* ey T

any *.._-. we hould have two P. It halve* the weight.

 MECHANICS.
93. T. How is this accomplished?
The weight (W) hangs in the cord,
P.
and drags down each side of it equally
so that it has the same strain
.

upon it at C as at P, consequently the

weight (W) is divided between the two
ends of the cords which is the same as ;

saying, that if the weight (W) is forty

pounds, the end C of the cord sustains
twenty pounds, and the end P the other
twenty pounds.
94. T. What is the principle upon
which pulleys act?
i ', , jiL..guftjm p -~ By
*
distri ~
*
. .. . ^ i * 1 1 i *
Lesion. VIII.] MKCHANICS. 87

with diameters as the even numb. : 3. What is a pulK-y ?

\ ., tor the upper block. The cord Describe the difference between fixed
4.

grooves, as and movable pull

and is thrown oil" How can you maintain equilibrium
."..

-.m., manner as if every groove was in a pulley ?

a separate revolving wheel. 6. Does the movable pulley possess

any advantage over the fixed pulley I
7. How do pulleys act?
1IONS ON LESSON V!I. 8. How can pulleys be increased in
1. What is the funicular machine ? power ?

A
hy have pulleys round shea.
y. What is White's pulley?"

I.KSSON VIII
THF. inclined plane is the most simple of all machines, and perhaps the most
familiar. Roads and present instances of the application of this
railroads often

principle to practical
and useful purposes. In applying this machine, it is generally
^ed to be fixed, and the weight or load to be the movable body ; but, sometimes,
it is necessary to move the inclined plane whiie the body or load is partially fixed.

QUESTIONS.
100. T. What is generally understood T. How is the advantage gained
machine estimated?
by the term, an inclined plane ? by this
unifies a plane surface, per- P. Hy subtracting the perpendicular
and unyielding, inclined in
.
:rom the length of the plane, and
such a manner, that it forms some angle ,.uct, or excess of length, show* the
iutal plane, but not a right

angle.
T. What do you mean by a plane
i. and forming an
angle with a horizontal plane.
will explain
I
.-my. A I'.

tents the
advantage gained. Suppose the height,
plane, or a surfai .nclined pi..
;i!ed in
<>ne loot, and the hit-lined
A I) 11 is n right he four tret ;
thm a

/,, r,.
W) t.| four pounds placed on the
y a weight
line A B; AC pound (!') hanging over a pulley at the
plane, or nl end ot :it tli.it Ole-
an acute .< .with I'oursh of the to raise a
power p-ipmed
re, the B C.
through the space
it
up the iiiflnii .I
plane t

III all eases win

ist be made
the object of
i

uing
the inclined |
KIK / n,.. .

P. To raise weights to great n. <1

plane afford us murh
/' I ;, .
h as raimn.
the ap; "eight. loads to considerable heights ; but I
 MECHANICS. [Lesson IX.

other machines, what is

gained in power, is of wheeling barrows to heights, or rolling
lost in time or velocity. hogsheads to or from heights ladders ;

105. T. What have we to overcome in placed against houses or walls flights of

;

stairs ; some kinds of

drawing a body up an inclined plane? printing-presses ;
the shovel, and many other things are
P. Friction, and the gravity of the body,
familiar enough to most of us.
which always tends to make it occupy the
lowest level. 109. T. Are not roads over hilly coun-
What do you mean by the gra- tries constructed on the principle of the
106. T.
inclined plane ?
dient of an inclined plane ?
P. It is the proportion of the height to
P. Yes and when a road has to be
;

its length, and therefore the gradient may

made to the top of a hill, it is usual to
be said to be 1 in 100, or 1 in 50, as the make it wind round the hill, or
either
ascend in a zigzag line. Carters usually
case may be.
make their carts describe a zigzag line of
107. T. W hat
r
do you mean by the direction when ascending steep roads,
gradient being 1 in 100, or 1 in 50 ?
because it saves their horses expending too
P. It signifies, that the road rises 1 much power.
foot in height, for every 100 or 50 of its
length, and therefore the additional load to
be impelled up the inclined plane, will be GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON VIII.
the one-hundredth or fiftieth part of the
1. Are inclined planes always fixed ?
weight to be impelled.
2. Describe an inclined plane.
108. T. Can you give me some familiar 3. Are inclined planes advantageous or
examples of the use of the inclined plane ? not?
P. Yes the common chisel is an in-
; 4. Why do we use inclined
planes ?
clined plane, and the wood to be cut is 5. In using the inclined
plane, what
the resistance or power to be overcome. have we to overcome ?
Hatchets act in the same manner 6. Give some familiar
planks ;
examples of the
placed in various positions for the purpose inclined plane.

LESSON IX.
IN our last lesson we considered the
inclined plane as a fixed body; we have now to
regard it in the condition of a movable body, or movable inclined
plane. When we
considered the inclined plane as a fixed body, the load or weight was movable but in ;

the present case we shall find that the load or resistance is fixed, and the inclined
plane
movable. In Fig. 31 you will see that we
have an inclined plane (i, p), with a heavy
weight (w) resting upon its small end (B).
This will illustrate the double capacity of
the inclined plane. For example, [Experi-
ment 5,] if we the weight up the
drag
inclined plane by means of a cord, which is

represented by the dotted line, we raise the

weight from the level of B, c, to the height A. [Experiment 6.] We will now reverse
the thing, and move the inclined plane by pushing it under the weight, and you now
see we have moved the inclined plane through the space c, B, and the weight has been
raised through the height c, A. In the former experiment it acts as an inclined plane ;

in the latter experiment it acts as a wedge.

Lesaon IX.] MECHANICS. 89

riONs.
110. T.~- What wedge? is the inclined building to a perpendicular posi-
P It is a simple machine of a triangular tion. It is the principal agent in the oil-
(brin, consisting of a solid mass of iron, mill ; the seeds from which the oil is to be
v _ wood, or some other hard extracted are placed between pieces of
and is generally hard wood, and wedges are inserted between
described as being com- the bags, by allowing heavy beams to fall
/material,of two inclined on them. The key-stone of an arch is a
posed
planes, united at their wedge planes, knives, razors, nails, pins,
;

bases, or placed back to needles, awls, and most cutting and piercing
\ back, as represented in instruments are wedges. most useful A
nt Fig. 32, B A being
w. the application of the wedge, is that of fastening
line of union of their bases. large timbers together by means of a wedge-
111. /'. Is the wedge always sloped on shaped mortice.
both sides ?
115. T. How can we calculate the
No it is sometimes flat on one of the wedge ?
P. ;

side, and sloped or inclined on the other, P. We

cannot do so satisfactorily, be-
as B, A 31. cause the exact force applied will depend
112. WUi is the use of the upon the numbet of blows, and the resist-
/'.
wedge ?
ance opposed by the sides ; but we may
P. generally employed to divide
It is
lay it down as a rule, that in proportion as
solid bodies, the edge A (fig. 32) being
the angle is greater, so must be the power to
driven against
overcome the resistance, which increase*
1^"*) - - -- t!iem b y lorce with the inclination, the same as in the
m tffr^K'
5
T\
:ii>plied to
/
the
inclined plane. Therefore, a long thin
wedge has a greater power than a short
V.I I 33 represents a
^J B^LPl
L^ \ \ 1 ,1 wedge enterin.r
thick one, because it does not require so

! a piece of wood, great a force to be applied.

llii. 7\ How is it when a wedge is
driven into a block of wood, that K
generally forced out again by the wood ?
blows, you ob-
P. Because the friction, which is very
serve 1 1:

L H0.M-
en into
the substance of
the wood, so as
to cause it to
great, acts upon the wedge in th<

nails
r that a ratchet wheel does

wheel and axle.

owe
their efficacy
upon the
It is to this
for, if it were not ;
principle that

for the friction which arises between their

p. 34.
and the wood into which ti.
r How
does the wedge act, so as driven, they would recoil from their places.
to divide the wood thus ?
/*. When the wedge is urged by re-
peated blow* to enter the substance of tin- :
IONS ON LESSON IX.
wood, the fibres of the wood ar.- com; Whatthe difference between
1. is A fixed
and a movable inclined plane f
the two sides of t
as some
illy, ft illustrations of both,
a ted, the
p< the wedge and its vat
*till furthrr MOW
space that at firtt are wedges used ?
Mi- point A, is ol .

i >
what may their action beasn
eparatr, no a* to allow D c to enter it.
ve some familiar examples of the
11 \. I useful applicntinn of the wedge.
Isthewedjj.
solid bodies ? 7. Is it
possible to estimate the power
/'.-
the docks, wedges being
hy arc not wedges forced out of
keels. It has been used to restore an the substances into which they arc dl
90 MECHANICS. [Lesson X.

LESSON X.
WHEN an inclined plane is coiled round a cylinder, we have a machine which has
received the name of the screw. The screw consists of two parts, a solid cylinder with
the inclined plane coiled round it, called the male screw, and a hollow cylinder with an
inclined plane coiled round the inside (so as to receive the former one), called & female
tcrew. The male screw consists of a projecting ridge winding
round the cylinder, which is termed the thread of the .-irreic. and
is said to be spiral, but is really helical, being like a cork-

screw, which is the helical thread of the screw without the

cylinder. The difference between a spiral line and a helical

line be seen by the annexed diagrams, Fig. 35 representing

may
the helical, and Fig. 36 the spiral line.
The hollow screw has a helical thread winding within it,
Fig. 35. Fig. 36. corresponding to the spaces
between the turns of the thread of
the solid screw. By means of this arrangement, either screw may be made to revolve
amount of pressure may be produced.
while the other is kept steady and, therefore, any
;

QUESTIONS.
117. T. What is the screw ? into seven equal parts (a, b, c, d, e,f, B) ;
P. Asolid cylinder with a projecting if we draw lines from the perpendicular
line A B, each equal to the circumference
ridge, winding round
it

in the form of an in- of the base, in

clined which a plane with the
plane, c
hori/on and pa-
ridge or thread may pre- A rallel
sent a thin sharp edge to each
as in Fig. 37, or a square
*'
otner then
>

"'~
J

in d -L join A g and a h,
edge, as Fig. 38,
without the b i, c k, d I, e
affecting
of the ma- m, we shall form
principle
Fif.37. c hine. as many inclined

118. Will you illustrate how the

T. planes as there
are parts in the
inclined plane, being coiled round a
line A B. Now,
cylinder, forms a screw ? if we roll these planes round the cylin-
P. Certainly cut a piece of paper of
;
der, so that the point g shall meet the
the same shape as I p, in Fig. 31, and let
the line B C be eighteen inches Jong, and point a, h with b, i with c, and so on, the
A C six inches high, then black the edge longest lines of the inclined planes (A g,
a h, b i, &c.) will form a continued helical
A B. Wind this paper found a ruler,
line upon the cylinder, the same as the
commencing at the part C, and when it A thread of a screw.
is all coiled round the ruler, you will
observe a black line like the thread of a
120. T. Why is the thread of the screw
called a helical line ?
screw.
P. The name is derived from the Greek
119. T. It appears, then, that the word elix ("e\t|), a whorl ; and helical,
screw is like a series of inclined planes therefore, signifies winding. One turn of
coiled round a cylindrical axis. Can you this line is termed a helix, and several
explain this ? turns, or more than one, helices. No two
P. If we examine Fig. 39, we observe points of a helix are in the same plane.
that A B c D represents a cylinder divided [See Fig. 35.]
 1:21. T. If we remove
the cylinder l'2o. T. How is the t> fleet of th<
from i!.
only leave the helical
::tl estimated ?

line, is there any mechanical advantage in P. By the proportion between the space
the !: described by the power, and the space
P. Yes, it is still a screw, as in the between any two of its threads, in one
: the common corkscrew (Fig. 35); revolution of the screw. Therefore, the
ami when i: into a substance,
i
power applied to a long lever inert u
.in inclined plane 1st, by the point of the machine, and hence it follows
effect
helical line being smaller than the that, in order to increase the power of the
upper p trt ; 'Jnd, by the line assuming a machine, we must lengthen the lever, and
as it ascends; 3rd, by the decrease the distance between the threads
:.t of the thread il of the screw.
/' How
does the screw act ? I'Jti. T. Is there no other way of in-
the solid screw is inserted creasing power of this machine,
the
into the hollow screw, and is made to act because it frequently happens that it is
.ly to raise a weight? it will be found
inconvenient to have a very long lever, and
that when the weight has been r.t if the threads of the screw are too thin,

one turn of the screw over one thread, or they are liable to break.
to i-, in /'>. .39, that it has P. There is a compound screw, invented
really
ropellcd up the inclined plane me; by John Hunter, the great anatomist,
i of the screw, which enables us to increase the efficacy
of the machine, without diminishing its
independent of friction, will be as the
length of the plane (m e\ is to the height
(ft). For example, if / e is a quarter of
an inc.. three inches.
then a power equal to one pound, .

by the screw, would balance a weight of

twelve pounds suspended from the nut,
T. Can the screw be applied so
as to act by itself?
/' -N i: is never used alone, but the

in always applied by means of a

power
or passing through. the .

head of the screw [see Fig. 41], on

t icrew i .
i

40 J.

This i?, accomplished \

pi<>>ing a large screw (a), which turns in a

hollow screw placed in the beam (b). The
;y of the large screw contain*
a hollow scn-w, which is
a smaller screw (r). and, therefore, while
the larger screw passes forward, the smaller
drawn back, and as both screws
revolve together, each time .1 in-
takes
place,
the beam (t) is prettied
rough a sp.ve r.,1!.1 to :

of the distats :he thread-

l-Vf. .

:"

T. If a v
the thread* of the upprr xrrcw are |th of an
pfcot of wood, does it not act alone, On M ? inch apart, ami the. r screw
J^th
P. od oorre*! of an inch, th-n the *anM effect v
screw, and the screw d JIH if th'
he threads of which were only ^lh
 MECHANICS. [
Lesson X.

of an inch apart because ^, multiplied by

; placed where the end walls formerly stood,
the difference between and the cradles (5), which are brains with
j^, are equal
to -fo
the distances of the threads of John Hunter's a projection corresponding to the groove
in the ways, are placed on them, both being
compound screw.
previously well greased. Large beams (!)
127. T. Is there any method by which are placed over the cradles, between them
we can combine velocity with power in
and the beams (2) which support the ends
the screw?
of the house, and wedges driven in to
P. Yes by having a screw with two,
;
render the whole tight and secure, which
three, or more threads, instead of one. is
also effected by additional blocks (7).
Suppose that we had a screw with a very The screws are now removed, and
broad thread say, for example, one inch being
are made to act together
and that we wished to increase its velo- placed horizontally,
the cradles, and move them along
city, we have only to form
three threads against
the ways, at the rate of about four feet a
in each, each one a quarter of an inch
day, to the place the house is to occupy.
in width, with a space the one-eighth of
Then, by inverting the operations, the
an inch between them, and the thing is
beams are removed, and the house firmly
accomplished. This is a fact, and as the
fixed, without sustaining any injury, and
thing is applied to printing-presses, any often without even
curious person may see it for himself.
moving as much as a
chair from the house.
128. T. Are not houses sometimes 129. T. What is the principle of the
moved by means of the screw ? screw applied to ?
P. Yes. It has been done in England, P. Various purposes. Among others,
but is chiefly practised in America. The we may enumerate the cider-mill, oil-null,
annexed diagram will common printing-press, napkin -press,
explain the method. bookbinder's press (see Fig. 40), patent
The building to be cork-screw, vice, clamp, augers, gimlets,
moved must be a and many similar machines, which owe
detached one. Open- their efficacy to the principle of the sen \\.
ings are made in the Common screws combine the principle of
end walls, just above the wedge with that of the screw, for they
the ground, large are smaller at the point than at the lever
enough to insert end. There is another form which must
beams, about fifteen also be mentioned the endless screw.
inches square, across This is a solid screw, revolving on fixed
the building (1) the ;
axes, the thread of which is
adapted to
end of each beam is teeth on the circumference of a wheel.
supported on blocks
of wood, fixed into
the ground, and clear GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON X.
of the walls, and each 1. Describe the difference between a
beam and tight by driving male and female screw.
wedges between the beams and the upright 2. Describe the difference between a
block. When this has been done, the spiral and a helical line.
foundation is cleared away, and a clear 3. Define a screw.

space left. Then other beams (2) are 4. Describe the difference between a

placed under the first, and resting like screw with a triangular thread, and one
them on blocks of wood, and by this means with a parallelogram.
the front and back walls are supported, 5. How is the inclined plane referable

and now the whole foundation is exposed. to the screw ?

The screws (3) are placed under the ends 6. What is the helical line, and what is
of the second beams ('2), whic are forced the term derived from ?
v>

upwards by their means, and the weight of 7. How can you estimate the effect of a
the whole building sustained by them. screw ?
The ground underneath being all removed, 8. Can the power of the screw be in-
set of grooved-ways, or beams (6), are creased ?
Lessor MECHANICS.

LESSON XL
WE have now duly considered the leading elements of Mechanics, and even some of
the compound machines formed by uniting together two of the mechanic powers, as
the lever and screw, and the lever with the wheel and axle. We have also examined the
;>roduced by combining some of the simple machines with each other, and thus
producing systems of their own, as with levers or pulleys. In combining bo
produce mechanical effects, we have certain laws to guide us, and certain objects to
One thing we must ever bear in mind, that the fewer parts there are in a
machine, and the more simple its construction, the better.

QUKSTIONS.
ISO. T. When we undertake to con- portion to the diagonal section of the body,
itruct a machine, what are the chief ob- so is its absolute strength.
jects we have to consider? 136. r. What is the relative strength of
are four. 1st The strength a body?
or durability of the materials 2nd. The ;
P. The force which it opposes to the
arrangement of the parts of the machine
process of breaking. In this <

in as simple a m.inner as possible 3rd. ;

is applied at
right angles to the direction
The correct adaptation or fitting of one
long axis, while one or both its < i'

part to another and, 4th. Ease, regularity,

;
are supported.
and unifor ion.
137. T. How is the connexion between
131 7'. What are machines generally the particles of a solid body overcome?
constructed of? P. BY breaking, tearing, twisti:
/'.Inn. steel, brass, wood, or any
crushing the hotly.
durable materials.
138. T. You said that the position of
T. Do the materials differ greatly the materials employed in a maehine af-
in their strength ? fected their stn-ngth. Explain this.
P. Yes but independent of the dura-
: P. 7.J You observe that
bility of the materials employed, it is neces- I have a piece of thin wood, two feet long,
ary to pay in my band it is called a lath and when ;

which they are placed, their form and bulk. each end rests on a block of wood or stone,
7*. What do you mean by the snow [places the ends of the lath
:th of a body ? stones,] it will require twice the
to its centre, in o-
"ie force wit ii .
hi<-h it resists Applied
.than it will if only the cmlro is
the s< |
rs
particles, and may be
absolute o supported, and a weight suspended to each
end; and four tin :,t to break
134. T. What is the abtolute ttmglh it, than it will if only one n.d is
firmly
of a body? fixed or supported, and th
the force by which th>
It is to the other. Observe, that when I attach
resist* being torn asunder when sir a weight of one
pound to its centre, that it
)rngthwy. bends, and it this is incrra-< <1
hy
of a piece of India-rubber
'<

apart ; or when a grvat weight is sm; I

>uob- i

A r ..d. whirh has the other

:
i
have in
it 1 rarer,
end fixed perpendicularly. .ind that the l.ith does not uch as
T Upon what does the absolute hecause the length of th.- !.

ic stones is not so
Strength of a body dep> great as in the
It* tection that a last experiment
diagonal ; is,

straight line drawn th' .

/n to stance
t*o i>po*it angles; and, i: n the ends of the lath was
94 MECHANICS. [Lesson XII.

feet, the lath being of the same thickness arch, therefore the particles, or the concave
as in the present case, what would be the or hollow part, are more compressed than
effect of placing it on the stones without on the convex or rounded part con- ;

the weight ? sequently the more pressure we apply to

P. It would bend with its own weight.
As we shorten its length, we increase its
strength, because the thicker and shorter a
beam is, the stronger it will be and if a
beam is twice as broad as another of the
same length, it will be twice as strong.
140. T. does a beam increase in
Why
the upper or convex part in a perpendicular
direction, the greater will be the compres-
sion and resistance to the weight.
;
143. T. Howdoes bulk influence the
of materials ?
employment
P. Because, after a body has attained a
certain size, the additional increase of

strength, when increases in size ?

it bulk only adds to the weight without in-
P. Because it contains a greater number creasing its power of endurance, for the
of resisting particles. If we double the weight increases more rapidly than the
depth of a beam we render it four times as strength ; and on this account we are
strong, because the number of fibres are obliged to limit the size of our machines,
doubled, and the lever is increased. which would not be able to support their
own weight if made too large.
141. T. You said that the form of
materials employed required consideration.
Explain this. GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON XI.
P. We know that the arch is the
1. "What are the desirable objects in the
strongest form we can construct, and this construction of a machine ?
we learn from Nature, when we observe 2. What materials are machines generally
the roof of the skull, eggs, or cylindrical
constructed of?
bodies.
3. Are all materials of uniform strength ?
142. T. How is it that the arch is the 4. What is meant by the strength of a

strongest form ? body, and how is it classified ?

P. Because the particles of which it is 5. How does position affect the materials
composed, bear upon each other like a used in machines ?

great many wedges with their narrow ends 6. What influence has the form and bulk

pointed towards the hollow part of the of materials on machines ?

LESSON XII.
A MACHINE is made up of many which are so connected, as to be rendered
parts,
available for the particular purpose the machine was designed for and the manner in ;

which one mechanic power acts upon another, may be changed

to suit certain particular purposes. Power may be transmitted
(liuuDr? ky belts, as in Fig. 43, where it is obvious that the wheel c is
u, which receives its motion from A
turned by the belt B but, ;

smaller, the velocity is increased.

as it is The motion of
machinery may be regulated so as to produce a uniform velocity ; or a quick motion
may be transformed into a slow motion, or vice versa ; motion may also be made to
alternate by means of eccentric wheels, or wheels that have the axis nearer to the
circumference than the centre.

QUESTIONS.
144. T. What
are the chief agents in and pulleys, which are arranged according
the transmission of power ? to the direction of the motion required to be
P. Tooihed wheels, bevel wheels, shafts, conveyed. Fig. 44 enables us to understand
LeMon XII.] MECHANICS.
how the change of direction is effected '

adopted for subdividing the

i

SeveJ.ed wheels placed at various angles ; friction, by making the axle to revolve OK
and F/V. 45 exhibits another method of
changing the direction by means of a

two or more wheels, which are therefore

fif. 44.
termed friction wheels, as in Fig. 46.
Aheel, which works into an ordinary
l-'il. T. How may the irregularities of
. whose axis is at right angles to its
own. machinery be generally reme,.
P. By li a rvoir of power to
i< meant
by a cog wheel ? each machine, which will enable the prime
wheel with projecting teeth;
i

mover to give a more equal motion. This

the term cog being used for all large teeth.
s a shaft?
is accomplished by the fly-wheel, which
seen attached to mangles, turning-
P. A
long and large axle, attached to
lathes, &c.
some part of a machine, which enables us
a great <1 1. VJ. T. Then it appears the power is
til shafts are call- capable of being accumulated and concen-
ed spindles. trated. Is this the case?
P. Yes. We see this in the grocer's
H7. T. What is
handmill, which has a fly-wheel attache?
a pivot or gudgeon ?

1 'ie end of a
shaft, axle, orspindle,
upon which it turns
and rests.
148. r What is
a crown wheel ?

r.,.4*.

teeth placed at right angles to its <

ference (see Fig. 45.)

7*. In not the motion of mat
sometimes irregular ?
P. Yr* and it m*y proceed either from
;

pal mover. The coining-press (Fig. 47) said to have

-Mire or the load, I

or def proper transmis

force, .v
example of the effect of

i
cause the . A man causing the ncrew to
and how may ken a good
irregularity of motion
i

; fric-
i bo
prevented ? imjirrisinn nf the die upon tli.

\ Kr by whirling the balls at : ml uf

tur.
MI; the proper acUpt.r
i

in the
ng away, KM 153. T. Can the force of machinery bt
of a whr-l. whu-h revolves with great
; and, in order to din. Yes; by employing a cog-wheel,
96 MECHANICS. [ Lessen XTL
called the governor wheel, which regulates 156. T.
thought I cranks were that
the velocity of the machine with which it is usrd to make alternate motions change
connected. Thus, in the steam-engine it into revolving motions. Explain this
actsupon the valve in the water-mill
; difficulty.
upon the shuttle and in the windmill,
; P. Sometimes they are employed for
upon the sail-cloth. In the steam-engine that purpose, and are double, being made
it consists of two heavy balls, A, attached A
to the ends of two rods,
which play upon a point at
B, and as they rotate upon
C, and separate by the
centrifugal a ring force,
above B
depressed, is
which acts by means of a Fig. 50.
rod upon the valve and
to turn two wheels as in Fig. 50, but the
closes it, thereby dimin-
same arrangement may be retained, and
ishing the speed and as
only one crank used, which is the same as
;

the balls fall or are at rest,

the valve is opened, and turning the handle of an organ, the piston
or rod being represented by the hand.
the speed again established by supplying
Now as the piston's motion is alternate, or
more steam.
falls and rises, the crank converts that
154. T. What is a crank ? motion into a rotary one, and conveys it
P. A mechanical contrivance, by means to the wheels. We
observe this in turning-
of which a revolving motion is changed lathes and steamers.
into an alternate motion.

155. T. How is this effected?

GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON XII.
P. [Experiment 9.] I have a piece of
iron wire, which you observe is straight. 1. How is motion transmitted to ma-
I will now bend it so as to form a crank chinery ?

thus, and you

easily will 2. Can motion be changed in its direc-
understand that while the tion ?
B axis
"
(A) revolves, the part 3. What is the difference between a
Fiy. 49.
B, which is out of the same crown wheel and a bevelled wheel ?
line, will describe a circle (makes it do so 4. How may friction be partially pre-
by twisting the wire between the finger and vented ?

thumb). Now if a piston or rod is attached 5. Is force susceptible of accumulation ?

to the part B, its motion cannot be the 6. What is the governor wheel ?
same as the axis, but must rise and fall, or 7. What is the use of a crank ?
be alternate. 8. Are cranks single or double ?
IV.-CHEMISTRY,

INTRODUCTORY NAERAT1VE.
LESSON I.

RATHER more thanseventy-three

years ago, there resided in the old

corporate town of Penzancc

which is
situated on the north-western shore of
Mount's Bay, in Cornwall a carver in

wood, who has left some specimens

behind him in the town, to testify that
he was a skilful workman. On the
17th December, 1778, his family was
increased by the addition of a fine boy,
whose name was afterwards intimately
connected with Chemistry, and will
ever #race the calendar of science-
Sir Humphry Davy.
98 INTRODUCTORY NARRATIVE. [Lesson I.

Biographers inform us that Humphry Davy received the rudiments of a classical

education at a seminary in Truro, and that he was afterwards placed with a surgeon and
apothecary, at Penzancc. Instead of paying proper attention to his medical studies,
Davy was always making experiments in the garret of his master's house,
frequently
alarming the whole household by his detonations; or rambling about the con:
that his master was obliged to part with him. "When fifteen years of age, he was
placed _with Mr. Borlase, another surgeon in Penzance but his mind was too much
;

occupied with other subjects to allow him to follow his medical studies. He laid down
an extensive plan of study for himself, which embraced the learned languages, natural
philosophy, botany, geometry, anatomy, metaphysics, history, chemistry, &c. and so
;

great was his application, that in three years he had made considerable proficiency in
all these branches of learning.
The fascinating science of Chemistry was peculiarly suited to the taste of Davy, and
we are informed that he pursued the study of it with the greatest ardour. He was not
furnished with expensive apparatus to enable him to prosecute his investigations, but
he managed to convert the phials and gallipots belonging to his master, the pots and
pans used in the kitchen, and many other things, to the purposes he required.
His first original experiment is said to have been the examination of the air contained
in the bladders of sea-weed, which resulted in his discovering that these plants have the

property of purifying the air contained in water, the same as other plants have of
purifying the atmosphere.
Mr. Gregory Watt, the son of the celebrated James Watt, being in delicate health,
was advised to try the air of Penzance, and, while lodging with Mrs. Davy, he discovered
the talent of her son, and his devotion to Chemistry. One day, soon after Mr. Watt
became his mother's lodger, young Davy was leaning on the gate in front of the house,
when Mr. Gilbert, afterwards the President of the Royal Society, passed with some
friends, one of whom remarked that Davy was much attached to Chemistry. This
attracted Mr. Gilbert's attention towards Davy, and after some conversation with him,
he was so pleased with his talents that he offered him the use of his library, and what-
ever he required for his studies. In 1798 Davy was introduced to the celebrated
Dr. Beddoes by Mr. Watt and Mr. Gilbert, and as that physician had just established at
Clifton, near Bristol, what he called a Pneumatic Institution, for investigating the
medical properties of the different gases, he offered Davy, who was scarcely twenty
years of age, the superintendence of the institution, which was accepted at once.
The following year Dr. Beddoes published a work, called Contributions to Physical and
Medical Knowledge, principally from the West of England, and among them we find some
"
essays by Humphry Davy on Heat, Light, and the Combinations of Light," with ;i

new "Theory of Respiration ;" on the " Generation of Oxygen Gases," and the " (
of the colours of Organic Bodies."
His attention was then turned to the existence of silica in various plants and in
;

1800 he published a work, called Researches, Chemical and Philosophical, chiefly concerning
Kitrous Oxide, and its Respiration, in which he detailed all the experiments made with
this and other gases. This work created a great sensation, and was the me;..
introducing him to Count llumford, and also establishing his reputation as a chemist
and philosopher.
In 1801 Davy came to London, and delivered his first Lecture at the Royal Institu-
c
tion, to which he was appointed Professor o. Chemistry, on 31st May, 1802. The
Lesion I.] INTROIK * TORY NARRATIVE. 99

Agriculture appointed him Professor of Chemistry

if in Ib0'2, and engaged him

to deliver a course of lectures On the Connexion of Clumutry tcith I'egetable Pftt/tiohgy,

and he therefore continued to lecture at the meetings.
fhich wire highly appreciated,
i for ten successive years, on subjects connected with agriculture, which
were published at the request of the Board in 1813.
was elected a Fellow of the lloyal Society; in 1SOJ he was made a member
of the lloyal Irish Academy and, in 1806, he was elected Secretary to the lloyal
;

and chosen to deliver the Bakerian lecture before the Society, in which he
,

made known the results of his inquiries into galvanism and electricity. The following
in 1803, baryam, calcium, and
year he discovered potassium, sodium, and boron ; and,
ttiontium. In 1810 he obtained the pri/e of the French Institute, and during that and
the following year he delivered two courses of lectures before the Dublin Society, for
which they voted him 11,30; and Trinity College, Dublin, conferred the degree of

On the 8th of April, 1812, the Prince-Regent knighted him; and, on the llth, he
was married to Mrs. Apreece, a widow of fortune. The following year he was elected
Corresponding Member of the French Institute, and Vice-president of the Royal

The most important of his discoveries was made in the year 1815. The many dreadful
accidents and great loss of life frequently occurring from the explosions in coal-mines,
occasioned by the fire-damp, induced some of the proprietors of mines to form a com-
Bishop- Wearmouth, for investigating the causes of these frequent disasters,
at

and means of preventing their occurrence in future. Sir Humphry

to consider the best
he
Davy's assistance was requested, and he immediately set out for the collieries, where
obtained specimens of the fire-damp, for the purpose of analyzing on
D to London ; and also made some experiments, with a view to

adopting a system of ventilation. After examining the fire-damp,

and
trying numerous experiments, he discovered that the carburet ted hydrogen
gas, or fire-damp, would not explode when mixed with less than six, or
more than fourteen times its volume of air and that, when the gas did ex-
;

plode, the explosion could not past through apertures less than one-s
of an inch in diameter. Satisfied with these results, he construct.
"
which is generally termed by miners
tqfcty-kimi), It is a

simple oil-lamp, enclosed in a long cylinder cage of wire gauze, which con-
tains about four hundred holes in the square inch. The wick
by a bent wire, passing tightly through a small tube in the body
lamp, so that the wick can be kept burning without unv
!cr, an act that woul.l endanger the lives of the miners. The air
that passes through the wire gauze sufficient to support combustion,
is

produces enough
i carbonic acid and nitro fire-

damp causing any explosion. When the air is foul, or charged with fire-

damp, the flame of the lamp becomes extinguished, and the int
wire gauze cylinder is i
.should withdraw,
.

other* ite by eon- >o long the gauze will be destroyed, and ai.
explosion take place. When the lamp is removed to a purer air the wick becomes

Tht Dart, or M iner Safety Lamp.

 100 INTRODUCTORY NARRATIVE. [Lesson I.

relighted, and the green flame disappears. The coal owners of the northern districts
rewarded Sir Humphry Davy for his valuable discovery by inviting him to a public dinner
in 1817, and presenting him with a service of plate worth 2000.*
In 1817 Davy was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy; and was created a
baronet in 1818, while absent on the continent. On the 30th November, 1820, he was
elected President of the Royal Society, (in the place of Sir Joseph Banks, who had died,)
and he continued to till 1827, when he
the office
fill
resigned it in consequence of ill health.
Immediately after this he proceeded to the continent, where he continued to prosecute
his philosophical researches, contributing the results of his investigations to the
Transactions of the Royal Society. His chief residence was at Rome, but, in consequence
of an alarming attack of paralysis, he was obliged to leave for Geneva. Proceeding by
easy stages in company with Lady Davy, he arrived at La Couronne on the 29th of
May, 1829, and repaired to an inn overlooking the Lake of Geneva. After he retired
to rest he was attacked with apoplexy, and expired early on the oOth May, 1829, in the

fifty- first year of his age.

Sir Humphry Davy published Chemical and Philosophical Researches; Elements of
Cltemical Philosophy; Electro-Chemical Researches; Elements of Agricultural Chemistry ;
and a great many pamphlets and papers in the various leading scientific journals.
His last works are Salmonia, and The Last Days of a Philosoplur, the latter being
published after his death.
Those who have seen Sir Humphry Davy must remember his gentlemanly deport-
ment and quiet manner. His head, which was small, was set off by an ample and
elevated forehead, and light-brown hair. His eyes, which were remarkably penetrative,
were light hazel. His nose aquiline, the mouth rather large, and marked by a thought-
ful expression, which imparted a fulness and prominence to the under lip, and com-

plexion fair. He was about five feet seven inches in height, with a large, well-formed
chest, slender neck, and small feet and hands.
A simple monument in the burying-ground of Geneva, which is without the walls
of the city, marks the grave which received the remains of Sir Humphry Davy, on
the 1st of June, 1829. "NVhen we reflect upon the career of this remarkable man, we.
are struck with the perseverance he displayed, and his thirst after knowledge; no diffi-
culties seemed to deter him on the contrary, they only appeared to stimulate him to
;

greater exertions. Although studious in his habits, he was, nevertheless, particularly

fond of the amusements of fly-fishing and shooting, few persons being able to excel
him in either sport. Viewed as a scholar, and a philosopher, he is greatly to be
admired his writings display great force, judgment, and extensive knowledge hi.-,
; ;

discoveries were most important to the scientific advancement of the age, and the well-
being of his fellow creatures. Thousands of people were saved through the invention
and adoption of his safety-lamp another instance of the many obligations that society
is under to CHEMISTRY.

1 * The
Davy Safety-lamp was improved by the Rev. W. Thorp, of Womersley, in the West Riding
of Yorkshire, in the year 1849. 1. By introducing the Argand or solar burner, with a circular wick.

2. By admitting the air from the bottom of the lamp. 3. By having an adjustment outside the lamp,

to regulate the wick. 4. By having an iron chimney based with glass, introduced into four or live
chambers of wire gauze. The advantages of this new invention are therefore 1. Incrensi
2. The lamp only requires trimming once a week. 3. The oil does not fall out if laid on one side.

4. It is more easily cleaned. 5. It burns the cheapest oil. G. It is much safer than tl;e old lamp.
 Lesson I.j CHEMISTRY. 101

CHEMISTRY.
QUESTIONS AND EXPLANATIONS.
1. T. WHAT is Chemistry ? 8. T. When we change a compound
/'. science which enables us
It is that body into simple ones, what is the process
to discover the nature and properties o termed ?
ments of matter, their action upon P. Decomposition or analysis, which
each other, and their combinations ; the chemists have divided into simple and com-
proportions in which these elements unite, pound, or single and double decomposition.
the mode of changing compound bodies Thus, when a body composed of two sub-
itnple ones, or single bodies into stances is decomposed by means of a third
compound; and the laws which govern body, which acts simply, it is called single
their action. or simple decomposition. If the intervention
of the third body causes two new com-
What is the term chemistry de-
rived i
pounds instead of one, the operation is
then called compound, or double decompo-
/'. It b
of doubtful derivation; but is
silion.
probably derived from the Coptic root,
chfms, which means obscure or secret. 9- T. What is the term analysis derived
from?
Do you remember the general
P. The Greek word analuo (o'wAt/w),
properties of m.r / dissolve, and therefore means the resolu-
/' Yc> extension, impenetrability,
;
tion of a substance into its
mobility, extreme divisibility, gravitation, component
puts. Analysis was first scientifically
porosity, and indestructibility.
pursued by Bergman of Sweden.
[The pupil should be requested to define these
terms, and, if not able to do so, should con-
sult Cat. I.]
10. T. When two simple bodies are
changed into a compound body, what is
What are the secondary proper- the process termed .'

ties of matter ? P- Synthesis or composition, which is di-

P. Opacity, transparency, softness, rectly opposed to analysis.
hardness, elasticity, colour, density, so- 11. y.What is the term derived from ?
lidity, fluidity, and others of a similar /'.Two Greek words, soon (<rw), with,
and tithemi (TI^TJ/LU), I place.
(These terms should be explained to the student,
1- ' <'.
According to their general acceptation. Thu, :i.e
examples of analysis
co*l is *?*;
9la* is transparent; clay and synthesis.
toft; fcM OTf, ft*] /' If I decompose water
by galvanism,
5. T. What do the various phenomena and cause the evolution of oxygen and
hy-
of chemistry chiefly depend on? drogen gases at the opposite" poles, I ex-
he modifications of attractive and
1 it
analytically; but if I explode
e force, exercised on .hese two gases and cause them to
particles of i

matter at Insensible distances from bine so as to form the water, which had
placed
each other. jreviously 1,,-,-n decomposed, I examine
nn me what are the at:
helically.
13. T. You hare made use of the terms
ffttef
P. 1. ftteifcv at traction, or the attrac- limplc and compound bodies several times,
"* if **tr*g*4to*. 2. Chemical attraction explain their meaning.
.
v
simple body, or element, is n sub-
[SeLeMn VIII., p. Jl.] stance that ciniiiit In- fun!;
or resolved into any other kind of mat
at are the repulsive agents f
ijas oxygen. A compound
body is
and Galvanism. compose,. 'stances,
r nature ai
[SeeLewonlX., p. J2.J
/< of sodium or c
102 CHEMISTRY. [Lesson II.

composed of a gas called chlorine, and a

metal called sodium.
l. i:\KRAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON I.

\ 1.
Explain the difference between
'/'. 1. AY hat is chemistry ?
integrant and constituent particles. 2. Give the general and
secondary pro-
P. Integrant particles are the smallest perties of matter, and examples of each.
particles into which a body can be
me- 3. "What are the chief chemical ;i

chanically divided, and resemble each 4. Explain the difference between at-
other and the mass which they originally traction and repulsion, and give examples
composed. Constituent particles are those of each.
which form the integrant particles of a 5. Define analysis and synthesis, their

complex body, differing from each other derivation, and examples of e;.eh.
and the mass which they form. For ex- <>. AYhat is the difference between a
ample, the particles of iodine, and those of simple and a compound body .'

silver in a mass of iodide of silver, are the 7. '\Vhat is an integrant particle ?

constituent particles of that body. 8. "NYhat is a constituent particle ?

LESSON II.

THE student in Chemistry should endeavour to imitate the great Davy, by constructing
rude and extemporaneous forms of apparatus for himself. It is not necessary to have
expensive apparatus for the elementary part of the science indeed, with a few simple ;

things the student may perform the greater portion of the experiments required. Let
him procure a few Florence flasks, such as salad oil is sold in, five or six gallipots or
tea-cups, four or five common plates, a basin, a dozen phials, a glass funnel, a pestle
and mortar, some glass tubing of different sizes, two dozen large corks, a few wine-
glasses, an iron saucepan, a triangular file, a yard of brass tubing one-eighth of an inch in
diameter, and a foot one quarter of an inch in diameter, some long glass jars, copper and
iron wire (o to O), a few blocks of wood, and a brass stop-cock, if possible. If to these
we add a common blowpipe, a piece of platinum foil and wire, he will be in possession
of nearly all the apparatus required but occasionally we shall have to construct extem-
;

poraneous apparatus for his use, which a few shillings will pay for. It is a positive
advantage to a student to be thrown upon his own resources, as it gives him a habit
of thinking and observing. If he is ingenious and careful, he will contrive to convert
many things to his use, that others would throw away. Let him save all the broken
window glass,
and cut it into long, thin strips they will serve to evaporate solutions
;

upon, or act as stirring rods some of the glass should be cut into pieces
;

varying from 2 to G or 8 inches square, as they are useful for covering

solutions in small vessels, and many other purposes. The feet of wine--
glasses, &c. may also be used for covering solutions ;
the bottoms of
broken tumblers stoppers of
will frequently serve as evaporating dishes ;

allkinds are useful, and should be kept to fit bottles, &c., by grinding
them with a little sand and water. Very good evaporating dishes may
be made by slightly scratching a Florence flask with a file,
and then
passing a red-hot iron wire in the direction required. For example in
the directions ac and be in Fig. 2, which will enable us to have dishes
with very tolerable lips (a and b) for pouring fluids from them. As
these flasks are sometimes apt to be broken when used as retorts, the pieces should be
saved, as dishes may be formed from them by following the same plan in the
directions

fg, de, and b g. The neck h may be converted into a small test-tube, by means of a
Lesson n. MISTRY.

blow-pipe, and a red-hot wire. A common

tobacco-pipe makes a tolerable temporary
blow-pipe ;
and a common flower-pot an excellent extemporaneous furnace; but these
we must leave for the present, to consider affinity or chemical attraction,
which is the basis of Chemistry.

QUESTIONS.
is chemical affinity ? of chlorine gas in the jar marked C, and
P. !t is that property of matter which if you observe closely you will see an oily

causes heterogeneous or dissimilar bodies compound produced, when the two gases
to combine, and form compounds fre- d [mixes them]. You see it col-
lects in large drops on the sides of the jar
quently quite different from the sub
For example [Ex- in which they were mixed, and the gases
compose them.
. I will dissolve these copper are being gradually absorbed. This oily
or this piece of copper wire, in a
. compound is called chloride of defiant gas ;
sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol), and
little nve other matters to consider before
allow it to crystallize, and then we shall we can describe all about the gases.
get a salt commonly called blue ttone (sul- 18. T. Are there not other changes of
copper), which is quite
f different
form ?
.e acid, or the metal in its appear- P. Yes but the consideration cf them
:

ance or properties. Caustic vegetable would occupy teo much of our time.
alkali will corrode the flesh, and so will
[The pupil should be required to give some ex-
\itriol; but when these two arc amples of those changes of form and quality,
we get a salt called sulphate of pot-
.
x ample, a liquid and a tolid form a
liquid (salt mixed with wau-r). Liy.
ash, which may be swallowed with safety. dtice gate* (nitric, and hydrochloric acids,
/'.
Why did you call potash a
vegetable a 1!). T. Are all bodies affected in the
]'. . it from so.la the same manner .'

mineral, and ammonia the volatile alkali. P. No

the attractive force is exerted
;

with degrees of force }>

different
/'. It appear*, then, that change
different bodies ; sometimes it acts very
of form and \<
n results of chemi-
cal c< Is it so f feebly, sometimes with great ener ;

/'. - olid* will produce a fluid.

at other
at all.
[Experimei. a lump of solid
ice,and a lump of salt, anotlr 20. T. How do you know that all bodies
are not similarly affected ?
place these two tope:
1

combine and form a fluid [places them in MI.

[Expcrim
contact.] You observe that we ha Here is a piece of camphor.
1
when is
placed in this wine-
quantity of brine by our
.1
it

alcohol, will
glass, containing it ii.
D of the substances
.lie alcohi
are altered. Again, tolidt will produce a
'..

are a few Now, if son

gat.
into the glass
grains of gunpowder, and you will see that,
the end of this heated wire :h the
on them, tlu-y will explode,
,

to a Two # ascom .sition both <. :he water7

gaseous form.
bodiet will form a totid ; thus, combines with the alcohol, a;

nc acid !ior and nl

vapour of an
gas, dense white fume* will be pr<
which then collect in flakes ai 21. T. Has no! tlr ;
combination been
ides and bottom of the jar; this j
called itieuUr n .

is muriate of ammonia or sal an

'

/'. ")
tingle
product a liquid.
ift trill
[
I

I have some oleAant

! .

J gn P. Why .!

h is marked O, and an equal volume vT

104 CHEMISTRY. [Lesson III.

P. Because a substance chooses or bases of the salts formed may be decomposed

elects one substance from several others in
preference, and to the exclusion of the rest,
and then combines with it. The particles
of a certain body, having an affinity for the
or separated from the acid by adding any
of the substances above it to the solution,
until we arrive at baryta, and then we
find that the other substances do not exert

particles of another body, will unite

with any power over the affinity of baryta and
them, but if they have not any affinity for sulphuric acid. The same thing occurs in
another body they will not combine. Table II. with regard to oxygen, and the
various metals placed underneath it.
23. T. Give me an illustration of this.
25. T. Are there any laws by which
1\ [Experiment 6.] Here is a small
the phenomena of chemical attraction a:o
piece of gold, which 1 will place in this
wine-glass, and then pour some aquafortis regulated ?
P. 1st. The force is said to
(nitric acid) upon it. [Does so.] You ob- Certainly.
but e exerted in different degrees by various
serve that no change has taken place ;

when the gold is removed and some potash bodies. 2nd. As it operates on the mole-
cules of bodies, it is found that its action
added, chemical combination is the result,
and nitrate of potash, or saltpetre, is formed. is promoted by any method which assists

In this experiment we see that the acid had the mechanical division and intermixture
of the minute particles. 3rd. Chemical
a stronger affinity for the potash than the
gold, in fact, its affinity for gold is im-
combination is generally attended by altera-
tion of temperature, and sometimes emission
perceptible.
of light. 4th. Opposite states of electricity
21. Then you think that some sub-
T. are observed between bodies which have an
stances have a stronger affinity for one 5th. Chemical
affinity for each other.
substance than for another ? combination consists of the combination
P. Undoubtedly; and if you refer to of a certain number of the molecules or
the following tables you will see that it atoms of one body, with some definite
really is the case. number of atoms of the other body com-
I. Sulphuric Acid. II. Oxygen. bining with it. 6. Chemical attraction
takes place either by simple or compound
Baryta. Zinc. affinity. 7. All compound bodies uniting
Strontin. Lead. with other bodies without undergoing
Potash. Copper. decomposition, act as simple bodies.
Soda. Mercury.
Lime. Silver. GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON II.
Magnesia. 1. necessary to have expensive
Is it
Ammonia.
apparatus for the study of chemistry I
Now, if we look at Table I. we see that 2. Define chemical affinity.

sulphuric acid has an affinity for ammonia, 3. How many kinds of alkalies are
and the result is sulphate of ammonia but ; there ?

then, if we add magnesia to the solution, 4. Does chemical

affinity change the
decomposition will take place, and sulphate form and quality of bodies ?
of magnesia will be the result. This proves 5. Is the force of chemical attraction
that the acid has an affinity for all the the same for all bodies ?

substances placed below the lime, and will 6. What are the laws regulating chemical
combine separately with each, but that the attraction.

LESSON III.
WE do not require study Chemistry very deeply to discover that an alteration of
to

temperature generally takes place when bodies combine. Heat is evolved when sulphuric
acid (oil of vitriol) is mixed with water, or when lime is slacked. The production of
cold takes place only when heat is rendered insensible by the conversion of a solid into
Lesson III.] CHEMISTRY. 105

a fluid, or a liquid into a gas. [Experiment 7.] Thus, by combining three parts of
sulphate of soda, and two parts of diluted nitric acid, eighty degrees of cold is produced.
[Experiment 8.] If we mix two parts of pounded ice with one part of chloride sodium

(common salt), we shall cause the mercury in a thermometer to sink to five degrees,
when surrounded by the mixture. This effect will always be produced, whatever may
be the temperature the thermometer was occupying previous to the experiment the ;

mercury will never fall lower.

Before entering into the consideration of other matters, it will be necessary to examine
some of the phenomena attending combustion Firstly. Because they are intimately
:

connected with heat Secondly. Because they are so frequently witnessed, and so little
;

understood by the chemical student.

QUESTIONS.
26. 7*. What COMBUSTION ?
is 31. T. How do you know that substances
P. The phenomena exhibited by burn- are altered in form, without being de-
ing substances, which are attended by heat stroyed ?

lit, and the production of new com- P. By experiment [Eperiment 10.]

If I place a piece of heated charcoal under
pounds.
a glass jar it generates a gas called carbonic
T. Will any substance burn ?
acid, which is known by adding some lime-
It must be a combustible
water, the result of which is a white pre-
substance.
cipitate of carbonate of lime.
26. 7*. Suppose that we heat a piece of
iron, and make it what is commonly termed 32. r. Do the substances which burn
red- hot, is not that combustion ? support combustion ?
although it emits light and
P. No, they neither support it, nor
heat it does not burn, it is only incandetcent burn, unless when assisted by a supporter
or ignited. of combustion, which will not burn of
itself, although it supports combustion.
/'. Then what do you mean by
combustion ? Give me an example. 33. r. What is the chief supporter of
/'. The body experimented upon burns combustion .'

or consumes in combustion but, when ; P. Oxygen gas.

rendered incandescent, it cools again, and 34. r. How do you know that it
sup-
remains unaltered, or nearly so. For ex-
ports combustion ?

ample, [Experiment 9] take a piece of /'.Ik-cause, lighted if a is candle

I. urn
charcoal and set it on fire it will
plunged into this gas, the taper burns more
;

and waste away, and finally leave a residue

brilliantly, but the gas itself is not i

of white ash. \V. know that it has been
consumed by combustion, and heat has
been evolved ; we feel the heat, and there-
fore know such is the case. When we heat
a bar of iron, heat is evolved, l.ut the iron
does not consume, because its temperature
is not kept up by the heat evolved in its
If the same candle is plunged into ajar of
coal gas the gas is ignited, and the candle
extinguished.
/'. Is it not possible to burn iron,
and other bodies of a like nature ?
/'.Yes we can burn the most in-
;

union with the oxygen of the air. combustible bodies by means of the oxjr-
blowj.ijif, even
:i
tobacco-pipes,
/ How in it that the charcoal is v
* .
pipe-clay,
ycd, and the iron is not f

P. The charcoal is not deitroyrd, but hen I placed a lighted

altered in '
. < not any such
is under a glass jar, the jar
became covered
i* destruction in Nature. Matter with moisture, and then tin-caudle went
.ilthottgh its form out. NVh.tt was the rcn-
tor annihilation is contrary to the F.1 he moisture was water, caused by
laws of Nature. the hydrogen of the candle uniting with
106 CHEMISTRY. [Lesson IV.

part of the oxygen of the air within the

i'.AL QUESTIONS ON LESSON III.
glass. Then the carbon of the candle
united with a part of the oxygen of the air, 1. Can we burn any substance ?
and formed carbonic acid gas, which is not '1. What is the difference betweeft com-
a supporter of combustion and as the
;
bustible and incombustible substances ?

oxygen, the chief supporter of combustion, '.. What is incandescence ?

was withdrawn, the candle went out. a substances be destroyed .'

LESSON IV.

WE have seen that the oxygen of the air is a supporter of combustion, and hence it

follows, that in order to maintain combustion, a fresh supply of air must be established,
and the smoke allowed to escape. It is therefore evident, that combustion, after all,
is nothing more than a process of oxidation, or combination of oxygen with the body
consumed. Now combination is not merely mixing, it is more it is the intimate and ;

close union of substances. For example, [Experiment 11] we have some oil in this
bottle, and when I add some water to it, you will see that the two substances mix, but

they do not combine, because when they have stood a short time, the oil will separate
itself from the water. [The bottle is allowed to stand, and the oil is then seen floating
on the top of the water]. I will cause these two bodies to combine, by adding another
substance potash, and then we shall get a soapy compound, differing from the oil, the
water, or the potash.
The elevation of temperature generally promotes the chemical action of bodies, but
nevertheless, the effect will depend, in certain cases, on the degree of heat adapted for
particular purposes. For example, if we expose mercury in a proper vessel, and in
contact with the air to a heat of 680 Fahrenheit, it becomes converted into the red
oxide of mercury. If we expose the red oxide of mercury to 980 Fahrenheit, the
mercury will be reproduced in its metallic state, and a gas given off, which is oxygen.
This naturally leads us to what caused the red oxide of mercury to resolve
reflect,
itself into the metal, mercury and the gas, oxygen? Heat. It could not have

been effected by any other means than heat. We therefore learn that heat is an
important agent in chemical combination.
When elements unite with elements, chemists regard the union as combinations of
ihejirst order as acids and bases. When these combine, to form sails, we have com-
binations of the second order. When we find double salts resulting from the union of
salts with salts, we regard them as combinations of the third order. Bodies do not
generally combine chemically, otherwise than in fixed proportions hence every body, ;

the result of chemical combination, generally contains fixed proportions. For example,
water always consists of one atom of hydrogen, and one atom of oxygen.

[The pupil should read Lessons III., IV.,and V., of Natural Philosophy, before entering upon
the question of this Lesson.]

QUESTIONS.
37. T. Whatthe atomic theory ?
is combine chemically in certain proportions
P. It is the theory which explains the toform new substances. For example, we
manner in which the atoms of bodies know that an atom of hydrogen and an
 Lessor. CIIF.M1>TKY.

atom of oxygen combine and form water, /.How can you determine the
the atomic weight of which is 9 hence it relative atomic weight of bodies ?
;

follows that the relative weight of the atom P. By fixing a particular number, as
of hydrogen to the at- n is as the atomic weight ot" any one su:
which is the same as saying that and then determining the atomic weights
.

>:n of hydrogen weighs one grain, of other bodies, according to the propor-
and the atom of oxygen eight grains. tions by weight in which they uni
38. T. Then I suppose that is the example, let us assume that the atomic
reason water is always said to be composed weight of hydrogen is equal to 1, the
of 1 volume of hydrogen and 8 volumes ol atomic weights of other bodies may then
be found; thus 100 parts of sulphuretted
/'. You are correct. It is nothing more hydrogen contain 5-9 parts of hydrogen
than saying, water is composed of * and 9 1*1 parts of sulphur. We suppose
measures of each gas, instead of volumes. that there are an equal number of atoms
of hydrogen, and the same of sulphur,
39. T. Do not some bodies combine
therefore we have the proportion <

in all proportions ?
91-1 equal to 1 16. Thus we know that
:
/'.Yes for example, gold and silver,
;

the atomic weight of sulphur is 16, if that

water and alcohol, and water and sulphuric
of hydrogen iu 1.
acid. Other bodies combine in all pro-
s to a certain
point, but cannot be /'.Has the knowledge of the rela-
made to combine after that for example, ; Jits of the atoms been usefully
water will dissolve and hold in solution any
salt, (as alum or Epsom salts,) but after it P. Yes the relative weights of the
;

has dissolved a certain portion, it is said atoms of bodies, and their chemical equiva-
to be saturated, and cannot dissolve any lents, are expressed by the same m;
more. Some bodies unite in several defi- Who in vente tithe atomic theory ?
.

oportions for example, 14 parts ;

Dalton, in 1804.
/'. He supposed the
of nitrogen will combine with 8*16, or 2-t atoms of bodies to be spherical, and
parts of oxygen, but will not combine with invented symbols to represent the n
any intermediate proportion. Certain bodies in which he thought they combined
unite in only one proportion, as chlorine together. Thus, hydrogen was represented
and hydrogen. by a circle with a dot in the centre ;
40. 3". Have all bodies the same kind nitrogen, by a circle with a vertical line
of atoms ? drawn through the centre ; oxygen, by a
/'. \c bodies have
simple plain circle; and carbon, by a black
atoms, and compound bodies have com-
pound atoms. For example : /'.How did he classify the combi-
HtniATK or
SODA.
Ox rosy. Some*. 1'. Those substances containing only
2 atoms he called binary compounds, those
mmpounds, those
rig. . with 4 atoms, quaternary, &c.
46. T. Is it
probable that the disposi-
; and 4 are diagrams representing
arrangement of the atoms of solid
/
tion or
simple atoms of oxygen and sodium bodies can influence their form .'

(natrium), but Fig. 5 represents the com- P. Certainly. When a solution of

atoms of nitrate of soda.
any salt is set aside to crystallize, and the
1

Live these atoms any weight, process goes on slowly, rtgular crystals aro
m say the atomic weight of water ; l>ut it it is too sudden, the
1091 crystals are irregt;
not know anything of the How docs this prove that form
'

>
47. T.
absolute weight of atoms; they arc too depends upon the arrangement of the
mall to weigh therefore we c.n ; atoms ?

determine the rvfctfev weight of atom*, but /'.If th.y are arranged suddenly ami
it is certain that atoms have some same salt that always
weight. order, the
108 CHEMISTRY. [Lesson V.

crystallizes in octahedral crystals, will be
amorphous from a (a ) without, and morphe
(uopcfnj) form, or devoid of regular forms.
For example, I have eight balls here, and
large cricket-balls for the apples 1 and 2,
the figure will be wedge-shaped, like that
within the lines i c, c d, d k, and k i ; but,
if we put the balls where 2 and 3 are, the

OOO
abed
can arrange them into many forms, thus

O OO O
e
OO
:
figure will be similar to that enclosed by
the lines ah, hg, gd, df, ft; and eo.
Let us suppose that the apple marked 2 is
removed, and replaced by a pear; provided
OOO OOO OO OO oooo it is the same size, the form will not bo

00 OOO OO OO OO altered. It is thus with the atoms of some

O OO OOO crystals, they may be removed, and replaced

by other atoms, without altering the form
of the crystals hence we infer that certain
;

but it is possible to make them assume atoms are isomorphous.

more figures than those I have formed, and
as it is probable that all the atoms of
bodies are not the same size, we can easily
understand how the form of bodies is altered
by the arrangement of their atoms.
48. T. Explain how this affects their
form.
P. I have four apples here, 1, 2, 3, 4
and if I place them upon the table, as in
fig. 7, and draw four lines round them, I
49. T. What do you mean by the term
isomorphous ?
P. The term is derived from two Greek
words, isos (icros) equal, and morphe (/iiop^)
form, and signifies of the same form. For
example, the phosphate and biphosphate of
soda are of the same form as the arseniate
; and binarseniute of soda, and only differ in
the one salt containing phosphorus, and
the other arsenic.

GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON IV.

1. What is the difference between a

mixture and a combination ?

2. How are chemical combinations

Fig. 7.
classified ?

3. Explain the atomic theory.

4. Have all bodies atoms resembling
shall have a figure like that represented by each other ?

a, b, c, d, in Fig. 8, which has its four sides 5. Can we weigh atoms ?

equal. Suppose that I remove the apple 6. To what purpose has the knowledge
marked 2 from within the square, and place of the relative weights of the atoms of bodies
a nut in the spot marked 5 in Fig. 7, and been applied ?
then draw a line (In) so as to touch the 7. Explain the terms amorphous and
apples 1 and
4, and include the nut, the isomorphous.
form be similar to the shaded part
will 8. How does the arrangement of atoms
within the square. If we substitute two influence the form of bodies ?

LESSON V.
THERE are connected with the atomic theory which are worthy of remark.
some facts
We observe that certain substances, having different forms and qualities, are composed
of the same materials. How is this to be accounted for 2 The atomic theory comes to
our assistance, and seems to say that it is the arrangement of the particles or atoms.

For example, the cyanic and fulminic acids are isomeric compounds of carbon, oxygen,
and nitrogen. From this we learn that the same elements may be grouped in different
ways, which is the same as saying that having a dozen bricks it is possible to place them
Lesson V.] CHEMISTRY. 109

in other positions than one above the other, but that their position does not alter the
materials. It is not absolutely imperative that pewter (an alloy of tin with lead and

antimony) should be made into measures, the same materials will form dish-covers,
hot-water plates, dishes, &c. ; and so it is with the atoms of certain materials,
as they are placed in groups, differing from each other in arrangement, so will the

compounds they form differ in their qualities, properties, and appearance. Some bodies
consist of the same elements, in the same ratio, and yet differ in their equivalents.

QUESTIONS.
50. T. What is the derivation and 53. T. Have the atomic weights, or, as
meaning of the word isomeric ? they are sometimes called, the chemical
P. It is derived from two Greek words, equivalents of the elementary bodies, been
isos (TOJ), equal and meros (/utpos), part ;
; determined ?
and is applied to those substances which P. Yes ; and arranged into groups.
contain the same elements, in the same
54. T. How are the elementary bodies
proportions, and yet differ essentially in
arranged ?
their chemical qualities.
P. They are divided into the non-
51. T. How does the atomic theory metallic and metallic groups. The non-
solve the problem of the isomeric state of metallic elements are divided into gazolytct,
bodies depending upon the grouping of or bodies which are permanently gaseous ;

their atoms ?
halogens, or bodies which produce salts
P. Simply by demonstrating the ar- when combined with the metals; and
rangement of the atoms. If we take twelve metalloids, or bodies resembling metals in
square pieces of wood we can easily see how their chemical relations.
this is effected. For example, we see that 55.
T. How are the elements expressed
in chemistry ?
P. By symbols, which were selected by
Derzelius, from Latin names, because that
language is known to all civilized nations.

56. T. What is the use of symbols ?

/!,. 2. tig. 10. P. They enable theus to

express
in Fig. 9 the atoms are arranged in groups composition of a definite chemical com-
containing six in each; in Fig. 10 each
pound in a concise manner, by using the
initials of the elementary bodies, and
group conta. 1 1 each
group con-
atomscom- numbers annexed to them, denoting the
sists of two; and, i
*

number of atoms of the several constituents

bine in groups of three. [See Question 47.]
existing in the compound.
/. You said (Q. 41) that atoms have
How do you know that they have ?
57. T. Suppose that a symbol has not
weight
any number allixc-d what does it mean?
P. Although we cannot weigh them, P. That only one atom of the substance
because they are so small, yet it is certain
exists in the compound.
that they mutt possess some degree of
weight. we take the common puff-ball
If 58. r. Is there any particular n.

fungus in our hands, we are sensible that of arrangement observed in expressing

it
possesses weight when it bursts, and ;
chemical formula* by symbols f
its fine dust, we discover that each
, /._Yi-s. i
substances,
particle is about y^irnjth of an inch in such as metals and salifiable bases, j
:

diameter. Now it would be as absurd to electro-negative substances, such as oxygen

attempt to define the weight of one of and acids,
'

in th.-

it would be to weigh the

these particles, as frequently expressed by a dot, placed over
\ grain of musk, odj ui-h which
;

.if these not possess i cnmb'in >*, oxide of lead is

weight, the puff-ball, or the grain of musk, silica, si ; and sulphuric
could not have weight. we therefore learn that the lead
c 3
110 CHEMISTRY. [Lesson VI

contains one atom, the silica two atoms, two atoms of hydrogen, and two atoms of
and the sulphuric acid three atoms, of oxygen.
oxygen. When a compound contains (il. T. What meant by
is a stroke over
proximate and ultimate elements, the mode a symbol ?
of union is expressed by means of points,
P. Berzelius used it to express the
commas, -f- signs, and brackets. For
vegetable and animal acids thus, T, sig-
example, crystallized sulphate of ammonia uiiies tartaric acid, and P formic acid.
(one atom of ammonia, one atom of
sulphuric acid, and two atoms of water)
62. T. Why have some symbols a
is Nil 3 +N SO" + 2 HO = NH 3 SO 3 ,
stroke under them ?
P. It is an abbreviation
2 HO s"II. The dots under the
used to denote two equivalents of a sub-
sometimes
symbol of a body denote atoms of hydrogen ;

and commas, or strokes leaning from right stance thus, Fe instead of Fe a O 3 or it

; ,

to left, atoms of sulphur as, when we may be written -F e O3 .

express the tersulphuret of molybdenum, 63. T. Have not certain compounds

A number particular symbols appropriated to them ?
thus, Mo. placed on the right
P. Yes; water is written Aq cyano-
and upper part of a symbol, expresses the ;

number of atoms of the substance denoted gen, Cy ; tartaric T; + citric acid, c;

acid,

by the symbol thus, SO

3
means one acetic acid, A ; Morphia, M &c. ;

atom of sulphur, and three atoms of oxygen. 6-1. T. How is the water of crystalliza-
tion expressed ?
59. T. Why do you place the number P. By attaching an li to the symbol of
above the symbol, instead of below, which
the substance ; thus Ah denotes the hydrate
is more usual with chemists ?
of acetic acid.
P. Because it is more easily read than
when placed below.
60. r. What
do the numbers placed GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON V.
before symbols mean ? 1. How is it that certain substances,

P. Anumber placed before several composed of the same materials, possess

symbols multiplies them all as far as the different qualities and forms ?

next -f- sign, or comma or, if the number

;
2. the meaning of isomeric,
Explain
is placed before a bracket, it multiplies all and give its derivation.
the numbers or symbols within the brackets 3. How do we know that atoms have

thus, KO + 2 CO 2 KO,+ HO = weight ?

CO-, HO = xc 2 ill means, that one 4. How

are the elementary bodies ar-
atom of potash, two atoms of carbonic acid, ranged and expressed ?
and one atom of water, unite to form 5. Do symbols express the elementary
bicarbonate of potash, and 8 (CaO, ScO 3 ) bodies in a satisfactory manner >.

+ KO 1
2 S, iQ*
, +
16 Aq., gives the 6. Give illustrations of the various
composition of apophyllite ;
2 HO means symbols.

LESSON VI.

WE have found how certain substances

may be expressed by abbreviating them, and
as every beginner in chemistry somewhat alarmed by seeing so many great h's, o's,
is

and other letters, combined with -f's and figures staring him in the face, we must take
this opportunity of recommending that the symbols which are, in fact, the alphabet of
chemistry be practised by the pupil with a piece of soft chalk on a slate or board. If
a little attention is given to the subject, an hour's practice will overcome the difficulty.
It is said that chemistry has a great many hard names, but, really, it does not abound
with more than any other science, and after all, they are very simple. Tor example,
lesson VI.] CHEMISTRY. Ill

we meet with the words oxioV, chloride, bromide, Sec., but they only mean the combination
of metals with these substances, and it is not more difficult to understand them than
"
saying a syrup of orange, mulberry, &rc., or an essence of lemon, verbena, &c. Oh,
but are not those long names, protoxide, bi-chloride, &c., very disagreeable and
" No they are really very easy. Let us see what they
difficult ? says a lazy juvenile. ;

mean. Proto means first, and therefore a protoxide is a single oxide ; deuto.

, a double oxide ; tritoxide, or teroxide, a triple oxiile, &c. and ; when the base
r.-.ted with oxygen (still not acid) it is called a peroxide. All the difficulty
.ig be removed by remembering that each name has a prefix,
these names will
which explains the meaning thus profo means 1 ; sesqui, 1} bi, bin, dcuto, di, 2 tf t
; ; ;

quadra, 4
:
qitinto, 5 ;
:

As we shall meet with some other names of a peculiar kind, it will be b

examine their meaning first. We shall find that acids ending in ic form s:i/

bases that end in ate at least, such is a general rule ; for example, sulphuric acid
and potassa form sulphate of potash. Acids ending in ons form salts that end
thus, phosphorow acid and potassa form phosphi/t? of potash. When we meet with
words terminating in uret, we know that the simple non -metallic substances
combination with each other, with a metal, or with a metallic oxide thus, carburet of ;

iron means a combination of carbon with iron. The names of most metals end in urn
as sodium, platinum, &c. and alkaline bases, when expressed in one word ter
in a, as magnesia and potassa. The prefix hypo, means less thus ty/>o-sulphuric acid ;

means an acid with less oxygen than the sulphuric, and more than the sulphuron*. The

prefixes hyper and per signify more thus, /<y/*r-nitrous, and per-chloric acids, means
;

acids with more oxygen than the nitron* and chloric.

QV;.
/'. Name the first group of the 68. T. Name t:

elementary bodies, and give t:. P. They are tiity in number, viz. :

and the symbols at the same time.

/'. first group, the gazolytct, con-
1 i

Jfamf.
tains three elementary bodies, viz. :

s >,
n ... i
O. ... 8
... II

66. T. What substances are found in

the second group ?
/'. Tin.- lialogent consist of four bodies,

T.r -i .: .
78-4
33-4
i ! ...
187
i.

ictalloids.
.
:ii
group contains only four bodies,

n .

Sulphur
 112 CHEMISTRY. [lesson VII.
atomic weight of oxide of copper viz
Names of Metals continued. 3<)-S.

Jfame. Symbol. Equiv. 70. T. Can we find the composition of

any compound as easily ?
Magnesium Mg. 127
Mn.
P. Yes. For example, Peroxide of
Manganese 27-fi

Mercury (Hydrangyrum) Hg. 101-4 Manganese is represented by Mn O 2 and ,

Molybdenum Mo. 43 by adding 27'6, the equivalent of man-

Nickel Ni. 29-6
Kiobium ? ?
ganese, to 16, which is equal to two atoms
Osmium of oxygen, we get 43'6 as the
Os. 99-6 product,
Palladium Pd. 53-4 which is the atomic weight. Let us take
Pelopium r ?
sulphuret of bismuth for another example ;
Platinum Pt. 987 the symbol for this is Hi 2 and S 3 and, by
Potassium (Kalium) K. 39-2 ,

Rhodium R. 52-1 the same rule, we find that its equivalent

Ruthenium Ru. 51 7 is 260 8.
Selenium Se. 40
Silicium Si. 14-8 [The pupil should be requested to explain the
Silver (Argentum) Ag. 108M meaning of the following symbols, and to give
Sodium (Natronium) Na. 23-2 their equivalents viz., Cu2 S; Pb S Cd S ; ;

Strontium Sr. 44 H S5; AsFe3; Zu O, S O3, 7 HO.]

Tanivlium Ta. 185
Terbium T r
71. T. Have not some chemists pro-
Tellurium Te. fi4 posed the adoption of other terms, instead
Thorium Th. 596 of sulphuret and phosphuret ?
Tin (Stannum) St. 59
Titanium Ti.
'
2^-5
P. Yes, Professors Graham and Hoff-
Tungsten (tt'olframium) W.
'

95 mann propose using the terms sulphide and

Uranium U. 217
Vanadium V. 68-6
Yttrium Y. 32-2
Zinc Zn. 322
Ziuconium Zr. 22-4 GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON VI.

Explain the meaning of the various

1.
C9. T. Will these equivalents enable prefixes to chemical names.
us to find the composition of the compounds 2. When the names of acids end in ic,
of these elements ? how do the names of their salts terminate ?
P. Yes. We can learn that by finding 3. When acids end in ous, how do the
out the weight of the atoms of its in- names of their salts terminate ?

gredients, from the groups we have ex- 4. How do the names of most metals and
amined, and adding them together thus, : alkalisend ?
Oxide of Copper is expressed by Cu O ;
Give the symbols and equivalents of
5.
and, as we know that the equivalent of each group of elementary bodies.
copper is 3T8, and that of oxygen 8, we 6. How can we find the equivalents of
add them together, and that gives us the compound bodies ?

LESSON VII.

WE have already noticed some of the peculiarities and properties of heat (p. 22),
but as some of the processes in connexion with the science of chemistry are under
great obligations to this agent, we must notice some other properties belonging to it.
Heat or Caloric is the great agent of repulsion, as its particles repel each other.
It causes bodies to expand, and pass from a solid to a liquid, and from a liquid to
a gaseous form, and we are enabled to observe the
changes of temperature by availing
ourselves of this property. Thus we measure the degrees of heat by means of a
thermometer (Fig. 13), an instrument constructed for materials which readily expand
Lesson VII.; CHEMISTRY. 113

by heat. We have already learned

(p. 22) how heat has is communicated, and it

been found by experiment that certain bodies are better conductors than others,
^ s^ hence they have been divided into coi</MC/ors and non~conductort, and
their relative conducting power has been given by Despretz as follows :

Gold 1000 Tin 303.9

Lead
-r - Copper 898.2 Marble 23.6
fedl &* I'latinum 381 Porcel.in 1 J J
Iron 374.3 Fine Clay 11.4
Zinc 363
From this we the best conductors ; liquids and
learn that metals are
aeriform fluids are very imperfect conductors of caloric. When a solid
becomes a liquid, a certain amount of heat becomes latent, that is to say,
it is,as it were, squeezed out and disappears and when a liquid becomes;

a solid, a corresponding effect is produced. Intent heat varies according

to the substances operated on for example, the heat of fluidity in
;

Bismuth 550
Tin 500
Zinc 493
Bees- wax 175*
Lead 162"
Spermaceti 145
Sulphur 143
/if.u. Water 142*

All bodies expand by heat, and contract on cooling.

QUESTIONS.
r. "When we place a vessel con- P. If the temperature is very high, like
taining water upon the fire, how is the that of furnaces, we use one of
heat diffused ? Daniell's platina pyrometers, but if
/. Hy confection that is, the heated only for boiling liquids, we use a
particles ascend, or arc cylindrical thermometer, graduated
carruil to the top of the on the glass tube to 572 3 Fal :

vessel. which may be fitted into a cork, and

I adapted for any \essel, or
/'.Why does the
allowed to float in the liquid.
water roll about and bub-
H H ble up when it boils ? /.What are the chief effects
P. Ik-cause the par- produced by heat ?

ticles of which it is composed, are con- /'.Expansion, liquefaction, v.-

tantly put in motion by the contending porisation, evaporation, and bun.
>, and the escape of steam. or ignition.

/'. What currents arc they of which 77. 7'. How

do you know
ft
ak? expansion caused by heat ?
is
An atcending hot current in tin- P. By experiment and obst :,
centre of the von*- /.
14), and a
/ The iron rim of a cart wheel is ex;
detetnding cold curr f ,,t on each side of the by heat before it is put on, nn<l tin
TWM! (c c, Fig. l
water is thrown over it, it cools ai

tracts, thus binding the spokes and c

/'. When we wish to measure high together.
degrees of heat in chemical exper.
[fee Question H, P. 8; and Question it and
how do we manage ? , p. 13.]
114 CHEMISTRY. [Lesson VII,
78. T. Then this knowledge is practi- 82. /'.What is
evaporation ?
cally applied .' P. The dissipation of a liquid by, jlj",
P. Certainly in laying down railways, conversion into vapour. It may be
;
spon-
building iron bridges, and constructing all taneous, or caused by the application <

works of the kind where metal is much 83. T. How is spontaneous evap
employed, provision is made for expansion ? produced ?

/'. How do people know how much P. Partly by the tempcratur

to calculate for the expansion ? partly by the solvent power of the atnu*.
P. By referring to tables of the ex- spheric air forming a solution of the body.
pansion of various bodies, and remember- Ether, alcohol, and volatile oils ;

ing that the degree of expansion is in the amples of the class of bodies that undergo
direct ratio of the increase of temperature, this change.
and that when the heat decreases, the body 84. T. What is the object of cm]
will contract again to its former size. heat to cause evaporation ?
MM. Lavoisier and Laplace investigated P. To drive off the fluid from the sub-
the subject, and the following is the stance held in solution for, evaporation
;

result : is
generally used for the purpose of obtain-
linglish flint glass ......... T^CS* ing salts from aqueous solutions ;
b
Common French glass .. when the fluid is valuable, as alcoi-

Glass without lead example, then the process of distillation is

Steel, untempered employed. When we wish to evaporate
Steel, tempered any solution, we employ a ~stand like that
Soft iron
Gold

Brass
Silver ........................ T ,
.
Lead ....................... *iT
80. T. What causes liquefaction ?

P. The repulsive agency of the caloric,

which drives the particles of bodies capable
of assiimirig the liquid form so far apart,
that their cohesion is diminished, and they
are rendered easily movable on one another
in any direction.
81. T. What is vaporisation ?

P. The
rapid conversion of a solid or
liquid into an aeriform state, as when water
is converted into steam by boiling it Now
\vater boils under ordinary atmo-
at 212
spheric pressure, but when this is removed fig. 1C.

it boils at a lower temperature. Steam is in Fig. 16, which has a movable slide (a),
invisible, colourless, and transparent, which so that we can raise or lower the evaporating

may be proved by looking at the spout of
a tea-kettle, when it will be found that the
first half inch from the spout appears
unoccupied, but that the rest of the space
in front is occupied by what is generally
called steam, which is in reality condensed
vapour. Steam is 10% times greater in
bulk than water; therefore, one volume of
water will yield 1696 volumes of steam.
* The fractions show the amount of expansion
in length of the rods of the various bodies passing
from 32 to 212.
basin (&); the heat is supplied by means of
an argand gas-burner, (e), supported on a
heavy base, and furnished with a flexible
tube of vulcanised India-rubber (d). If
gas cannot be procured, a common '.argand
oil-lamp, or a spirit-lamp will do.
85. T. Is it necessary to employ a
great heat for evaporating purposes, such
as you have described ?
P. No. A
very convenient method is
to use an iron saucepan filled with sand,
which is heated by resting it upon some
 VIII.; CH: 115

btieka, and placing an argand lamp, similar to be distilled are placed in one part called
,,nder it. This is , which has a pipe connected with
: : \vend this pipe passes through
;

a sand-bath. Sometimes the cold water contained in a tub or other

over boiling
is
placed vessel, and as the pipe (or worm, :.

water in another vessel, which is called a technically called) is coiled within the tub,
water-bath. >uvenient manner every part of it is exposed to
of evaporating small rating action of the eold v.
portions of i. requires to be renewed occasionally. It
to hold a small slip may be conducted on a smaller scale by
of glass over the using a common glass retort, which may
flame of a spirit- be fitted with a stopper, being then called
lamp, as in i

Occasionally an eva-
poratii.
over a spirit- l.-tiup
*' l7-
by means of a pair of
tongs (?& 18) bent near the points. These
tongs ;
.iseful, being frequently

F>g. 19.

Fig. IS. tubulated, as (a) in The neck of

the retort is inserted into n flask immersed
required for lifting small crucibles from
sand-baths, or furnaces. :n of cold water, and the heat main-
tained by a lamp (b) placed under the retort.
86. T. What is ignition ?

/'. This scarcely requires explanation,

because nearly everybody knows that bodies ttAL (irKSTIONS ON LF.SSOX VII.
become luminous when exposed to a high
1. How measured is caloric ?

degree of heat (800 in the dark, and about

1000 in the daylight), and radiate caloric 2. What changes may be ascribed to
caloric ?
without undergoing any great marked
3. Give the relative conducting power
chemical change. body looks
of bodies ?
red hot it is said to be ignited but when it ;
4. Give examples of the degrees of the
appears paler, or what is called white hot, heat of fluid
(indetctnt.
T What is distillation?
t
by convcc
of the bub-
condensation of the vapour
lie i motion of!
of a liquid or solid, by means of a particu- .v are high temperatures nu
lar kind of apparatus. Forexampl* ns of expan-
preparation of alcohol and distilled waters, .

vaporisation, evapora-
the common still is used. The n. tion, ignition, and <

III.

ve look around us, and sec the many improvement* made in objects that are

daily I/: our notice, we are struck with the great benefits conferred upon us
r

by Chemistry. The luxuriant crops of the farmer, the improvements in dyeing,

bleaching, soap and candle-making, flax-dressing, smelting, photography and
dagucrreotyping, baking, brewing, distilling, calico-printing, nml sugar-refining, are
.liar instance* of the obligations we arc under to Chcmistr t not
116 CHEMISTRY. [Lesson VIII

forget the improvements made in the manufacture and colouring of glass, the discovery
of gun-cotton; the separation of wolfrum from tin, by Mr. Oxland's process of
roasting;
electro-gilding and silvering, the electric telegraph, the Bude light, porcelain manu-
facture; and the preservation of wood, canvass, &c., by Sir W. Burnett's chloride of
zinc ;they furnish us with admirable examples of the application of Chemistry to
useful purposes, benefitting mankind by its results, and turning our thoughts to Him
who developes the faculties of invention.
Before commencing the investigation of the elementary bodies, we must notice some
of the apparatus and processes required. Rectification is performed by the aid of heat,
and is only the repeated distillation of any product obtained by distillation, but as it
requires a lower temperature than distillation, the more volatile parts only are raised
and pass into the receiver, while the impurities remain behind. According to the
process and the results, so it has received its name ; thus, when the liquid is distilled
from any substance it is called abstraction ; when the product is re-distilled from the
same materials, or another supply of the same materials, it receives the name of
cohobation; and when the object is to increase the strength of the fluid by leaving the
watery part behind, as in the case of spirits, the process is called concentration or
dephlegmation. Sublimation is another process required to be performed the product is ;

called a sublimate. It consists in driving off certain volatile parts of substances, and

condensing them again in a solid form, which is done by employing a common crucible
with a cone of paper over it in some cases ;
in others, two flasks placed mouth to
mouth may be used.
In determining the weight of bodies, the Apothecaries or Troy weight is commonly
used, according to the following table :

POUND [libra lb.] OUNCES [uncia |] DRACHMS [drachma 5]

1 == 12 = 96
1 = 8
1

SCRUPLES \scrupulus 3] GRAINS [granum, gr.]

288 = 5,760
24 = 480
3 == 60
1 20
And a common
Apothecary's balance with the necessary weights, is
all that is required.

will be seen that drops are

Liquids are measured by the following table, in which it
not recognised, as they are very liable to vary in quantity from various causes.
Graduated glass measures of different sizes are used for measuring :

GALLON [congius C] PINTS [octarius 0] FLUID OUNCES [flu id- un

1 = 16
1

FLUID DRACHMS [fluid drachma /5] MINIMS [minimum

1,024 61,440
128 = 7,680
8 = 480
1 60

The Latin names for the various weights and measures, and their distinguishing signs, are inserted
between bracket*. The Latin names are given in the singular.
 Lesson VIII.] CHEMISTRY. 117

QUESTIONS.
83. r. What do you mean by the 70 will occupy less space. It has, there-
a body ? been found convenient to weigh all
specific gravity of fore,
P. It is the ratio of its weight to the bodies at a fixed temperature, such as 60
weight of an equal bulk of another body, Fahrenheit Let us see how the 1,000
taken as a standard [Experiment 12.] If grain bottle acts. [Experiment 13.] I
we fill one egg-cup with water and another have the bottle here it is filled with dis-
;

with mercury or quicksilver, we shall find tilled water, at 60, and you see how correct
that although they both occupy the same it is, for it
weighs exactly 1,000 grains.
space, yet the mercury is 13$ times heavier [Weighs it, then empties the bottle and
than the water, and hence we say that the dries it]. We
will now fill it with sul-

density of mercury is greater than that of phuric ether, and weigh it [ Does so, and the
water. [See Q. 55, p. 15.]
bottle is found to be too light]. You see
that it requires 270 grains to be placed in
89. T. How is the density or specific the same scale with the bottle to balance
gravity of a body ascertained ? the 1,000 grains weight; therefore we say
P. It depends upon the nature of the
that the specific gravity of the ether is
body. That of fluid* is easily obtained.
0730. Let us fill the bottle with sulphuric
For example, take a small bottle with a
acid instead of the ether, and observe what
narrow neck (Fig. 20), and
takes place. [Does so, and the bottle
weigh it carefully. Then
fill it with pure water up to a
weighs down the 1,000 grains weight]
You see that we must add 875 grains to the
certain mark and weigh
(a), scale with the weight in it, consequently
it again. Now empty the the specific gravity of the acid is 1

bottle, dry it well, and fill it

91. T. Is not
the specific
up to the same mark with any
fluid gravity of fluids ascertained by
say, for example, beer
and weigh some other means than weighing
it again ; then
divide the weight of the fluid,
them ?
/'. Yes by means of the hy-
(the beer) the specific gravity
;
r,y. jo.

of which is required, by the weight of the

drometer or areometer, which con-
sists of ahollow glass tube, with a
water, and the product will indicate the
scale in the inside () so nrr
specific weight By employing a vial that
that it denotes the specific gravity
holds exactly 1,000 grains of water,* much
time and trouble in calculating is saved, of lighter fluids by a scale with the
because we only require to weigh the degrees proceeding from the bot-
tom to the top, and of heavier
liquid contained in the bottle, and its weight
expresses its specific gravity.
by the degrees proceeding
fluids
from the top to the bottom the' ;

90. T. Is it
necessary be particular
to end of the tube is blown out into
with respect to the temperature of the fluid two hollow balls (Fig. 21), the
to be weighed ?
lower one containing mercury, so
/' Yes; because we know that liquids ai to balance the instrument
arc extremely expansible when heated ;
Now, if we place this instrument
therefore, if one fluid (water) iswel. in vessel containing a fluid, and
.1

60, and the other (spirit) at 70, it is find that it marks 80 on the scale,
probable that you will not have weighed an uc learn that 80 parts of the fluid
equal volume of each, because when they as loo d w.itrr
weigh as much
the spe- ;

reduced to the same

i

cific gravity is therefore that of water M

it will be found that the one that stood at
100 to 80, or =
ViP or 1>25 -
Th*M botUTniar bVprocurtd for U. fid. / How can you asccrt.v
tach .of Mr.,- Ihormr.lt. * Wood, a solid body f
1M, N.w,.,.,tr..t. London, from whom any or uprcific gravity of 1

th apparatus UMd by Ga*or* P. First weigh the body in t

y be purctuucd at a moderate ratt, ud then suspend it fnm the pan of a common

of tht belt quality.
balance (Fig. 22, b), by a fine thread, and
118 CHEMISTRY. [Lesson VIII.

immerse it in pure water at 60 weigh it, ; P. Pulverisation is the reduction of

and as it weighs less than when in the- air, solid, friable,and brittle bodies, to a state
the opposite pan will fall. Remove weights of powder, and is generally performed by
from the pan a until the equilibrium is means of pestles in mortars. Trituration
restored, and the weight removed will is performed by a rotatory motion of the

be the weight of the hulk of water dis- pestle, and has the effect of making the
placed by the body immersed. Now powder very fine indeed. Levigation re-
divide the weight of the body in the sembles trituration, only the process is
air, by the weight of the water displaced, assisted by using a liquid that docs not
and the quotient will be the density of the dissolve the body operated upon, such as
body experimented upon, water being =1. water, spirit of wine, lard, honey, &c.
We need not be frightened at seeing the When a painter uses a muller and slab to
specific gravity of any body stated to be
mix his paints, lie levigates them, (iranu-
9 (as uranium), it only means that it is used to divide mct;ils, and is per-
lation is
formed by melting and stirring them quickly
until cold, or pouring them through a
bundle of damp straw, which is shaken
while held over a basin of water.
96. T. What are the means used to

separate substances ?
P. Sifting, washing, or elutriation, and
filtration.

97. T. Explain the processes of sifting,

and elutriation.
p. Sifting is used to separate the finer
particles of powders from the coarser, and
is usually performed by means of wire or
Fig. 22.
hair- cloth sieves. Elutriation or washing
nine times heavier than an equal bulk of
is used to separate the finer parts of
water.
93. T. How can we ascertain the spe- powders from the fluids with which they
are sometimes mixed. This may be done
cific gravity of a gaseous body ?
P. To do this we must have an air- by using a glass syphon (Fig. 23,) taking
care to insert the short leg b into the
pump. We then take a flask with a stop-
vessel containing the fluid, until it nearly
cock attached to it, and weigh it when full
touches the bottom, then closing the end
of air ; gives the weight of the air.
this
of the long one with your finger, suck up
Then we exhaust the air by means of the
the fluid by means of the arm c, until both
air-pump, and weigh it again, so as to find

the weight of the flask. have now only We legs are full, and on removing the finger the
fluid will flow from a into a vessel placed
to fill the flask with the gas, the specific
to receive it. The liquid may also be
gravity of which we have to ascertain, and drawn off by capillary
weigh the flask, and then we learn the attraction. Sec Q.
weight of the gas. For example, suppose
107, p. 22.]
that the flask full of air weighed GO grains,
and the empty flask 54 grains that leaves ; 98. T. What is

6 grains as the weight of the air and if ; filtration?

the flask full of gas weighed 72 grains, it is /'. used to
It is

evident that the gas weighs three times as separate solid bodies
much as the same bulk of air, or the gas from fluids, the object
is = 18, and the air = 6. being to get a clear
For this pur-
9-i. T. How are bodies reduced to the liquid.
pose, take a square
state of powder for chemical purposes ?

levi- piece of white blotting

P. By
pulverisation, trituration,
paper, A B c D, (Fig.
gation, and granulation.
24), double it over,
first
<).'). 7'. How are these processes per-
formed ? at B D, then at A E, and round it with a
Lesson VIII.] TRY. 110
1

o, so as to make P. By a very simple apparatus. Take

it look like the black part two common earthenware
in the figure, then fold it flower-pots,without any flaw,
again upon itst-lf, until and twist some iron wire
it looks like the letter V ;
tightly round the upper part
open it out, place it in a of each, then make three or
uith dis- four holes (d), in the lower
vater and pour the fig. 1*. part of one (a), and place it
liquid gently into the filtering paper. If on three or four stones so a.s
the fluid docs not pass through readily, in to raise it above the ground,
consequence of the paper adhering to the as in /'/'.-. IN. Have a piece
sides of the funnel, place a straw between of sheet iron pierced with
iner and the funnel. holes r, fitted to this pot,
and a chimney p, made of
Whatis digestion? 8 |, eet j rou filted to tjie otner
P. It the process of obtaining the
is
pot b, which should be somewhat larger
soluble parts of sub- than the one The chimney
just described.
stances by the aid of should be about
2J to 3 feet long, and o
heat A
glass matrass inches in diameter. When the heated
(Fig. 25) with a piece of charcoal is placed above the perforated
wire twisted round it to sheet iron c, and the
pot with the el;
suspend it over a spirit- covered over it, as in the Fig. abo\
lamp, is used for the have an excellent temporary furnace. A
purpose. When the va- little practice with this furnace will soon
pour of the liquid in enable any one to regulate the quantity of
which the substance is air required for the
purpose of maintain-
digested is valuable, as ing combustion. Crucibles should be pur-
alcohol, the cork of the ci.a-.d.
flask is fitted with a long
open glass tube, so that the vapour be- of
/Have
we not another method
comes condensed in the tube and returns obtaining an intense heat on a small
scale?
again to the matrass, and on this account
:cesi is called circulation.

100. T. What is
decomposition ?
he separation of the component
I

parts of substances, and may be (he result

of the greater affinity of certain particles
of the compound, for the decomposing
lie caused by heat, elec- Fig. 27.
or galvanism, separating the par-
ticles.
/>.
by means of the blow-pipe.
Yes,
me
consists of an inner deoxidizing
101. if ?
or reducing flame d o, and an outer oxi-
precipitation
flame o. With a gns-jet ;uid blow-
rowing down or separation of dizing
the liquid whi^h pipe, or even a candle, and
i

holds it in solution, caused by some other tobacco-pipe, and charcoal, we

i.rcripitant is the body which pro- may d. tain, or rcduro their
.d the pr metallic oxides to the metallic form.
thrown do*: usually
-lasses like champagne GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON
1. Can
you describe to me the pro-
*
necessary sometimes cesses of rcctific.r
'
i>tincd abstract!. >n
:non fire, how i
hat are the weights made use of by
procur ittf
120 CHEMISTRY. [Lesson IX.

3. Describe the specific gravity of a 5.Describe the processes of sifting,

fluid, a solid, and a gas. elutriation, and filtration.
4. Describe the signification and pro- 6. What means have we of obtaining a
cesses of pulverization, trituration, levi- greater heat than that furnished by an
gation, and granulation. ordinary fire ?

LESSON IX.
Now that we have become acquainted with the general principles and leading points
of chemistry, we shall be better prepared to commence the investigation of some of
the elementary bodies. The first group we shall consider is the gazolytes, consisting
of oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. In order to make experiments with gases, we
must have a peculiar kind of apparatus, but it need not be expensive, and as we shall
require it very frequently, it will be better to construct it at once. First of all we shall
want a spirit-lamp, and therefore you had better cut off two inches of
brass tubing, and having fitted a small bottle (Fig. 28, d) with a cork,
bore a hole in its centre with a red-hot wire, and insert the piece of

tubing. Pass some cotton through the tube, () and fill the bottle up
to the shoulder with spirit of wine. It is better to have a tin cover (c)
fitted to the bottle, in order to prevent the evaporation of the spirit.
Select a piece of glass tubing, about the size of a goose-quill, and

long enough for your purpose (about eighteen inches) ; hold it over
the flame of the spirit-lamp, and heat it gradually ; it will soon
Fig. 2S.
begin to soften, and you should then bend shape of the one
it to the

in Fig. 29, and let it cool gradually. Fit a Florence flask with a sound cork, then make
a hole in its centre to receive the bent tube, and place the flask upon the ring of a
retort-stand (a 6), as in Fig. 29. The retort-stand is only an iron rod, fitted to a heavy
base, and furnished with movable rings,
which can be fixed in any position by screws.
The pneumatic trough (t) is generally made of
tin,japanned, and has a movable shelf, to
support the receivers of jars in which the
gas is collected. It should be about 14
inches long, 9 wide, and 8 high, and when
used is filled with cold water. "When not
able to procure a trough and convenient re-
ceivers, a common washing-basin will form
a good substitute for the former, and a few

pickle bottles for the latter.

Fig. 29.
When
about to collect gases attend to th

following rules: 1st. Fill the receivers by immersing them in the trough then raise ;

them carefully and place them mouth downwards on the shelf in your trough ready for
use, taking care that the water is at least one inch above their mouths.
2nd. Before
to escape, because the first portions are
collecting the gas for experiment allow some
always inferior. 3rd. Attend to the lutings and joints of the apparatus, to see that no

gas escapes. 4th. When you apply heat to the apparatus be sure to
remove the end of
the gas-delivering tube (c d) from the water before you remove the heat, otherwise the
 Lesson IX.] CHEMISTRY. 121

flask may burst. 5. When

gases are to be kept for any length of time grease the
stoppers of the receirers. 6th. Do not collect gases too long before
they are required
for use, as they are apt to deteriorate. 7th. As some gases are soluble in water be
careful in their preparation.

QUESTIONS.
10 K r._Whatoxygen ? is same apparatus as before (Fig. 29), and
1'. One of the most widely dif- place chlorate of potash in the flask by
fused elementary bodies, and therefore itself, and as soon as it boils the gas will
placed first among the gaseous bodies. be given off'.
105. T. What i< the name derived 108. T. Describe some of the proper-
from, and by whom was it discovered ? ties of the gas.
/'. It is derived from two Greek words, P. In order to do this I must make
oxttte (dvs), acid, and gennao (ytvvaw), some experiments. I have a
jar of the
I give rise to and therefore means the
;
gas, and as I wish to plunge some sub-
acid-maker. It was discovered in the year stance into the jar, I must turn it up.
"L-heele in Sweden, and Dr. Observe, I grease this square piece of
Priestley, in England the former called it
; glass well on one side, and place the
al air, and the latter vital air but ;
greased side under water against the
er named it
oxygen. Its specific mouth of the jar, and now I can turn it
is 1.1057. up and place it on the table without any
fear of the gas escaping [Experiment 14].
106. T. How is oxygen obtained ?
/' By mixing one-fifth of black oxide
,i
piece of copper wire, and you
of manganese with four-fifths of dried see that the end is turned up, thus.

chlorate of potash, and placing them in a

Now I will fix a small piece of wax
candle to the part that is turned up,
flask, as in Fig. 29, then applying heat,
I. and pass the wire through a cork that
and placing the end of the gas-delivering w the bottle exactly [Does so].
fits If
tube under the receiver. By this means ng. 3i
the whole of the oxygen is given off from we
light the candle and blow it out so
as to leave a red-hot wick, and then
the chlorate of potash, with greater facility plunge
it into the
n oxide of manganese is not used. jar, it will ignite and burn with
a brilliant flame [Performs the
T. Is this the only method of Experi-
1 the gas ? ment]. Although oxygen burns so bril-
liantly now, yet it will not burn by
iy be obtained by using
/'-

* short tube of hard glass, fitted with a and is therefore called a non-combustible,
but a supporter of combustion.
-d cork and bent tube, and
sup.
109. T. Give me some other illustra-
tions of its properties.
P.
[Experiment J another
1.3. Here is
j of the gas, and you see that instead
r
of the candle, I have a
piece of red-hot
charcoal attached to the wire, and, *
plunge it into the gas it will bur:
[.Performs the Exper-
Now, although this is very lu-.-uitiful, it
falls far short of another I will show you.
.:m-nt Ki.J Hrre is a ;

iron wire coiled round to look like a cork-

has been heated T<
by holding it over the
spirit-lamp,
plunge it into the jar of gas.
ans of Gay Lussac's Holder, You
:-(.] i.irhaa
"), and em|>. . thin was because I did not take
(red prcn, ,d of chlorite the precaution to ue a jar < \

Of potash but a better to use the

;
way is ends, and the red-hut metal, winch you saw
122 CHEMISTRY. [ lesson X.

"NY hat do you mean by

fall ill little globules, cracked the bottle. 113. T. oxygen
"NVhen experiment is performed the
this forming oxides with metals !

jar should not be

moved from the trough, P. The gas combines and forms a com-
and the greased glass placed at the upper pound which is called an oxide. These
oxides are divided into three
part, by this means the
metal will fall in principal
the water. groups ; 1. Those which resemble potash,
soda, or the oxide of lead in their chemical
110. T. Is there anything peculiar
relations, called alkaline or basic oxides, and
about these globules ? Those which
sometimes salifiable bases. 2.
P. Yes they are found to weigh more
;
have properties directly opposed to the
than the actual metal used, thus proving
first group, called acids, which have a strong
that they have combined with something
which has weight this is oxygen, and the tendency to unite with the salifiabK
;
such as sulphuric acid and potash to form
globules at the bottom of the trough are The
the salt sulphate of potash. 3.
masses of black oxide of iron.
neutral oxides, such as black oxide of
111. T. Can you give me any other manganese, which show little inclination
to illustrate its properties? to unite with other substances.
experiments
P. Yes, but some of them are very
dangerous and we have performed enough
;
GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSO
to show that it supports combustion, and
1. How are gases collected, and what
readily combines with many substances.
apparatus is required ?
112. T. Is oxygen necessary to our 3. Describe the processes of obtaining
existence ? oxygen.
P. Undoubtedly, but not in a pure 4. Give the properties of this gas.
state. You know that it is found in the 5. Illustrate its properties by experi-
air combined with nitrogen, in water com- ments.
bined with hydrogen, with metals forming 1

G. Is
oxygen essentially necessary ?
oxides, in the tissues of vegetables and 7. "Why does oxygen exist in com-
animals, and in our blood. bination, and not pure
;
.

LESSON X.
"WATER consists of the two elements oxygen and hydrogen : we have examined the
former, and it will now be our duty to consider the Litter. When we
procured oxygen
we employed heat, but it is not required in the preparation of hydrogen, the apparatus
being very simple, merely consisting of a common flask, or bottle, fitted with a good
cork through which a tube-funnel (b) passes, to enable us to pour liquid into the bottle,
and a gas-delivering tube (a) is also inserted into it, as in Fig. 32.

QUESTIONS.
114. T. "What
hydrogen ? is gases; but certain things that cannot be
P. A gaseous body which we are un- weighed, like light, heat, and electricity,
able to liquefy either by cold or pressure. are called imponderable*.
It is inodorous, colourless, and tasteless [See Q. 111. p. 22.]
when quite pure and has a very low ;
116. T. What is the name hydrogen
specific gravity compared
with that of any derived from ?
other form of ponderable matter, being P. Two Greek words, udoor, (i>5up),
0.069, while atmospheric air is estimated and gcnnao, (yevvaw], I give HM.-
water,
at 1,000. to it signifies a producer of water.
;

115. T. What do you mean by pon- 117. T. How can we obtain hydrogen ?
derable matter ? P. By several methods. For example,
p. Anything that has weight is said to if we wish to do so for experimental pur-
\>cponderable, such as oxygen and hydrogen poses, we usually place some granulated
Lesson X.] CHEMISTRY.
zinc, or zinc cuttings, in a wide-mouthed 121. T. Give me some illustrations of
bottle (see Fig. 32) fitted with a glass its properties.
tube to deliver the gas, and one to pour /'.In the first place it is the lightest
of all
ponderable substances, being nearly
1
J times lighter than atmospheric air, and
1

16 times lighter than oxygen. In order to

prove this, I will perform an amusing ex-
periment. [Experiment 17.] I have re-
moved the gas-delivering tube from the
bottle we had before, and inserted another
of a different shape (A) to which a small
balloon, made from the lining membrane
of a turkey's crop, is attached. Of course,
the dilute sulphuric acid has been added
to the zinc in the bottle,
and the gas generated

a fluid into the bottle ; we then add dilute

sulphuric acid (one part of acid to five
parts of water) by means of the tube-
funnel. You then see effervescence take before the balloon was
place, and the gas rapidly issuing from attached, so as to drive
the tube a. Do not begin to collect any of oft* the atmospheric air.
the gat until all the almoiphtric air has been [The balloon is seen
as in Fig.
txptllcd from the bottle, or an explosion will tilling 23].
take place. Some chemists collect two hat the balloon is
bottles, and afterwards reject the gas they full, I will tie a string
contain, before obtaining any for cx- round the neck
periir.*
and set it free. [Does
118. T. MM
some examples of the sol.
it
You observ
has ascended to the
several methods of procuring this gas.
llcpcat the same process as that ceiling of the room, and
t now
if this was performed *.**.
[Q. 117J, but substitute
.Is for the zinc, and the gas
in the open air, the balloon would soon be
out of sight. I have another pn
generated. Again, take a gun-barrel and
place a quantity of iron turnings in it, lit
one end with a long brass tube, and then u
have got a bladder Till
I

e centre of the barrel red-hot, and hydrogen, and littnlto a common tobacco-
pour water slowly into the o: pipe, and you must also observe that 1
will soon observe that gas escapes by the squeeze the neck of the bladder to ;

!>o collected as usual, gas escaping. Now I will blow some

soap-bubbles by dipping of the
H the first supply of course.
to soap-suds, ami :M; the
.as become of the oxygen
bladder a squeeze tinder my a;
of the ,.

al loons
1

1 hat combines i >t iron

lil..
drogen
to form oxide o.

iiis gas was some-

/'. IA hydrogen an inflammable
times collet . is it gas .'

hut although it burns it docs

not support combustion.
/ this is done by voltaic
electricity, and r.hcn we consider clcc- Ummable.
ic process.
 l-'t CHEMISTRY. [Lesson XI.

have placed the end of the bent glass tube
(Fig. 32, a,) under water, and that bubbles
of hydrogen arc escaping. I will apply a
lighted taper to them, and we shall see
that they will ignite and explode at the
same time. [Applies the taper, and the
bubbles explode]. Here is another ex-
periment to prove it is inflammable. [Ex-
.periment 20]. You see that this bottle has
some zinc cuttings and diluted sulphuric
acid in it, and that instead of a glass tube,
the cork (which fits tight) has a piece of
tobacco-pipe adapted to it. I will allow
some more of the gas to escape, so as to
tion of hydrogen, which unites with the
oxygen of the air.
125. T. As hydrogen burns without
supporting combustion, and oxygen sup-
ports combustionwithout burning, it is prob-
able that when combined a very rapid com-
bustion will be the result. Is this the case?
P. It is, and advantage has been taken
of the fact, to produce the most violent
degree of heat known, by means of an
apparatus called the oxy- hydrogen blow-
pipe. In addition to this the oxy-hydrogen
gas is thrown upon lime to produce ;i very
brilliant light

displace the air before I apply a light, and

then you will see that it burns. [When the GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON X.
light is applied, the gas burns with a very 1. What is there peculiar about the pre-
faint light] of hydrogen gas ?
paration
124. T. .What other peculiarities are 2. W hy
r
is this gas named hydrogen ?

there about hydrogen ? 3. Explain the difference between pon-

P. [Experiment 21]. You observe that
the hydrogen is still burning, [Uses the
bottle with the tobacco-pipe, Experiment
20], and that the sides of the tumbler I
now hold over it are covered with dew.
derable and imponderable bodies.
4. Give the various methods adopted to
procure hydrogen.
5. Does hydrogen support combustion ?
6. Give some illustrations of the pro-

This dew is water formed by the combus- perties of this gas.

LESSON XI.
THE next elementary substance we have to investigate is called Nitrogen, a gas that
constitutes about four-fifths of the atmosphere, and is largely diffused in nature,
in the organic kingdom. It was discovered in Scotland, in 1774, by
especially
its name from two
Dr. D. Rutherford. Nitrogen means the generator of nitre, deriving
(vnpOv), nitre and geimaein, (yevvativ}
Greek words, to produce it is also,
nitron, ; ;

erroneously, called azote, from a (a) privative,

and zoe (frr;), life meaning the life- ;

it without dying, whereas if they breathe

destroyer, because an animal cannot breathe
is 0'972, and the
oxygen it is so stimulating that they will go mad. Its specific gravity
gas is devoid of taste, smell, and colour.

QUESTIONS.
126. T. How is matic trough then touch the phosphorus*
;

Nitrogen obtained? with a piece of hot wire, and cover the jar
P. By burning over it. [Does so]. You observe, the jar is
phosphorus in air being filled with dense white fumes, produced
enclosed in a jar by the combination of phosphorus with
orer water, as in oxygen, to form phosphoric acid. The
Fig. 34. [Experi-
fumes have now disappeared, and you see
ment Take that the water has risen about one-fifth of the
22].
a piece ofphos- height in the jar, and the phosphorus has
phorus about the
jsize of a large pea,
* is a dangerous thing to handle, as
it in a small Phosphorus
Iplace the warmth hand may cause it to ignite.
of the
^earthenware dish, When cut, should be done under water, and
it

and let it lloat on the surface of the pneu- always preserved in a bottle of water.
Lesson XII. j CHEMISTRY.
become extinguished because it has ex- P. Yes, by passing chlorine gas through
haustedall the oxygen in the jar. a strong solution of ammonia; but
Why
did the water rise in the
T. preparation is attended with danger to
inexperienced persons, I will not try it.
jar, and what became of the white fumes ?
P. The water rose in the jar because 131. T. Give me some illustrations of
the air in the jar having lost about one- the properties of this gas.
fifth of its volume, and the water occupies P. [Experiment 24.] Here is a small
its place. The white fumes were dissolved jar full of it ; observe what takes place
by the water, and pure nitrogen remains. when I introduce a lighted taper. [Does
TV What has become of the one- so, and the taper is extinguished.] The
reason the candle went out, is because
fifth of the air in the jar?
P. It is exhausted by the phosphorus nitrogen cannot support combustion, [Ex-
in the process of combustion, being the periment 25]. This jar also contains
of the air, for you know that 100
i
nitrogen, and as I am going to add some
lime-water to observe what takes place.
it,
volumes of atmospheric air contains
olumes of nitrogen
.
[Does so, and no change is observed ] You
21
seem surprised that there was not any
oxygen
carbonic acid change, but I never expected to see any ;
Ja ^5 and only used these means to satisfy
and the vapour of water.
T. As this method of preparing myself that the jar contained nitrogen and
not carbonic acid, a gas that changes lime-
nitrogen is not altogether free from certain
water white by forming an insoluble salt
objections, prepare the gas by some other
called carbonate of lime.
method.
/'.[Experiment 23.] Here is a porce-
lain tube with the turnings of copper,
filled
now when this tube is heated to redness GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESS
and a stream of atmospheric air passed 1. What is ?
'

nitrogen
through the tube, the nitrogen will issue 2. Give the derivation of its name and
at the opposite end. [Does
so.] You ob- meaning.
serve that the copper turnings, which have known by any other name ?
nitrogen
cooled, weigh more than they did 1
1. How is
gas obtained, and is there
this
put them into the tube they have com- ;
any danger attending its preparation ?
bined with the oxygen of the air, to form 5. Give the composition of atmospheric
"f copper. air.
130. Is there not another
T. method 6. Illustrate the properties of this gas by
)f preparing the gasf experiments.

LESSON XII.
have now to examine the halogens, or tail j.roilurcrt :
Chlorine, discovered by
Scheele, in Sweden, in 177J; Iodine, discovered by Courtois, in France, in 1811 Hrornine, ;

discovered by Balard, in France, in 1826 ; and Fluorine, first accurately examined by

Scheele, in Swu
QUESTIONS.
132. r. What is Chlorine ? /'.
Hy placing some finely powdered
/'. A greenish-yellow, pungent gan, black oxide of manganese in a Mil
'.)
rrttinhliug !
oe, and
.

pouring some strong liquid hydrochloric

uurine. Its specific gravity :
heat,

thcnamed
.

'
x i

to lts colour '

11* /

lcA/<,ro,( X Apof),grcc.
x mixing
,
/ ^ ^h,,
equal parts of the black
fiiiAitiiti.iiutiii'aiiniMiiivuiav*
ftud
02
1

sulphuric acid (equal part, of water

1-U. r. How is it prepared t <
and acid) to them when placed in the flask.
126 CHEMISTRY. [Lesson XII.

Instead of collecting the gas over water as ment 29.] Here is some metallic anti-
usual, let the tube pass to the bottom of mony in line powder [pours it into the jar
of the gas] now see what a beautiful
;

shower of iire it produces. [Repeat Ex-

periment 28, using copper leaf instead, and
plunge phosphorus in the gas for another
experiment.]
137. T. What other properties does
it possess ?

P. It is a powerful bleaching and dis-

infecting agent, which results from its
strong affinity for hydrogen. [Experi-
ment 30.] This wire holds a sprig of
damp parsley let us see what will be the.
;

effect of plunging it into the gas. [Places

it in the
jar]. It has lost its beautiful
Fig. 35.
green colour, and is rapidly becoming-
the receiver, which should be loosely white.
covered with a piece of card by this means,
;

the chlorine will fill the bottle and displace 138. T. What is IODINE?
the air ;
it may be collected over warm P. A
solid body, which looks very like

water, but then the gas expands from the plumbago or black-lead, and smells like
heat. chlorine. Its name is derived from the
Greek word iodese, (iwSijs), violet-coloured,
135. T. Why is not this gas collected and its specific gravity is 4-948.
over water as usual ?
P. Because cold water absorbs it. [Ex- 139. T. Give some illustrations of its
periment 26.] You observe that about properties.
two-thirds of this bottle is occupied by P. [Experiment 31.] I have placed a
chlorine, and the rest by water. I will few grains of iodine into a flask observe ;

shake it [does so, and the water dissolves
the chlorine], and now you see that the
yellow-green colour has disappeared, be-
cause we find that one part of water will
dissolve two parts of chlorine, forming what
what a beautiful violet colour it gives out
when heated over a spirit-lamp. [Ex-
periment 32.] This tumbler contains a
solution of starch, made with hot water,
and allowed to cool observe wluu ;

is called chlorine water. place when I add this very small piece of
iodine and stir the starch. [Does so, and the
136. T. As you have collected several
starch changes to a beautiful blue colour].
bottles of the gas, give some experiments
This last experiment proves the value of
to illustrate its properties.
starch as a test for iodine.
P. Be careful not to come too near,
because this gas very irritating, and if
is 140. T. How is iodine procured ?
inhaled, is injurious.* Now, you observe P. From help, or the half-vitrified ashes
that I have several discs of millboard, well of sea-weeds but the process is too long
;

greased, to go over the tops of the bottles, to enter into.

and also that each disc has a piece of 141. T. What is BROMINE?
twisted wire passing through its centre.
P. It is a deep brownish-red liquid,
[Experiment 27.] I will plunge this wire, with a very foetid, disagreeable odour, as
witli the lighted taper attached to it, into
its name implies, being derived from the
the gas [does so] it burns with a dull
;
Greek word bromos, (fipwfjios), a noisome
red light, and is now extinguished. [Ex- smell. Its
has a of specific gravity is 3.
periment 28.] This wire piece
gold leaf attached; see how vividly it burns 142. T. How is bromine obtained?
now that it is placed in the gas. [Experi- P. From sea water but the process is ;

too long to describe suffice it to say that

;

experimenting with chlorine, it is ad- chlorine is used to decompose the bromide

* When
visable to sprinkle a strong solution of ammonia
of magnesium, in which form it is generally
about the table, and also to have a cloth moistened
with near to the
it, operator. found, and that ether is then added, and
Lesson XIII. j CHEMISTRY. 1.7

agitation employed, so as to dissolve the of silver, &c. It is said to dissolve nearly

bromine ; afterwards, caustic potash is everything it touches.
added, and evaporation and other processes
conducted.
its
properties! GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSi
y soluble in water,
. more 1. Name the discoverer of each of the
so in alcohol, and freely in ether. [Ex- halogens.
Repeat Experiment 32, What
J. is there peculiar about chlo-
j

using bromine instead of iodine, and the

rine ?
colour is changed to orange-yellow instead
3. How is it obtained ?
of blue.
4. Illustrate the properties of chlorine
. ^'hat is FLUOR
T. i
'rimi'iits.
P. It is an element that has never been :>. What is iodine ? How is it prepared .'

isolated, because as soon as it is separated anil what are its proper

from one compound, it unites with soir.e 6. Illustrate the properties of iodine by
other substance.
experiments.
T. How do we know that it does 7. How is bromine obtained, and what
are its
properties ?
Because it is found in the fluoride of 8. How
is fluorine obtained, and what

calahm (fluor, or Derbyshire spar), fluoride is there peculiar about it ?

LESSON XIII.

you have learned all about the elements of Chemistry, you should then study
it more fully because it is a science that requires a life-time devoted to it, and even
;

.nnot be mastered, as fresh discoveries are made every day. It is on this account
that I have not described the compounds of elements, such as oxides, hydrate?, nitrates

chlorides, iodides, bromides, fluorides, &c. When you are better acquainted with the
elements, you will learn that these substances form many compounds. For example
bromine vapour and hydrogen combine in equal volumes to form lydrobroviic a<

oxygen and carbon combine to form carbonic oxide.

QUESTIONS.
. i Carbon? 148. T. Is graphite or plumbago pure
body, found in many
.ry carbon ?

,t forms,
constituting a large pro- /*. Some specimens but contain iron ;

portion of all organic structures, animal the finest specimens of Borrowdale plum-
Actable, and found in a state of bago consist of pure carbon.
purity and crystallised, as graphite or /'.Is carbon combustible ?
plumbago, and as diamond. Thus, char-
/'.Yes, we cm ondas
coal, black-lead, bone-black, lamp well as a piece of charcoal, or any other
and the diamond are, chemically speaking, kind of carl
the same substance.
What are its properti
1 (7. y. diamond, charcoal, and
If the /'.
good conductor of
It is a elc<-
the other substances you have na and a bad conductor of heat. It is not
posed of the same substance, how
iliflcr in
appearance ? itures, but rr.-uli
<>xygen
arrange)!. gas or common air when heated to redness,
, as I explained to you and leaves only a small quantity of ashes,
but generate* a gas called carbonic acid.
128 CHEMISTRY. [Lesson XIII.
151. T. What is carbonic acid gas ?
upon the flame of the spirit-lamp from the
P. An extremely poisonous gas. It my hand. [Does so.] You sec it
jar in
is incapable of supporting combustion, has extinguished it.

and therefore differing from carbonic oxide, 154. T. What is SULPHUR?

which is a combustible that burns with a P.A simple elementary body, often
pale blue flame. The former contains its found in a free state. It is too well known
own volumes of oxygen, and the latter only to require much description. In its
half its volume of oxygen. chemical relations it bears great
1.32. T. How is carbonic acid gas ob- blanceto oxygen. It is insoluble in water

tained ?
and alcohol, but soluble in bisulphuret of
carbon, the fat oils, and oil of turpentine.
P, By decomposing a carbonate with It has no taste, nor smell, and is fusible.
one of the strong acids, and collecting the
same as chlorine, only with this difference, 15J. T. What is PHOSPHORUS?
that we do not require heat, and that the P. An elementary body, closely allied
to sulphur, nearly colourless, and resem-
gas should pass through a long tube filled
with fragments of chloride of calcium. bles partially bleached wax. It is in-
soluble in water, but dissolves iii oils,
[Experiment 34.] Take a piece of marble,
break it into small pieces the size of a alcohol, and sulphuret of carbon.
pea, and put ten drachms of it into a 156. r. How is it
prepared?
bottle like that used for generating hy- P. By decomposing the phosphate of
drogen (Fig. 33), then add six drachms lime in bones, by means of sulphuric acid,
of distilled hydrochloric acid (equal parts and then causing it to undergo a long pro-
of water and acid) by means of the tube- cess, which I will not describe, as it is not
funnel. [Experiment 35.] Repeat the sufficiently useful.
above experiment, only substitute car- 157. r. What is BORON?
bonate of ammonia instead of marble. P. An elementary substance procured
153. T. Illustrate its
from borax, but as I have never seen it,
properties by
experiments. (and I believe very few persons have,) it is
as well to pass it over.
P. [Experiment 36.] Here is ajar of
carbonic acid. I will 158. T. What is ALUMINUM ?
plunge a lighted taper
P. A metal, and therefore I shall defer
into it, holding the jar its description until another opportunity
mouth upwards. [Does occurs of examining all the important

so.] You see that the metals.

flame is
extinguished. [The pupil should consult Cat. XI.]
[Experiment 37."] Here is a
jar with some lime-water in it GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON XIU.
(A). You see that I pour the
carbonic acid from the other jar 1. What is the purest kind of carbon ?

like you would water (see 2. Describe and illustrate the properties
(n)
of carbon.
Fig. 36). [Does so.] Observe,
the lime-water is milky, because 3.What is carbonic acid gas ? 11 w is
an insoluble carbonate of lime it obtained, and what are its properties?
fiy- so. has been formed. 4. \Vhat is sulphur, phosphorus, and
[Experi-
ment I will now pour carbonic acid boron ?
38.]

. EOL1XGTOX, 1'IU.NTEH, GCbV.tLL blKKKT.

OPTICS, AND ACOUSTICS.

INTRODUCTORY NARUATIVK

LESSON 1.

'I in town and royal burgh

old shire
of Jcdburgh, which is situated on tin-
Jed water, in Roxburghshire, was
formerly celebrated for its bold
strong castles, woodland
and splendid ecclesiastical builu
some of which koned the
.nid, as the ruins of
Jedburgh Abbey now t> st;I\ . I

of science, it possesses an addi-

J iiiti-rest, from l-ii)!: tlu- >)irth-
130 INTRODUCTORY NARRA1 iVB. Lesson I,

place of the celebrated philosopher Sir David Bre\vstv,r, who v Q the llth of
December, 1781.
His father, who was a worthy member of the church of Scotland, and rector of the
grammar-school of Jedburgh, educated his son toi'ollow iu his footsteps, and therefore,
after David had received a thorough preliminary education, he was sent to the uni-

versity of Edinburgh, and having completed his studies, became a licentiate of the
church of Scotland.
In the year 1800, when only nineteen years of age, the
university conferred the
honorary degree of M.A. on him and he commenced the study of the science of
;

optics by repeating Sir I. Newton's experiments on the inflection of light, from which
he concluded that the phenomena of inflection are not dependent upon the nature of
the body by -which they are caused.
In a few years, ill health obliged him to give up the clerical profession, a circum-
stance that caused him much regret.
In 1807, the university of Aberdeen conferred the honorary degree of LL.l).
him and in 1808, the Royal Society of Edinburgh elected him Fellow of their body.
;

4i
In 1808, he commenced editing the Edinburgh Encyclopaedia," a work that \,ii:
ever be a memorial of his indefatigable labours in the cause of science. Bcsiu.
tributing the articles on the sciences of electricity, optics, mechanics, hydrodyi
astronomy, and expansion, he wrote upon the kaleidoscope, which he invented iu 181G,

roicroscrope, anemometer, and other instruments, besides the biographies of many

eminent scientific men. When engaged upon this work, he was one day much
bothered by an abstruse calculation. Evening had arrived and it was not solved he ;

therefore ordered his carriage, and notwithstanding that it was late at night apd
he was much exhausted, yet he carried away his papers, and accompanied by his
servant, to prevent him going to sleep, drove off to Minto, where he arrived early in
the morning, and explained his difficulty to Lord Minto. The noble lord soon saw
how it -was to be solved, and whiU: engaged in finishing the calculation, Brewster fell

upon the floor quite exhausted, and was soon fast asleep. Few can imagine, the mental
and bodily exertion that he endured while editing this work, from the year 1808 to
1830, when it was completed.
In 1810, he married the eldest daughter of J. Macpherson, Esq., of Belleville,
Inverness, by whom he has had several children.
In 1814, he visited France and Switzerland. In 1816, he received half of the
of France, the other half being adjudged
physical prize of 3,000 francs of the Institute
to Dr. Seebeck, of Berlin, for the most important discoveries made in any branch of
science in Europe during the two previous years. In 1819, he gained the RumfYrd
of London, for his discoveries on the
gold and silver medals of the Royal Society
polarization
of light.
in
In 1819, he was elected General Secretary of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,
In the same year he established
consequence of the decease of Professor Play
fair.
" Jameson. After-
the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal," conjointly with Professor
"
wards he conducted the Edinburgh Journal of Science," and established the Society
of Arts for Scotland.
In 1825, he was elected corresponding member of the Institute of France,
ai

the Royal Academies of Russia, Prussia, Sweden, and Denmark,

and many other
scientific bodies.
 I. ELEC.KICITY.
In 1S26, he left Edinburgh t<> take u;> bis residence on the banks of the Tweed,
near to Melrose, where he bad purchased a property, and where he st.ll laboured at
"
the Edinh icdia," and other works. Beautiful as this part of ihe country
-j

naturally is, and interesting from many associations, yet it is rendered still more
-so by the beautiful ruin of Mel rose Abbey, which was founded in 1136, by King
David I., or, as he is more commonly called, " St. David."
In 1828, he obtained the Keith medal of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, for the

discovery of two new fluids contained in the cavities of the topaz.

In 1830, he published an admirable essay on polarization iu the ** Philosophical
Transactions," for which the Royal Society of London awarded him one of their royal
"
medals; and the following year he published the life of Sir I. Newton in the Family

He was elected Vice- President of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in the year 1831,
and received the decoration of the Hanoverian Guelphic Order, with several other
eminent and scientific men. In 1832, he was knighted by Kin<r William IV.
He now fills the Principal's chair in the united college of St. Salvador and St.
Leonard, at the university of St Andrew's, Fifeshire. And in the Great Exhibition
i, he was chairman and reporter of the jurors and associates in Class X.
(Philosophical Instruments and their Dependent Processes.)*
Besides contributing various important papers and essays to the transactions of the
several learned bodies with which he h.is been connected from time to time, and
'he journals he has conducted, he has also edited the works of others, translated
Legendre's "Geometry and Trigonometry," and published several scientific works.
Amon the number, we must m- mion his Letters on Natural Magic," which is one
'

of thevolumes of the Family Library; "The Martyrs of Science; or, the Heirs of
"
Tycho Brahe, and Kpier
. a treat ihe on "Optics," in M Lardner's
;

M I. imbur-h "
piia;" and the papers in th- Encyclopaedia which more mat
interests us iu the present instance.

ECTBIC1TT,
QUE8TI ND EXPLANATIONS.
1 7'. What is the term Electricity /'. It has been observed by philoso-
(hit then- arc certain "l.
/' :
v word clf<t s which acquire the property of
rpW). a- 1
light bod es, when they are
.on Id amber gire the peculiar kind of excitation
i

Hid it has also been observed,

/'.- I
hale*, one of the wise n in a dark
:ie flee- :nd the excitation N- powerful, that
taint flashes of hitht. or luminous sparks,
i. ;md that then- is a crack
Were aid t' be dtri?,,,tl .
r <>,(>, r-l,ke. is,-
attending the excitation, tad
alto a peculiar oil
nee? '/'.
-4 (live me some proof that MetlOB

recently he ha* been consulted respecting the funoui diamond exhibited In lh<
BiMMtion. n known ihe " Koob-i-noor," or " Mountain of l.lcht." tnd he
I M recommended hu
o cut anew; D is *Uo of optoiwn that it not ihc true K.onh.tBogr, .Ubough a vluMr
i
*ir. nU.
 132 r.l.KcTL.UTV. Lessen I.

\cite the properties you have men- glass, and apply them to the pith- hah, we
tioned ? shall observe that a sensible effect is
pro-
duced upon it, for it is either attracted
towards the substance presented, or it is
repelled. Some bodies, such as wood,
charcoal, and precious stones, scarcely
produce any attraction and if we rub a
metal we do not observe the least attrac-
tion.

^'.[Experiment 1.] Here is a glass 6. T. From what you have stated it

rod, and you see that when I touch the would appear that some bodies beemne
pieces of paper, elder-pith balls, feathers, electrical by friction, and others do not
and sawdust that are upon the table, that acquire such a property by that means.
no change takes place. I will try this Is it so?
rod of brimstone. P. Yes bodies are divided into con-
(Does so.) You see :

that there no change and if I were to

is ;
ductors and non-conductors. The former
called aneleclric bodies, and the latter idio-
try a piece of amber or sealing-wax it
would be just the same. [Experiment 2.] eleclric bodies.
I will now rub
the glass rod with my silk 7. 7". Enumerate the non-conductors.
handkerchief, which is quite dry. (Does P.
Shell-lac, sulphur, amber, jet; all
so.) You observe that the pieces of paper, resinous bodies, pitch and wax gums, ;

pith, balls, feathers, &c., are attracted including india-rubber and camphor; all
(see Fiy. 1) towards the rod, and if we vitreous and vitrified bodies precioiu' ;

rubbed the amber, sulphur, or sealing- stones, gutta percha, bituminous sub-
M-ax, the same effect would be produced. stances, silk, dried furs, and skins, hair.
The cause of the phenomenon you have wool, feathers, paper, porcelain, turpen-
witnessed is called Electricity. tine,various oils and fatty fluids, choca.
[The pupil should try Experiment 2, in the
all dry gases, the atmosphere, steam of
dark, and he will observe faint luminous high elasticity, ice at Fahr.
with a cr.ickling noise,
flashes, aivl sparks, 8. T. Enumerate the conductors.
and peculiar odour. Let him repeat the
P. All metals, well-burned and dry-
experiment, and use oiled silk sprinkled
over with Mosaic gold, or aurum musivum, charcoal, plumbago, concentrated and di-
or mosaicum.* luted acids, saline fluids, water, moist
5. 7*. How
do you know whether a vegetable matter, living animal matter,
body will become
electrical by friction ? flame, smoke, steam.
P. By using the electrical pendulum. 9. T. Demonstrate to me that some of
(See Fig. 2.) It consists of a piece of the substances you have enumerated
wire, bent as possess the properties ascribed to them.
P. If we use an electrifying machine
you see here,
and inserted and develop electricity, we render the
into a conductor of the machine, which is a
glass
stand at one metallic body, electric. If we bring a

end, while metal cylinder, supported on a glass pedes-

the other end tal, in contact with the conductor, the

a metal will be electrified through its whole

supports
extent hold of the cylinder, all
if I lay
pith -ball, ;

which is sus- its will

instantly disappear,
electricity
because the human body is a good con-
pended by a
n' n e linen ductor.
we 10. T. Your observations lead me to
thread. If place a body near the ball
and not attracted, it is either non-elec-
it is believe, that all idio-electric bodies or non-
tric or too
slightly electric to produce any
conductors are insulators. Am
I correct?

effect. It we rub resin, amber, sulphur, and P. Yes ; and all anelectric bodies trans-
* For the method of mit or conduct electricity. A conductor of
preparing aun.m tnosai- be electric
cvm, see Family Frit-iid, vol. ii. p. 56. (Old electricity can, therefore, only
Series.) while it is insulated or surrounded by
Lesson I. ; KICI n. 133

perfect non-conductors. Water

and steam n made electric by contact with a
->d conductors, aud, therefore, uo glass rod
rubbed with silk, and the other
can understand how it is that electrical by a rod of shell-lac rubbed with fur.
not answer in damp
I will Now, observe what t.ikes tee. When I ]>'.

he attr.osph.-re conducts bring the shell-lac near to the ball that

it away.* Bat a dry atmosphere being a has been repelled by the glass rod, it w ill
noo -conductor, it insul.. attract the ball. [Does so.] No
rub a metallic rod while will see that the reverse takes place on the
it is held in your lund, why does it not other side. Places the glass rod near to
become electric ? the ball.] \ouobserve that the ball re-
P. Because the electricity which is pelled by the shell-lac is attracted by the
>"dby friction is transmitted to the have thus provid that the
>ly. electricity developed by glass is not iden-
/'. Would it not be better to call tical with that evolved from resin, because
bodies by some other names than con- the one attracts and the other rep
doctors and non-conductors ? 1<> 7'. How are the terms positive and
P. Vrs ; it would be more correct to negative expressed ?
call them good and bad conductors. P. By the arithmetical sijrns of plus +
13. T. How maiiy kind? of electricity ami minus , the former denoting the
positive and the latter the negative elec-
P. - Frictional electricity ; tricity.
2. Galvanic or Voltaic electricity ; 3. 17. 7".From what you have shown
Theme-el me, it appears that certain phenomena
I .M.i: >-; on : and 6. Electro- occur when substances that possess elec-
trical properties come in contact, or are
low many kinds of fractional presented to each other. I'.xplaiu these
phenomena.
-, and /'. 15 xlus in dissimilar states of elec-
rtsinons or negative electricity. tricity attract each other; for exam;
15. T. Prove that such is the case. anci -
in simil ir

/'.Here is i.i .
lulura. each other for ;
xaniple, when both
or both +. 'S are in an ordi-
nary state, or uneitctrifu-d, t:

-
to be n / ,/. 3 )
18. T. Does i.
y depend in

/'.Yes; smooth glass rubbed with

silk or wool becomes positive, but if it be
\ sand, it becomes
under the same tn atnu nt.

QUESTIONS ON I.KSSUN I

1. Wh.it is n:- -dies being

:il ?
v peculiar about elec-

a plasR !
'rove that ti

ich of
i
ball is supen<i< i li >\\ .in- bodii i <i;

of 3 f M<Iultim
i 1 Of
T1>U I* Impor'nn
berrd v
and rare taken to .
7. Ho .t :
ooad -ions of
'.v warmth and frkt. bodies expressed ?
134 ELECTRICITY. Lesson II

LESSON II.
ELECTRICITY, according to Franklin, signifies a single imponderable fluid, which
produces the phenomena of positive and negative electricity, by its relative excess or
deficiency. Dufay and Symmer consider it to be two imponderable fluids, similar in
their properties, but diametrically opposed in their mutual relations. The hitter
theory
has been more generally adopted as a means of
explaining electrical phenomena, and
it has been considered that when these two fluids are united in
one body, and they
mutually neutralize each other in that body, it is in its natural condition"; and when
the two electricities are decomposed in a body, if the vitreous
electricity predominates,
it will become positively electric; but negatively, if the resinous electricity predo-
minates. A difference has always beeu made between the electric and
magnetic fluids.
Very recently, however (Feb., 1852), Mr. Groves demonstrated before the members
of the Royal Institution that electricity is not a fluid, but merely a quality of djnaniu.-
relations between molecules. We will perform his experiment
for ourselves. [Experiment 3.] Here is a bar of wood suit-
ported at both ends, and having six small balls of ivory sus-
\
pended from it (a bed ef) by silk cords. Now let us imagine
that the line of balls represents the particles of a bar or wire

through which the electricity is to he transmitted. If we

remove and allow it to impinge or strike against tin-
thetball a,
/ ed c b a
Fig. 4. ball b, thewhole line will not move forwards, but will appear t<>
act only on the ball/ at the other end of the row, causing it first to separate from tin
the rest and to be moved in the same direction as the ball which communicated tin
motion, from the position of /to/'. The ball/' will, in turn, impinge on tin
viz.,
ball e, and cause the ball a to be separated to the distance a', which is not quite s<>

great as that of/' from its original position/. From this experiment, Mr. Grove*
concludes, that as the transmission of a force without motion, except at the extremities
is
very evident, that electricity or the transmission of what is calK-d the electric cur-
rent, may be referred to a parallel agency. Mr. Groves cited as an example of
the molecular disturbance of conductors when electricity is transmitted through them,
the -well-known expansion of a platinum wire when voltaic electricity is passed
through it, and the appearance of little globules all along the wire when electric
fusion was employed.
[The pupil should read Catechisms I. and III., particularly pages 12, 14, and 70.]

QUESTIONS.
19. T. If + be given off together, you will not observe
electricity
by friction in a body, does it not follow any traces of electricity as long
that electricity must be given off in an as they are in contact; but im-
equal degree ? mediately that 1 separate them,
P. Yes ; and I will prove it to you by the one becomes positively elec-
a simple experiment. [Experiment 4.] trified, and the other negatively.
Here are two discs insulated by glass [Does so, and the result is as
rods. The upper one, which I hold in anticipated.]
my right hand, is made of glass, and the 20. T. Do you imagine thru
lower one of wood covered with leather, bodies show a preference for
which has been rubbed over with amal- either kind of ekcrrieity ?
gam. Now, when I rub these two discs P. No ; the same body may
Lesson III. 133

be ni; v olec- /'. According to the amount of sur-

faces on passing from one insulated con-
jt is r . s
positively ductor to another. Suppose that a charged
electric when ruhbM wiih wool or silk, conductor is brought in contact
1

with fur.
i i'h the ground, it will lose all its elec-
II. 1 >: bodies influenced by tricity,because distributed over so
it is
circumstances ? large a surface. And
further suppose two
P. \ \r. arrangement of the halls,
ic the same size and
both
moleci iture, and the surface
.
iusula-ed ; the one on the right being
of the bcid-L-s produce different effects d and the other not. When these
.

from those usually observed for ex- : re brought in contact, the

ample, a blacl; silk riband will be ren- electrified one will lose exactly half its
dered nejra'ivi'iy electric if rubbed with a elcctn-
T.' What are the best insulating
/". How is electricity communi- substances ?
/'.The vitreous and resinous non-
/'. When pass from one
free it may condiuvors (see Q. 7), such as shell-lac,
by in: . eith.-r sulphur, dry glass, and also silk.
contact, or by traversing a distance of 26. 7". Wo know that there are two
more or less" extent between the body kinds of electricity, because it has been
communicating and the body conveying demonstrated by experiment. I wish to
it. It may h. communicated by ; know if one kind only can be developed
from one body to another withou'
and then we ohs. rve what is /'.Certainly not. One kind of elec-
o .IK-dan electric spark. [Experiment 5.] tricity cannot be developed without the
a metal rod, and VMI will observe oiher, any more than one kind of mag-
that when it is brought rear to the con- netism. If a body is rubbed, the body
ductor of the electrifying machine, that a and the rubber assume opposite states;
vivid spark is produced, and also a snap- the one is positively and the other nega-
ping noise. [Does so, and the effect is tively electrified. "(See Q. 19.)
observed.] If I placed my k:.
near a rubbed glass or shell- lac rod, the
effect would be the same, only much
x n
! it possible to draw . >
respecting
sparks from the human bo-:
.

n stand upon a stool ny reason to doubt the

with glass Ifgt, and bring the body into <>!<! th ory tii fluid?
contact wit! tor of an electrical in we excite equal degrees of po-
turned, ;id lu-LMtiv at the same
a peculiar creeping K
1 >ns of friction?
If I
get upon >n the same body have opposite
snlated Mool, and place my knuckles near States if
ler:rieity (i-

any j .

p,
a spark will be 5. In what manner H y com-
1, and a shock n in pr< gm
to the distance the electricity has tra- 6 Is it possibk >sitive elcc-
VMMd uthout developing negative eke-
/'. How is electricity dulri 1

LKs>n\ in.
have already seen that the opposite states :> attract one another,
and, like states, repel e .
Now this attraction n > show*
 KI.KrTRICITY. Lesson III.
itself the two kind* of electricity are uncombined, but al.-o \\-\u-n
when
they are combinc-d and tlu re tore wlu-n an rleetric body is placed neur
;

to a body in a natural condition, disturbance takes place. This is

easily demonstrated [Experiment 6]. Here is an insulated nu-tal

hook, with a metallic ring attached to it. and two fine metallic threads,

having pith-balls at their extremities. Now when I

bring this roll of
resin (a),which has been rendered electric by friction, near to the
ring, the two balls will be repelled, although the resin is at a considerable distance
from them and the nearer it is brought the more the balls diverge; but immediately
;

the resin is removed the balls will fall together. [Removes the resin, and the balls
are seen as represented by the black balls in Fig. 6]. Now all this depends upon the
separation of the electricities which were combined in the metallic ring and pendulums
before the resin was placed near to them and the reason is this, the; electricity
is repelled towards the balls, whilst the + electricity is attracted to the ring.

When a body charged with one kind of electricity is placed near to other bodies,
but not in contact, it communicates the opposite kind of electricity to them. Let us
see that such is the case. Here is some apparatus of a simple kind that you may
construct for yourselves.*

* I

7. Fig. 8. Fig. 9. Fig. 10.

Fig.

Fig. 10 represents the prime conductor of an electrifying machine ; Figs. 8 and 9

are two insulated metallic cylinders, placed end to end, but not in contact with each
other or the conductor. Fig. 7 , is an insulated brass ball, with a pith-ball (') sus-
pended to it, [Experiment 7]. Now
turn the electrifying machine, the surface
if I

of Fig. 10 is positively electrified, and acts upon the insulated cylinder Fig. 9, so as
to make the end r negatively electric, and the end v positively electric. This is by
induction, and we observe that the central part c is neutral, and that the adjoining
cylinder (Fig. 8) is also rendered negatively and positively electric at either end, as in
the other case; and further, that the brass ball (Fig. 7) is rendered negatively
electric on one side, and positively electric on the opposite side, so as to repel the

pith-ball (a').
QUESTIONS.
27. T. Whatmeant by induction?
is the proximate parts, and a similar one
P. It is the excitement exerted by a in the remote parts. [See Experiment 7].
body already electrified upon all sur- 28. T. Does the intensify of the elec-
rounding substances, and is exerted at trical disturbance depend upon the prox-

very sensible and considerable distances, imity of the bodies?

producing a state opposite to its own in P. Yes, it diminishes with the distance
* For the method of constructing various kinds of
Philosophical, Chemical, Electrical, and other
" Practical
apparatus, see the papers now publishing in the new eries of the Family Friend, on
Science."
Lesson III. li V.

from the charged body (d Fig 10); and To render this plainer, we have only to
if it is entirely removed, all the disturb- say that if we want a negative charge
ance ceases, thus demonstrating that the M ruS a glass rod with silk, and use
nent was only temporary or in- that, because it is + electric.
duced. /'.How do you account for the
'29. T. Suppose that one end of an action <.f electric bodies upon the elec-
insulated cylinder (Fit/. 9) is made to trosco;
communicate with the ground by means /'. By the laws of electrical induction.
of a conducting medium, what would be 33. 7'. What apparatus do we require
the el": to develop friction*! e ectric
VI, I,- the electric body (d Fig. 10) /'. The apparatus is very extensive,
still acred by induction, all the
repelled because we also require some for collecting
electricity would be carried off by the the electricity, as well as developing it. It
earth, and the i;isuhted conductor re- will be better to describe each s-pa
main charged only with the electricity of 34. 7'. H>w do you usually excite and
iucting b.>dv. If we remove the
communicating nudium with the I\ By an electrical machine, which is
and the inducting body, the insulated generally a hollow cylinder, or a circular
conductor will be. charged throughout plate of pl.isv All frictional electrifying
with the same electricity. machines consist, 1st, of the electric body
30. 7'. What is an e'lectroscope? to be excited; 2ndly, of a rubber or ex-
\n instrument for citer; and 3rdly. of an insulated conductor
shoeing t! for collecting the electricity.
of electrical excitement. 35. T. Then it is not necessary to have
It may be constructed of a glass electrifying machine.
two pith-balls (/ P. Certainly not, any electric body will
or two strips of gold leaf, answer. In the (lrc.it I'.xlnlrtion there
enclosed in a glass vessel, was a gutta-percha machine. (C. 10, No.
to prevent the action of 444).
current* of air, &c., upon 36. T. Explain the construction of the
11) Some- cylindrical machine.
times t
<^>pe is
tarnished with a gnu
duated arc, in which case
it acts as an nu-usurcr of
i_-iy.
/'.How is the electroscope used?
/' lfw
wish to examine what is tin-
nature of the electricity of a body, we
charge the electroscope with a kind of
ve know; for example, by
.: a roll of shell-lac over the disc, and
finger, so as
to carry <>tf all th-
ai In w th*- other to be * 1 accu-
Now obft'-rve,
ids a roll of shell-lac
ctmtcope, which is i

with f

ivi-s is
observed], when I rcaOTC
.

"i leavm will di- Fif. I).

i-.rs /' <>MMtg of a hollow cylinder of
pa rate. I-

as in /',.>. II]. Now it is erid gltM (CO), which in c<

nt is charged wi volves i
)

tit of the shell-lac. of glass

pillars (i
13S ELECTRICITY. Lesson III.

furnished with a -winch handle (H), by

which it may be made to revolve. A
cushion or rubber (R), which is covered
with an amalgam,* is attached to a glass
pillar fitted with a sliding base (6),
so as
to allow it to press with a greater or less
force against the cylinder. Aflap of oiled
silk (s) is attached to the rubber and
thrown loosely over the cylinder, and just
where it terminates is a cross-piece of brass
furnished with points, corresponding to
one on the opposite side (A), this is con-
nected with an insulated cylindrical con-
ductor (N and p), and as the machine is
placed between two of these conductors,
one collects + and the other
, electricity.
37. T. What isthe use of the silk flap?
P. To keep up the friction on the sur-
face of the glass, so that the electricity
excited by the rubber (R) may not be lost Fig. 13.* Fiy. .

on its passage to the conductor (P). jlass, the diameter of which of course
38. T. Can we produce positive and varies, some plates being only 9 inches,
negative electricity at will ? and others 80 inches in diameter. An axis
P. Yes, if we wish to have a charge of passes through an opening in its centiv,
vitreous or positive electricity, we put the to one end of which is a winch-handle, and
conductor (N) in connection with the earth, the whole is supported by the frame- work
so that electricity is continually supplied to which the rubbers are attached. This
to the glass cylinder. If we wish for a machine is furnished with a conductor,
supply of resinous or negative electricity which, like that of the cylindrical one, is
we reverse the proceeding, and remove insulated,and has ends with points plac'-.i
the + conductor (P), or connect it with the opposite to the termination of the silk
earth, so that the electricity thrown upon flaps.
the glass is relieved, and a constant supply 41. T. What is an electrophorus ?
of the electricity we require afforded to P. simple A
the conductor (N). electrical appa-
39. T. Is it necessary to have the ends ratus, depending
of the cylindrical machines permanently upon the princi-
closed ? ple of induction.
P. No; it is better to have the ends It consists of a
for
sufficiently large to admit
the hand, cake of resin
the purpose of wiping out and drying the fused in a cir-
inside, because if they are closed, con- cular plate of
densation takes place on the inside and metal which is J'fo. 154
hns a
prevents the proper action of the machine, larger than the resinous disc, and
and therefore the ends should be fitted cover with an insulated handle, which is
with wooden caps which n't the openings *
Fiy. 13. Plate-glass electrical
machine. A,
exactly, and may be removed at any
time.
conductor. B, cushion or rubber, smeared with
40. T. Describe the plate-glass elec- simalgam. c:, c, silk flaps. K, glass plate-, r.
trical machine. winch handle, p, frame-work or pillar.
P. It consists of a circular plate o t Fiq. 14. End view of the machine, showing
the arrangements of parts, a, /', plate
'

* This is made by melting two ounces of zin cushions or rubbers, rf, centre oi
c, c, c, c,
It.
m an iron ladle and then adding one ounce of glass with the axis, <, <, pasting throng*
winch handle, p, p, the frame-work, or pillar.
/.

tin, after which four ounces of heated mercury

should be gradually poured into tlie ladle and J '

tho insulated handle, c, rf, the

the whole well stirred, and when nearly solid the t Fi<i. 15. o, b,
cover, disc of shell lac. conducting
amalgam should be poured into some vessel e, /, y,

and agitated BO r,8 to reduce it to powder. j

metal disc or sole.
Lesson IV. ELECTRK 139

placed upon the uppi-r surface

of the elec- can then get a spark of + electricity from
trical plate. the cover.
! >w is the electrophorus used ?
P. ] M removed, and the sur-
:he shell-lac struck pretty smartly
:
UAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON III.
of dry silk, fur, or cat's-skin, 1. What is the effect of an electric body
so as to make it negatively electric ; after being placed near to a body in a natural
which the cover is replaced. The elec- condition ?
of resin acts inductively 2. If we place any body charged with
he two electricities hitherto cora- only one kind of electricity near to other
r; the + electricity is bodies, what will be the e'ffect, provided
d, and will he found in the lower the electrical body does not touch the
ver, and the electricity is others 't

and accumulates in the upper part

1
Kxplain the meaning of induction.
.",.

[Exp. 9.] . observe that Ym 4. What di>es the

intensity of electrical
i

electrophorus, and now I

disturbance depend upon ?
knuckle near the cover. \ plain the use and action of the
I will brin^r my
f Does so, and a spark is elicited.] If I -cope.
now touch the cover with my fin. 6. What are the usual means of develop-
;city will escape, and the + ing fractional electricitv ?
:
;

ity remain
in combination with the \ plain the various machin.
tricity of the resin as long as the for frictional electricity, and how they act.
son. If the cover is rei 8. What is the electrophorus, i

the + electricity will be set free, and we and mode of action ?

LESSON IV.

Our purpose is or abstruse matters relating to the laws

not to consider the difficult

tricity, but rather to give a general outline of its leading features, which will
bear the same n sembl. -abject that a skeleton map does to a complete one.
*, six times the size of our complete volume, would scarcely cont.iin the index
to electrical science; and, therefore, where our readers imagine they discover neglect,
it to want of space than lack of knowledge.*
* now that aa the distance increases between hex!
n and

repulsion diminish; this proved by the oscillations of an rlec-rie pendulum.

is

As long M
a body remains in a natural condition, that is, as long kinds
of electricity are unc< is
probabK are uniformly dist: .

through the whole mass of the body. When the two kinds of electri-
separated, and a conductor is charged with free electricity, the individual elements of
^ ill
these freed repel each other, and continue separating until checked by
'.

This is the reason that electricity is disinhutfd ov<-r the sa r:'.ice of a

because, M the body is a good conductor, it does not hinder the dispersion

QUESTIONa
43. 7*.- !) the form of a body in- I P. Yes; the more round a bod>
flmnce tin- di-triUn:.ii <-f U-etrieity ? |
better, for as it departs from a round t

tDr*TiiEaWiitT*BiA, feeling the* ted ofany proclir*/ irorlr on tclf

Sfluncncrt MiiMof papm on " Practical Science," in the new (tries of the Famiig />,<*,
led an Appendix to the present rUrhUai, and an Introduction to other in>
14U ELECTRICITY. Lesson IV.
the electricity is less equally distributed 49 /' The two spheres a b and c d,
over its surface, and collects at points Fig 16, are charged with opposite elec-
Iving
"
farthest from the* middle. tric. ties, the former with + ,and the latter
44. 7. Do po n'e<l bodies affect the
;
with el crricity. New the electricity
accumulation of elec'ricity? of the one sphere is attracted by that of
P. Yes. If a point is brought near an the opposite sphere, nnd being prevented
insulated conductor, the electricity will be from escaping they comb ne. How must
more dense at that part, und therefore we manage to make the combination
overcome the resistance of the air, which perfect?
envelopes it. as if it were a non-conducting P. By separating the spheres with a
layer. Experim nts prove that electricity Franklin pl.i e.
flows readily from sha r p-pointed bodies. 50. T.Explain what you mean by a
45. T. Is the knowledge of the in- Fr.mklin plate, and its mode of action
fluence of pointed bodies practically ap- P. It is a plate of glass,
partially
plied ? coated on both sides with
P. Yes, in the construction of light- tin foil (o Fiy. 17), so as
ning conductors. to leave the outer part
46. T. Suppose place that we two free. If this plate is placed
insulated conductors, similarly
electric between the two spheres,
charged, near to each other, how will the theone part will be charged
electr city be distributed on their sur- with + and the other with
faces ? electricity, so that the
P. The electric density will diminish glass alone separates them;
between the conductors as they are placed and ;is
they are unable
near to eaeh other, arid increase at those to penetrate the glass the
points furthest from the point between combination is pretty per-
the two, thus : fect>
The sphere a b, and the sphere 51. T. Is it necessary to bring both

a
Of*
*J
b c * d
c d, when insulated, and placed sides of the Franklin plate into contact
I
near to each other, if charged with the spheres to charge its sides with
Fig. 16. M j tn the same electricity, will opposite electricity ?
cause a disturbance. The electricity of P. No, because by charging the front
one sphere will repel that of the other, side with + electricity it will act by-
and therefore at b and c the density of the induction upon the combined electricities
electricity decreases, while it increases at of the other side and as soon as we
;

a and d. The nearer the spheres are place that side in connection with the
brought together, the greater will he the earth, the + electricity will pass into the
increase of intensity at a and d, and the earth, and the electricity will be in-
diminution at b and c. duced to the back surface As the
47. T. What would be the effect of electricity of the back surface repels the
bringing a non electric conductor near to f electricity of the front surface, it

an electrified insulated conductor? enables electricity to pass again from

P. It would become electric by in- the conductor to the front surface, which
duction, and act like a body charged with again repels it, and thus increases the
the opposite electricity. electricity of the back surface. By acting
48. T. Suppose that the two spheres in this manner, we may charge one surface

(Fig. 1G) are placed in contact, what will with +, and the other with electricity.
be the effect? 52. T. How can we
P. The density of the electricity will make this plate discharge
be null where they' touch. If these spheres its electricity at once?
had been charged with opposite electric! P. By means of the
-
ties, then the matter would be reversed, discharging rod {Fiy,
and on bringing the spheres together a 18), which, as it touches
spark would be produced, because the both surfaces at once,
density of the electricity would be at puts them into con-
b and c instead of a and d. Fiy, 18. nection with each other,
Lesson V. 141

so that the accumulated opposite electn- l\\ - done in order to obtain

citirs of the two surfaces pass from one s'rong charge and in this ease we ;

to the other. To use this rod apply are obliged to employ larger jar?, and then
one ball to one surface, and then apply the brass ball of t-.ich jar i* connected
the other, when a vivid spark aad ex- with its fellow, and all the external
vil he produced. coatings of the jars are in connection
53 T. What is the Loyden j.ir? with each other, ax well as the inn.r
P. A glass jar or bottle coated with coatings. \N h n this combination
tin-foil ins'de and out- 1-l.it-e the apparatus is called an electric
side, as as (a Fig.
high battery.
19) in the one on the
table, and therefore leav-
ing a rim of naked
glass above the tin-foil.
The mouth of it is
GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON IV.

with a woo
fitted :

1. What
the effect of the distance
is
which bus a brass rod pass-
being increased between bodies?
ing thr.wch its centre, to 2. Is there any objection to ur using
the upper end of which ansuhr and sharp edges to conducting
a brass hall is attached, bodies?
and a brass chain to the 3.Explain the distribution of electricity
i',
lower part. on the surfaces of conducting bodies.
/'. What is the principle of the 4. How does a Franklin's plate act?

jar? How can we discharge a Franklin's

.">.

A modification of Franklin's late. j plate?

T. Are not several of these jars 6. Explain what is meant by a Leyden
3>nietimes u: jar and au tlectric battery.

LESSON V.
WE know that when electricity has accumulated in a body and is discharged, that a
light produced, but that the body will not afford the least appearance of light as long
is

at a state of electric equilibrium subsists, and the two electricities are und-sturbed. The
distance at which a spark can be drawn from an electric body depends upon the

conductability of the substance, the power of the electric discharge, and the sue of
the corfaee. A powerful charge is required to make round bodies emit sparks
spontaneously, but angular or pointed bodies will emit sparks with a very weak
charge. Sparks are multipli -rupttng the conductor by which the t-l.-ctricity
to the earth. Thi may easily be proved by ex p. rim. -nt. [K\;
Tike a plate of glass of the same shape as /'<</. 20, and fasten a brass ball to
the top of it, and connect this brass ball with another at the botton
means of rbomboidal or dimond-haped plates of tin-foil j>..sted on the
glass, hut so arranged
that they do not touch each <.th. r Connect the
lower ball with the outer coating jar, and the upper ball with
< : .

tli- knot) of then M-e sparks IK

i will twen each pie-

[Does to, and the effect produced in the dark is beautiful]. [Kxperimeat
10.] have here a glass plat* (Fiy. 20) wli
I

jty. o. colours, red, blur, and yellow, and covered with pieces of tin foil, the sane
 144 BLECTBICITY. Lesson VI.
that some of the liberated electricity he 76. T. If thf.se two polos are con-
abstracted from the zinc, so as to ea use- nected, what would be the effect ?
its density to be less than 1, we should P. A
constant reunion of the electri-
then find that the loss of the + electri- cities developed in the
pile, but if they
city from the zinc plate would be imme- are separat.-d a little, we shall observe an
diately compensated for by the electro- uninterrupted current of sparks pass from
motor force, while an equal amount of oue to the other.
electricity to that of the newly-formed + T.
77. What do you mean by a gal-
electricity passing to the zinc pi ite, would vanic circuit ?
pass to the copper plate, and thence to the P. All apparatus serving to produce a
ground. continual electric current are called
gal-
73. T. - Is your voltaic pile now fornu-d? vanic circuits, and are generally con-
P. No; I have only a pair of plates, structed of two metals and one fluid, similar
and voltaic piles may consist of any num- to the voltaic pile, which is not so useful
ber of plates from 4 to 500 or more, and as the trough apparatus.
I have not
yet used the moist cloth, which 78. T. What do you mean by the
must now be placed upon the zinc, when trough apparatus ?
it will be found that the liberated + elec- P. It consists cf several
square plates
tricity will pass from the zinc to the moist of copper and zinc soldered together, and
cloth; now the effect of this ac-ion is a placed perpendicularly in a wooden trough
loss of electricity in the zinc, which is lined with a coating of resin. The plates
therefore immediately supplied, so that the are so arranged that there is an interval
density of the + electricity of the zinc between each pair, and this is filled with
and cloth will he equal or 1. NVe will now acidulated water, which acts like the moist
place a copper plate upon the moist cloth, cloth of Volta's pile.
and we shall find that -f- electricity is dis- 79. T. Am
I correct in
supposing that
tributed over it, and has a density of 1, so there are different forms of the galvanic
that -we now say that the under circuit ?
copper
plate in connection with the ground, has a P. Yes; there are many. When there
density of 0, while + electricity of a den- is only a pair of conductors immersed in
sity
= 1 is on the zinc plate, the moist
a fluid, it is called a single circuit when ;

cloth, and the upper copper plate. two or more pairs are immersed, it is called
74. T. Then it appears, that a voltaic a c mpound circuit and they are also
;

pile consists merely of a series of plates of called voltaic batteries.

copper and zinc, with an intermediate sub- 80. T. Is it possible to have a power-
stance, moist cloth, and that they are ful battery in a small compass?
arranged in the following order, copper, P. Yes; I ha\e one
zinc, cloth, copper, zinc, cloth, copper, &c. here (/ty. 22). It is called
P. Exactly so, and the density of the a Smee's battery, and con-
electricity is proportioned to the number sists of two plates of amal-
of pairs of plates used. For example, if gamated zinc (z z), with
we pile the elements in the order you have a plate of platinized si.-
mentioned to the number of 100, it will be ver (s) between them ;

found that the freed + electricity upon these plates, you observe,
the 100th zinc plate will have a are confined to a piece
density of
100. One end of this pile is called the of wood (\v) by u bind-
zinc end, or posi'ive pole, and the other ing screw (r/), and the
the copper end, or negative pole. whole immersed inaves-
75. T. What would he the effect of Fig. 22. se j containing dilute sul-

insulating the negative pole, and connect- phuric acid (A).* By means of this bat-
ing the positive one with the ground? tery we obtain immense power without
P. The density of the freed electricity much trouble, and ensure a pretty steady
of the zinc end would be 0, and the action. Here is another battery (Fig. 23).

electricity would be distributed over the which is called Daniell's constant bat cry r

whole pile, its density increasing towards

the copper end. *
On- to seven of w,-te
part of .-.:'!
Lesson VII.
P. [Experi iient la I
< ere is a shal-
low cxlindrieal ;';

sel (Fiy. 24), furnished

with two g'ass tuWs (A.
and B), which are filled
with water acidulated
ilphuric acid, and
plac d over two small
plates of platinum con-
uecti-d with two platinum
. 23. wires pa-sing through
because it produces a long-continued and the bottom of the vessel
uniform current. The outside vessel (A), (n and p) will now We
;nade of copper, and is
count ct these wire- with
filled with a strong solution <
th- \\ o poles of a Smee's
t
;

vitriol" (B). \ [Doesso.] You

battery.
that th re another cylinder placed with-
is
se<- bubbles of gas
tliat

in this, hut separated from tin- eopp r \es- are rising in each tube
frni the platinum plates.
f
(D), which is full of holes.
Upon the shelf are some blue lumps these ;
Y-u see that the gas in
are crystals of sulphate of the tube over the nega-
copper, placed
there to maintain the strength of the solu- tive pole or zinc end, occupies twice the
tion. Within second cylinder,
this space of the gas in the other tube the ;

is a porous earthen tube, is "a rod of zinc former is hydrogen, and the latter oxygen.
i-ported by a cross piece (i). and [See Lessons ix. an<1 x., Catechiim iv., for th
surm<> 1 screw characteristic properties of each.]
(E), which
s a wire
(o); a similar cap and
screw 0) is affixed to the outside vessel,
a wire (in. Both these QUESTIONS ON LKS< >N VI
1C electric current from 1. How maythe electric equilibrium
of two solid bodies be disturbed ?
an we determine the ->. What do >ou mean by an electro- mo-
of voltaic eKctii- tor power? and give the scale of tension ?
l-lai'i wh.it is meant by a voltaic
ring that the polarity pile, and how it is constructed.
or disturbance commences at tin-
\jilain the theory of the action of
tracked, and starts fn taie pile.
i then passes through the I
he of a
by i
I'oles
tal <>r
conducting body, and voltaic
retur ;rr. G. the difference between a
Explain
/'.You Mid and a Da-
you would descrih >s of obtain* 1
lattery.
ing oxygen :
7. How is water decomposed 1>\

citj ; please to do so now.' electri

II.

WE have sen that the galvanic current will produce heat and light, and that it will

decompose water. If space

:

poses
s*lu. ami that we arv
'
n t'*P y be the pictures del.vervU by t ,011 of
or the service of
>n,
rlectm-plat* that are ranged upon our tables,
 v Lesson VII.
There is a law which is called the electrolytic law, that no electric current, or com-
p;ir.!tivi-ly only a very weak one, can pass through a lluid without its passage bein;:
j by chemical decomposition. This occurs in every cell of every galvanic-
apparatus as long as the circuit is complete, and the quantity of the electric current i>
proportionate to the amount of decomposition in each cell.
Wehave now to consider other actions of the galvanic current its magnetic
actions. For a considerable period it had been known that powerful electric charges,
under certain circumstances, affected the magnetic needle. Experiments were made,
but in the year 1820, Oersted discovered a means of causing electricity to act certainly
and constantly upon a magnet.

QUESTIONS.
S3. T. How can we magnetize soft iron wire of an electric current is a magnet.
so as to form magnets ? Is this the case ?
P. By passing a current of electricity P. Certainly; arid it shows attractions
at right angles to it, in which case the and repulsions for other electric wires.
iron will acquire magnetic polarity, either For example, if the wires of two circuits
temporary or permanently, as the case may are placed side by side, and are free, they
be, the direction of the current determin- will be mutually repelled if the direction
ing the position of the poles. [Experiment of the current is the same iu both, and
I have a bar of soft iron in attracted if the currents are contrary.
my
hand, and you observe 86. T. Can motion be produced by
that it is bent into the the galvanic current?
form of a horse-shoe ; P. Yes ; a continuous motion may be
here is some copper wire produced by the magnetizing action of the
which is covered with galvanic current but the apparatus is too
;

silk for the purpose of extensive for me to demonstrate it to you.

insulation, and you ob- Attempts have been made by Jacobi, of
serve that I have now St. Petirsburgh, and Wagner, of Frank-
wound it firmly over the fort, to apply the galvanic current prac-
bar of iron, so that the tically as a moving power
but the expense
;

a seriojs objection to its use.

windings are all close is

togc-ther; we will sus- 87. T. Has any practical application

pend the horse- shoe bar been made of the magnetization of soft
to a hook in the beam iron by galvanic currents ?
by means of the ring at P. Yes, iu the construction of the
the top of it. [Does so ] electric telegraph, the arrangements of
Tig. 25. Now let us try if it \vi:i which admits of a perfect correspondence
being carried on, resulting
from attraction
support the keeper, or even an iron nail.
[Tries them, and they fall to the ground.] and repulsion.
Let us place the ends of the wire into 88. T. What do you mean by thermo-
communication with a small voltaic bat- electricity ?
tery, and try the keeper again. [Does so, P. It is simply electricity, developed
and the keeper adheres firmly, so as to be by heat.
able to bear a very heavy weight as in 89. T. How is this produced ?

/'/<;. 2.j.] If we disconnect the wires, the p. We know that an electric current
an infe-
weight and keeper will fall to the ground. develops heat on passing through
[Does so, and they instantly fall.] rior conducting substance, or if its passage
84. T. Which is the north, and which is interrupted. This is by no means any-
the south pole of this magnet ? thing new but within the last twenty
;

Where the + current enters, a of Berlin, has

P. years, Professor Seebeck,
north pole isformed, and a south pole discovered that heat may be made to pro-
where the current enters. duce a current of electricity. This is
sf>. T. Then it would appear that the managed as follows two metals are sol-
:
Lesson VIII. ELECTRICITY. 147

dered togetlu--, whose susceptibility to heat Kach metal causes a positive current to
j

as heat is applied la-s upon any metal above it, and a nega-
'

to the two places of junction, an electric tive- upon any metal below it; therefore,

-oduced and maintained as if bismuth and

j antimony were solden-d
the difference of temperature con- together, a negative current would pass
-::mth and copper answer very from the antimony to the bismuth, and a
<>r this purpose. positive one from the bismuth to the anti-
/". N it
necessary to employ me- mony; negative electricity radiates from
tals? the junction through the bismuth, and
/'.No; it is found that if hot water positive electricity through the antimony.
and cold water are mixed together, that 'J'2. T. Is it possible to form a com-
Li
produced, and that the hot pound thermo-electric circuit ?
Peonies negative, and the cold I*.- Yes by joining several bars of
;

;<>*itive but the reverse takes place

;
metals together; but then the heat re-
with acids ; for if a hot acid is mixed with quires to be applied to each joining ther- :

a cold one. the former becomes positive, mo-electric piles may be constructed as
and the latter negative. well as voltaic piles.
aid that bismuth and
answered very well can you i;i- ;

me of any other metals that ab-

used?
RAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON VII.
<

ertainly. This table will exhibit

the order of the principal metals in 1. How can we form temporary
combinations, and the
farthest asunder any two metals are placed J. How do you know the north from
in this Table, the more powerful is the the south pole of a magnet ?
hem. 3. Is it possible to cause motion
Ant by the
:
-ass. ilvanic current?
4. Upon what principle is them*
'city produced?
5. Describe the method of obtaining au
electric current by heat, and nai
erally empfc

-SON VIII.
FOE many obvious reasons we have placed magnetism, the of the present
subject
lesson, last on our list
We have already seen ^
:ro|1
may imparted tem .
and permanently to steel but certain iron ores which have this
;

rty are found in the earth, and are termed natural

magneto.
are generally made ii .;,
^ ^4 horse-shoes.

QUI
148 ELECTRICITY. Lesson VIII.
P. If we present one pole of a bar- the first, and decomposes the
magnetic
mugni t held in the hand to influence in the iron. [Experiment 16.]
the pole a (Fig 26,) it will Here is a b.tr-magnet (a b,
be repelled, while h will be Fiy. 28), with a piece of
attracted. If we reverse iron (e) attached; if I
the magnet, and present
bring another bar magnet
-

the other pole to a, it will near to it, so that the

Fig. L'6. be attracted and b repelled. b' is
opposite pole placed
96. T. What is the reason of the over the pole a, the piece
phenomenon you have described ? of iron (e} will fall off.
P. Because it is a law in magnetism and it falls as
[Does so,
that similar poles repel each other, and Fig. 28.
7
represented in Fig. 28.]
contrary poles attract each other. The 99. T . Can }ou render any other
two poles of the magnet in the hand are metal magnetic besides iron ?
opposite poles, because they are of a P. Yes, nickel and cobalt may also be-
different nature. come magnetic.
97. T. Is it possible to
impart tern- 100. T. What do you mean by the
porary magnetic influence to iron? I
armature of a magnet?
P. Yes. [Exp. 14]. Here is a bar P. It is generally a piece of soft iron
magnet (a b). and brought into contact with the magnet, in
a small bar of iron order to preserve its power by means of
Cc). You observe the magnetic decomposition going on in
when I dip the bar the soft iron.
\d of iron into some 101. T. What is meant by the direc-
iron filings that no tion of magnets?
magnetic effect takes P. It has been observed, that when
place; but when the magnets are suspended horizontally, or
27.
. bar of iron is pre- magnetic needles revolve upon a fixed
sented to the magnet, then it is attracted point in an horizontal plane, that they
and supported by it- I will now dip the alwavs point one particular end to a parti,
bar of iron into the iron filings, and ob- cular spot or point in the horizon. If
serve what takes place. [Does so, and you turn this point away from this point,
the iron filings are attracted in a tuft, as back it comes again ; consequently there
in Fig. 27.] This clearly demonstrates must be a magnetic force which acts at
that under the influence of a magnet, iron all points of the earth's surface ; and we

itself becomes magnetic. I will remove the find that this force distinguishes between
iron bar, and you will then see the iron the two poles, attracting one and repelling
tilings fall off, because no further attrac- the other like a magnet. From observing
tive force remains. [Does so, and the this, we have been enabled to name the two
iron filings drop off,] [Experiment 15.] poles of the magnet ; thus one is called
Instead of using iron filings I will em- the north pole, and the other the south
ploy small cylinders, attaching four of pole.
them to the first (as d Fig. 27), and you 102. T. Then the north pole of the
will then find that a chain is formed, of magnet points to the north, and the south
which the magnet is the first link, but pole to the south ?
that as soon as the magnet is removed, the P. Certainly not. The north pole of
chain will fall apart, because there is no the magnet points to the terrestial mag-
magnetic power to hold the links toge- netic south pole, and the south pole to the
ther. [Performs the Experiment]. magnetic north pole.
98. T If the pole of a bar magnet 103. T. What do you mean by the
supports a piece of iron which is in danger declination of a magnetic needle?
of lalling from its weight, what will he P. It is the deviation of the needle from
the effect of bringing the contrary pole the astronomical meridian. Thus it may
of another magnet immediately over it? decliiirtte easr or west, which is the same
P. The iron would f ,11 off, because, !
as saying that it turns towards one or the
the second magnet disturbs the actions of other side of the astronomical meridian.
Lesson DC. OPTIC8L 149

104. I*. What do you mean by the in- hat are the ends of a magnet
i of the net tile? called?
/' deviation from the horizontal
Its 4. anything peculiar about the
1- tin-re

position thus one point of the needle

; attractive force of magnet-?
appro iches the earth, or what is tech- 5. Is the magnetic force increased
by
nically called dips, and this we find usiner two magnets instead of one?
increases or decreases according to our 6. Explain the meaning of the terms

position near or from the equator and the direction, declination, and inclination of
poles. a magnetic needle.
[GRANDFATRKH "\VHITI:HRAI> refrains
!IAL QCKSTIONS OX LESSON* VIII. from entering into the discussion of animal
1. Is the magnetic influence uniform in electricity, because the subject is too
a magnetic abstruse for the greater part of his pupil?,
hat is the difference between tbe and not so practically useful as the sub-
ends and the centre of a magnet ? jects already considered].

OPTICS.
INTRODUCTION. The
science of Optics reveals to us the intimate nature and
affections of light and as we judge of the various objects around us, chiefly by our
;

sense of sight or vision, the science of optics becomes interesting to us all, and enables
ijTprehend many of the highly interesting, curious, and important phenomena
connected with vision; and hence its name, which is derived from the Greek word
optomai (OTTO/UK), to see; therefore the science of optics signifies the theory of light
sion.
In investigating this science, we have to consider the following points. I. The

general properties of light, and its effect on the organ of vision. 2. The reflection of
light from the surfaces of bodies. 3. The refraction of light, or the
change it under-
goes in passing through transparent bodies. \;\ of colour^
Modifications of reflected and refracted light

1 IX.

SOME bodies a< passage of light, and of other bodies being seen through
1

them ; they are therefore called transparent.* Some are exactly tl.< thi, :

and are called opaque; others only admit of bodies being imperfectly s. .

them, nd are called setni-transparrn;. or h ;. If.

transparent ; others ar.

and are called luminoou; and some can only be seen by means
-ht,
obtained from the luminous bodies.
iv v now to treat of the theory of direct light,

The word lra*,parmt U derived from l.r -

Iran,, through or beyond, and parnu
apparent. TbU word U frequently u-w in lead of d*pt>o*o*,, which ilfnines the Mftir, .-

from the Orrek word dlnr > f through.

150 Lesson IX.

QUESTIONS.
105. 2'. What is light? Others are transparent, as water, air, and
P. Rapid undulations or vibrations glass. These bodies yield a passage to
produce by very minute particles or
I
light, so as to allow us to observe the
luminous bodies in a thin and elastic form of objects beyond them. Translucent
medium, called the luminous ether, which bodies (such as thin paper and ground
is interposed between them and the seat
glass), admit of the transmission of some
of our vision. portion of light, without however allowing
Htj. T. How do these undulations the form or colour of objects being recog-
produce light? nised if they are far distant. I cannot
P. By stimulating the optic nerve by gi\v you a more familiar illustration of
means of vibrations, and producing an the comparalirc, but not the actual degrees
effect which we call light. of distinction between opacity, transpa-
107. T. How does light proceed?
rency, and translucency, than the common
P. In a straight direc- fowls' egg-shell. If you hold it when
tion from the luminous boiled, and full against the light, you will
body which produces it, have a good definition of opacity. Now
towards the part upon empty it, and on holding it against the
which it acts. Thus from you will observe that some parts of
light,
every luminous point rays the shell are darker than others, which
of light proceed in all di- are spotted as it were with light, and that
Fhj. 29. rections, as seen in this there is also a thin membrane lining the
diagram (Fig. 29). shell. Now the shell itself will represent
108. T. What do you mean by a ray opacity, the light spots on it translucency,
of light? and the membrane transparency. Be sure
/'. It is the smallest portion of light to remember, however, that this is only
which can emanate from a luminous body, the comparative degrees of distinction,
and is generally represented as a mathe- because the whole of them are translucent.
matical line, although it is really an 112. T. You mentioned before (Ques-
infinitesimal pyramid. tion 105) that a ray of light proceeded in
109. T. What do you mean by a a straight line towards the part upon
medium 'i which it acts, now when it reaches that
P. It is
any transparent space through part what takes place?
which such as air, water, and
light passes, P. As long as the ray remains in the
glass. Even empty space is a medium. same medium it advances in a straight
110. T. What is a luminous body? line, but as soon as it comes in contact
P. It consists essentially of ponder- with another body it partly thrown
is
able matter, and the ultimate physically back, or reflected from surface
its if the
:

perceptible atoms are called luminous body is transparent, the light partly enters
points; therefore as every body is made the body in an altered direction, and is

up of molecules or atoms, so is a lumin- then refracted.

ous body made up of an assemblage 1 13. T. Does
light travel fast ?
of luminous points. P. velocity is so great, that it
Yes, its

[The pupil should read Lesson III., p. 11.] traverses all distances upon earth in an
111. T. Are all bodies luminous? imperceptibly small space of time. It

P. No, some are opaque, as stones, travels over 19',000 English miles in one

metals, wood and clay, and do not suffer second, and therefore would require eight
through them. This pro- minutes and thirteen seconds to traverse
light to pass
the space between the sun and the earth;
perty however depends upon their thick-
ness, for all bodies will admit of the
while a cannon-bull, going at the rate of
passage of some degree of light if we 1,200 feet in a second, would require
make them sufficiently thin. For example, fourteen years to pass through the same
if we affix a thin gold leaf to a glass plat*-, space.
and hold it to a strong light, we shall 114. T. How do you account for

perceive a blueish-green light through it.

shadows?
Lesson X.
/'. Light being transmitted in straight light. and the other part dark, the lighted
'
follows that a dark body exposed part brine; nearer to the candle, and the
of light must throw a
'

I shadow, dark pan farther from it. N

because the light does not pass through no actual shadow cast from the apples
I will illustrate this in a familiar held in the hands; but if you look at the
stand of the table you will observe that
|

there are shadows (c & D) thrown from

I because the natural light st:

the other side, and therefore the. part

forms the limits of
i it t

In tliis manner we can understand how

:dow of a body exposed t<> the
sun's lightis sharply defined

it,while at a greater distance it V

undefined.

,;.\L QUESTIONS ON LESSON I\

1 . Describe light.
-2. How is
light produced?
, .\v is light transmitted? and what
Fig. SO.
Place a lighted is meant by a medium ?
way. [Experiment 17.]
candle in the centre of a small table (as in ,
4. Describe the difference between
-n tie a thread to the stalk of opacity, transparency,
and transit
an apple, and hold it high above the light and also what is meant by diaphonous.
nother thr. :. What Mkes place when a ray of
in its con:
another apple, and I will hold it nearly on light is interrupted
with the table (as B Fig 30); now ist does light tra
: .

-ervc that the half of each apple is 7. Explain how shadows are formed.

I8OV v
nsityof light diminishes in proportion as the squares of the d.<
increase. This U a known fact of much importance in optics, and should therefore be
red.
more it will be well to explain some <>f thv
ring fully into the science,
;n common use. Thus a pencil is a slender portion of rays, or a small bundle of
a beam is a large bundle of pencils. Rays are said to diverts
separate from each other as 1 from the luminous point; a
1

proach closer t> each other. umiJ >int All rays ai ;

v are made to converge by the aid of some substance having u

;ve or refractive power. The /<>.< is the point from which rays diverp
they conv. ./i/ _/.Viw is the point to which parallel rays are
made to converge by reflection or refra< re those wh
n direct coarse side by side, at the same distance from each other, thus

no The
su<

distance between the focus and

.illy exist ngth
g or refracting
focal ^A
^^
tl :

body.
Reflected roy re thrown back which they fall.
!"
1

ray* are not thrown back, bat pass through th> indium in an alien
[See Question 110.]
 OPTICS. Lesson IX.

QUESTIONS.
105. 7'. What is light? Others are transparent, as water, air, and
P. Rapid undulations or vibrations glass. These bodies yield a passage to
produced by very minute particles or light, ?o as to allow us to observe the
luminous bodies in a thin and elastic form of objects beyond them. Translucent
medium, called the luminous ether, which bodies (such as thin paper and ground
rposed between them and the seat glass), admit of the transmission of some
of our vision. portion of light, without however allowing
IOG. T. How do these undulations the form or colour of objects being recog-
produce light ? nised if they are far distant. I cannot
P. By stimulating the optic nerve by give you a more familiar illustration of
means of vibrations, and producing an the comparative, but not the actual degrees
effect which we call light. of distinction between opacity, transpa-
107. 7'. How does light proceed? rency, and translucency, than the common
P. In a straight direc- fowls' egg-shell. If you hold it when
tion from the luminous boiled, and full agamst the light, you will
body which produces it, have a good definition of opacity. Now
towards the part upon empty it, and on holding it against the
which it acts. Thus from light, you will observe that some parts of
every luminous point rays the shell are darker than others, which
of light proceed in all di- are spotted as it were with light, and that
29. rections, as seen in this there is also a thin membrane lining the
diagram (Fig. 29). shell. Now the shell itself will represent
108. 7'. What do you mean by a ray opacity, the light spots on it trauslucency,
of light? and the membrane transparency. Be sure
P. It is the smallest portion of light to remember, however, that this is only
which can emanate from a luminous bod}-, the comparative degrees of distinction,
and is generally represented as a mathe- because the whole of them are translucent.
matical line, although it is really an 112. T. You mentioned before (Ques-
infinitesimal pyramid. tion that a ray of light proceeded in
iqr>)
109. T. What do you mean by a a straight line towards the part upon
medium? which it acts, now when it reaches that
P. -It is any transparent space through part what takes place?
which light passes, such as air, water, and P. As long as the ray remains in the
glass. Even empty space is a medium. same medium it advances in a straight
110. T. What is a luminous body? line, hut as soon as it comes in contact
P. It consists essentially of ponder- with another body it is partly thrown
able matter, and the ultimate physically back, or reflected from its surface : if the
luminous
perceptible atoms are called body is transparent, the light partly enters
is made an and
points; therefore as every body altered
the body in direction, is

up of molecules or atoms, so i a lumin- then refracted.

ous body made up of an assemblage 1 13. T. Does light travel fast ?
of luminous points. P. Yes, velocity is so great, that it
its

[The pupil should read Lesson III., p. 11.] traverses distances upon earth in an
all
of time. It
111. T. Are all bodies luminous? imperceptibly small space
p. No, some are opaque, as stones, travels over 195,000 English miles in one

metals, wood and clay, and do not suffer second, and therefore would require eight
minutes and thirteen seconds to traverse
light to pass through them. This pro-
thick- the space between the sun and the earth;
perty however depends upon their at the rate of
while a cannon-bull, going
ness, for all bodies will admit of
the
passage of some degree of light
if we 1,200 feet in a second, would require
make them sufficiently thin. For example, fourteen years to pass through the same
if we affix a thin gold leaf to a glass plate, space.
and hold it to a strong light, we shall 114. T. How do you account for
shadows?
perceive a blueish-green light through
it.
Lesson X. i.M

/'. Light being transmitted straight
lines, it follows that a dark body -\
of li L'ht must throw a sh-idow,
because the light does not pass through
rt F will illustrate this in a familiar
m light, and the other part dark, the lighted
part being nearer to the candle, and the
dark part farther from it. >
;
no actual shadow cast from the apples
held in the hands; but if you look at tin-
stand of the table you will observe that
there are shadows (c & D) thrown from
it this is because the natural light strikes
;

thi> other side, and therefore the part

beyond it forms the limits of th<- shadow.
In this manner vre can understand how
the shadow of a body exposed to the
sun's light is sharply defined close Miind
it, while at a greater distance it becomes

undefined.

IIONS ON LESSON 1\

1 . Describe light.
2. How is light produced?
i >w is light transmitted? and what
Fig. 30.
Place a lighted is meant by a medium ?
way. [Experiment 17.]
candle in the centre of a small table (as in ,
4. Describe the difference between
/ then tie a thread to the stalk of
i

, opacity, transparency,
and transit;

an apple, and hold it high above the lijzht and also what is meant by diaphonous.
.nother thread to :> What takes place when a ray of
in its course?
j

another apple, and I will hold it nearly on light is interrupted

a level with the table (as B Fig 30); now f,. How fast does light travel?
how shadows are formed.
you observe that the half of each apple is Kxplain
7.

V
1 ii K intensity of light diminishes in proportion as the squares of tl
increase. This is a known fact of much importance in optics, and should therefore be

more it will be well to explain some of the

ring fully into |] .

.n common use. il is a slender portion of rays, or a small bundle of

a beam is a large bundle of pencils. Rays are said to ./ they i

separate from each other as t trom the luminous {mint; and 00)
i.

proach closer to each other, until they meet in a. point. All rays are originally
made to converge by the aid of some substance having a
e or refractive power. The M >/* is the point from which rays diverp

they conv< ifl the point to which parallel rays arc

made to con. llection -r rei'ra. re those which e-ntimu
n direct course side hy side, at the same dist:i ach other, thus Z
no sur ngth ^^
distance between the focus and (lie r< tl< cting or refracting body.
Reflected ray* are thrown back ft which they fall.
ray* are not thrown back,
'
m in an alter.
152 OPTICS. Lesoon X
QUEST10NS.
115. T. What is meant by catoptrics? ror (c) at an angle of about
forty -live
/'. It is that part of the scienc-- of optics degrees, with its surface
reflecting
which treats of the laws of refl, cted light, towards the pencil now if you look
;

and the phenomena of vision produced in the mirror

yon will observe that the
by reflection. The term is derived from image of the pencil is horizontal instead
the Greek word kutoj>tron (*cdronrpor), of being perpendicular. [Looks in the
a mirror. mirror, and observes the image to be in
116. T.lf a ray of 1'ght be admitted the same position as the arrow a it,
Fiy.
ii.to a darkened room, and allowed to fall 33.] Now I will reverse the position of
upon a polished metallic surface, what the pencil and place it
horizontally, and
will be the effect? you will then observe that the image
P. It will he returned or reflected in appears to be perpendicular. [Does so.]
such a manner thar the angle of incidence 119. T. Why do we observe the
shall be exactly equil to the angle of re- reflection of our figure in a mirror re-
flection. For example, if n i (/*/(/. 31) he cede when we recede, and approach as we
the direction of the inci- approach the mirror?
</v M m
dent ray, and i p a per- P. Because the lines and angles of
pendicular drawn from incidence are always equal to the lines
the surface of the mirror and angles of reflection. [See Q. 114.]
* ni m m, the ray will be re- 120. T How can you observe the pro-
Fiff. 31. fleeted in such a direc- file of your face?
tion t d, tnat the angle of reflection dip P. By standing between two mirrors
is
equal to the angle of incidence n i p. s* placed thus
Hence it is clear that the ray makes the and look-
s.iine angle with the
perpendicular, both f'
ing at A, so
1

before and after its reflection. that a three-

117. T. What is the relative position quarter view of
of the image of an object when seen in a the face is ob-
reflecting I'lane? served, then
1'. -Itsuch that every part of the
is turning the
image appear as far behind the plane
will eyes towards
as the object itself is before it. you will ob-
[Experi-
rueut 18.J Take a mirror (A B Fig. 32), serve your pro-
and hold any object file
distinctly
(such as a knife, pen, or Fig. 34. reflected in the
arrow), in the position mirror. By altering the position of the
shown in F H in this mirrors the reverse effect, is obtained.
figure, and you wll see 121. T. How do you account for the
the image of the obj. ct profile of your face being observed?
F 32. reflected, as E c. in the P. Because the image which is de-
iff.

annexed figure. Now if we examine the lineated behind one mirror serves as an

diagram, we shall find that the lint s F c object to be reflected from the surface of
an'i H D are equal to the lines c E and the other.
D G. and therefore the intake appears as
122. 7'. Upon what principle is the
Jar behind the plane of the mirror as the kaleidoscope constructed ?

object before it.

P' The multiplication of the reflec-
118. T. Does the position of the tion of an object
mirror alter the position of the image of caused by placing it
the ol ject reflect* d in it? between two mir-
P. Yes. rors inclined to-
[Experi-
ment 19.] You obser e wards each other at
that I ha^e H pencil here any angle. For ex-
B, Fi<j. 33 ) which is ample, here is a dia-
(A
plaeed perpendicularly, gram showing two
Fig. 33. and I now place a inir- Ft'}. 35. mirrors inclined to-
Lesson XI. 153

wards each other at an angle A c B. and mirror is its T.tline ; and this is
.- an
object op placed between them. ry Of virtual focus
r difl'erent
parts of
tliat the central
images will be
- i
!

part
i in the circumference of a circle. alone
.::n h- mi'!
by drawing : li:.. r. Do concave mirrors exhibit
behind each mirror, 'ace any remarkable phenomena?
with the image formed in turn by each /'. 1 es ami sons.- of them are very
;

object. Thus we observe that the image, curious and interesting, depending upon
mirror, AC, is po while its t
the -ituation of the object with respect to
'//, and tl re f->re the the mirror and the observer.
on of po in b c will be *"/>," while T. Is there not
something very
the image of '// in AC will 1 remarkable in the image of an object
Therefore it appears that p" o" is th< reflected in a concave in:
image of both p"o' in the mirror P. Yes ; the image is inverted, or
of o' // in the mirror a c, one of the images turned upside down. Some curious optical
:ig the other, if the angle B c A be deceptions are produced by means of con-
flO^, as in the diagram that is to ;
cave mirrors, which almost appear super-
part of a circle. If the nnjiV be natural and a singular netural pheno-
;

r or less, the image p" o" will be menon, known as th<- * Sji.-etre of the
Id. Brocken," is r!ie reflection from
<

T. Does the angle formed by the a concave surface. This is observed at a

mirrors materially affect the number of distance from the highest peak of the
the images? Hanz Mountains, in Hanover.
Yes: if the mirrors had inclined
/'.

at an angle of 45, or 36, or one-eighth

or one-tenth of the whole circumference,
we should have, inclusive of th noxs ON LESSO
itself, eight or ten images. The number Explain the meaning of the
1.

i<es as the ancle dimi- pencil, and beam of light t, con-

nishes, their number b. -coining infinitely vergent, reflected, refracted, and parallel
great if the angle of the mirrors be null; rays; focus, principal focus, and focal
that is, if the mirrors be parallel to each distai
i. What is that part of optics, which
7*. We have hitherto been con- treats of reflected light, named?
ction of objects from ace when a ray of light
irfaces; but suppose that the mirror falls (ijMin a plain mirror?
in which ti -1 was of a mirror in- :

it would be the .:' the reflection of an object?

/'. I .

image would be
<
\m the image of an object be re-
present a miniature picture of th> :roin aiioth. and what is

placed opposite it. The image must

always be small'-r than "-cause ;
the principle upon which
the rays which form them the k.i eil.

i^aqe to the ey- :

convex and
spectator. Anoti concave -I explain th reasons
served in the image reflected in a convex ence.

\I.
I In ;' red the laws relating to the reflection of light, but we
i-

have now to investigate the phenomena ,.f the refraction of light, or the sci.
'lioptricc.* Bj refraction we mean the dcvi.
\ ray of light in patting from one medium to another, and before proceeding further.

>m the Gn*k dtoptomai t .-

>

%
to we through.
154 OPTICS. Lesson XI.
we will try two [Experiment 20 ]
si-uple experiments. I have placed a shilling at

the bottom of this teacup, and if 3011 walk back, so that you can merely see the edge
of it, I shall be ready to perform the experiment. [The pupil does so.] I will pour
some water into the teacup, and the shilling will then appear to rise more and more,
as the level of the water rises in the vessel, until at bst the whole piece of money will
become visible, because the refracting power of the water is gr< -ater than that of the
air. [Performs the experiment.] The next experiment is still more simple. [Ex-
periment 21.] Here is a tumbler of water and a spoon; now you will observe, when I
place the spo >n in the water, that it will appear as if it Mas bent. [Does so, and the
spoon appears bent.] This is because the light reflected from the spoon is refracted
as it issues from the water. An oar, a stick, or any straight object, will produce the
same effect. I will illustrate the atmo-
spheric refraction of light by a simple
diagram (Fig. 36). Here we have four
lines, A A, B B, c c, and D D, parallel to
one another ;
let these represent the
strata of the atm< sphere, which become
denser as they approach the surface of
the earth s represents a star, from
;

which a ray of light proceeds in a straight

line s a, until it enters the atmosphere at

a, its direction is then changed into the

fi9 3C line a b, then when it reaches the line

B B into b and again when it reaches the line c c into c, finally reaching the eye at
c,

o. The effect of this would be to make the star appear at s', which therefore raises
it from its true position
by refraction, the same as the shilling in the teacup.
QUESTIONS.
127. T. Are rays of light always oil of turpentine more
refractive than salt
and water, and of aniseed even still
changed in their direction when passing oil

from a rarer into a denser medium? more powerful than the turpentine.
p. No. If _ 129. T. How is this ? You have said
they fall in the before that the denser a body is, the
u direction of the
/
greater is its refractive power.
perpendicular r 7>. It has been found that coinbustible

!', Fig. 37, their bodies have greater refractive power than
direction is un- incombustible substances of equal or
and greater density. It was the knowledge of
changed,
there is no re- this that led Sir Isaac Newton to believe,
fraction ; but if that tin: ditmwnd was an inflammable sub-
p r

the rays fall stance.

fig. 37.
obliquely as R, they are bent towards the 130. T. What substances are ge-
The opposite of this takes for exhi-
perpendicular. nerally employed by opticians
the
place in every respect where the rays pass biting the phenomena depending upon
from a denser to a rarer medium. refraction of light ?
128. T. If what you have stated P. Glass and transparent crystals, but
about the medium be correct, different chiefly the former.
substances must posses different powers 131. T. Does the form of the refrac-
of refraction. Is this the case ? tive bodyexercise any influence upon the
P. Partially so. A solution of salt is relation of the refracted rays?
a more powerful refractor than pure water, />_y (
.
s. |>,y varying the obliquity of
Lessou XL
the surfaces of the retractive body, we t of the proper :

ree and direct! >n of the that of imparting c<>lonr t bodies *

retraction :
"':>' bring We will, pv ir rather absurd

s of light to u forus by means of a p. rsons to he.ir that a green leaf

|

ive body, the surface of which pre- to a cerutiu

parts with ditfereiit degrees of extent it is true. The

eo.ours of all the
obtkra objects that surrouud us are due to :he
/'What are the usual forms I.:;/, the colour of a substance
:< lenses? resultin >ur!ace being adapt i-d to
p. There are seven kinds :
1st, the reflect its peculiar colour.
136. T. How
is the infliien
the produeti. n of colour ino.
Bj refraction; and this is r
/'.

dcmonstra'-ed by me.ms of a prism of

glass, or by the following simple i

uient. [Kxjwriment i?'J J Place a pirc-

b c d c f s of paper upon the table, and
1- g. 38. then place a wineglass, with
il kind, made of
a globe of glass a stem cut (as in the accom-
(a) tilled with water, or solid 2nd. the ;
panying figure) into ni:
T, or one that has both external more planes, upon the ei
:

surfaces convex (6) 3rd, the }>l>ino-c<mvfx ; the paper, taking c;.i

(r). which has one plain and one convex arrange them on the table so
iurface ; 4:h. the In-t-onctn'c (</), or one that a ray of light from the
that has both stir aces concave externally ; sun shall pass through th-
5th, the plano-cancnve (e), or one that has stem, just as I do now. [Does
one surface plain and the other concave ; so, and the paper is found t
6'b, theowfvm' court /. having one surf.ice be coloured.] You see that
and the other convex, this kind Fig. 39. there are several e
is called a irnici (/), Iwcause it is like upon the paper. First you s e there it.
a little moon 7th, another trm of cnn-
; vuili't, which is a compound colour; then
cavo-comvex (y). which is also considered nnother compound then blue, an ;

to be a mc*i*cu*. The 2nd (6). 3rd (c), colour: then green, a com:
and 6th (/). are thicker at the centre an original ; orange, a compound;
than the edges, am! and ]' ii. >
that these
bows. rgent lenses are thinner Off i::i<-.ju;il
in t)u middle than at the edges, such a and so '

to say
:,th (< ). and 7:li (y). Is. If
;nds of ray of
r
.1 lii, 't is per-
glasses used in optic*? formed in a
/'. Ye*. - v. ml nut with the ; ii.rror, an ol

tion of prisms or r
glasses, and i is called the *pcctr*m,
plain tablets
:s are not s and which exhibits the prisn
rally used, such as fr poLris we have seen.
/'. \vi,at do you mean by pris-
do you mean by the rs?
polarisation
of light? /'. Tn. y are the simple colour* of tbe
1'. The * ;>ui ray of light -.cause they
:n th. by decomposing a ray of
1

otlur in ;> properties; the most <

light !>y means ot' a nri*m.

of these U that of pr< .nr in /'. Has thit knowledgr been
several ways from a ray which appears to to any navful pur-
be colourless. POM- :-

A Yes, to several; and the im

that a ray of ligut has any *.- nse is chiefly
/'.
 156 OPTICS. Lesson XII.
139. T. What do you mean by achro- 2. Kxphiin how refraction takes place,
matic ? and illustrate ir
by simple experiments.
P. A
substance without colour, the Does refraction alwais take place
.'?.

term bt- ing derived from two Greek words. when a ray of \\r\\t passes from a rarer
a (a) friratiri, and Kroma (XpaJ/ua), to a denser medium ?
colour. The term is applied to these 4. Do all substances possess the same
lenses because the coloured fringes and power of refraction ?
other defects observed in images formed 5. Describe the various kinds of lenses.
by a single lens are removed. 6. What is meant by polarisation of
light ?
GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON XI. 7. What are the colours of the solar
1. What do you mean by refraction ?
spectrum ?

LESSON XII.
THE organs of vision are usually described under the head of optics, but I think it
better that they should be described when treating of anatomy, and we will now enter

upon the consideration of some Optical Instruments.

Optical instruments are so various, that it would be impossible to describe one-fourth
of them in our volume, we shall therefore only consider the most common, com-

mencing with the Telescope.

QUESTIONS.
140. 7'. What
the most simple kind of refracting telescope ?
is

P. The astronomical, which consists of two convex lenses, an object-glass, and

an eye-glass, the foci
of which are in the
"same place. Here is
a diagram (Fig. 40)
that will explain it.

Let A B represent the

ravs from the moon Fig. 40.
upon the object glass c D, then the
falling placed at an angle of 45, and at the
imae formed upon this glass being seen upper and back part a plate of ground
through the eye-glass E F, will have its glass,E F G D. The rays of light pro-
apparent diameter magnified accordingly. ceeding from the object Q P, pass through
The image will he inverted with respect the lens, form an inverted image in its
to the object, but this is not of any con- posterior focus, which is received upon the
sequence for the purposes to which it is mirror, and is reflected upon the ground
applied. Its power may be calculated glass.
thus, if the object-glass have a power 142. T. What is the camera lucida?
= 20, and that of the eye-glass = 8, the P. an instrument similar to the
It is

object will be magnified to 20x8 = 160 camera obscura in its effects, but smaller,
times. and therefore used chiefly lor drawing
141. T. Describe the camera obscura ? distant objects. It consists of a quad-

P. It consists of a rectangular box, rangular glass prism, by

which the rays
ABCD,with from an object are twice reflected, and

"""- -^
^ U^y-^i- a circular
a P erture
thus form an image on a sheet of paper
placed underneath it. As the prism re-
f 'A$W in
volves upon an axis, it can be turned to
ft "TH T^K/: ^ont, fitted
with a the proper position.
c rooveable
not consider it
tube T, hav- [Grandfather Whitelimd docs
Fig. 41. mri'hsiiry to describe the imcmscopt s, magic-lan-
ing a convex lens at its extremity. In terns, &c.. as they are only
modifications of the
the bodv of the box is a mirror, E I n D, same principles as tho.se already hud dcwn.J
Lesson XIII. 157

H.,w i> of this telescope

I IONS ON LESSON XII.
-'

calculated ?
1. Describe the principle of the diop- >escribe the
1 camera obscura.
trical : 4. \v < .tnitra lucida?

ACOUSTICS.
;ODDcnox. The science of Acoustics forms a very considerable branch of
.it
part which treats of the nature of sound, and the law*
. the origin, propagation, and perception of sound. The term acoustics is of
origin, being derived from akouo ('Airouw), to hear, and sometimes
ined Phonics, which is also a word derived from the Greek word
:

pkone (*u>-j;). a voice, or sound.

LESSON XIII.
-

atmospheric vibration takes place, we experience the sensation of sound. If

a bell rings, or a bird sings, the knowledge that such is taking

place is conveyed to our brain by means of the vibrations pro-

duced in the atmosphere, which cause wave-like motions in ih
air. These waves of sound are collected by the concha, or
\f external ear, from which they are conveyed along the auditory
canal or external auditory passage, and impressed upon a fine
nervous membrane, called the drum of the ear or
which is situated at the bottom of the auditory canal,
tympanum augments the vil :
i-s i \tnnu-
and transmits them by means of a to the internal ear partly
chain of bones, which are placed behind
and partly by
little it,

means of the air striking another membrane, and causing vibra-

tions there. The vibrations are then admit: lal \rinth, which is a
bony
maze, consisting of three portions, viz., the vestibule, the semicircular canals, and the
;i, in fact, the true auditory or^an. The audifon ni-rve h iving received
the necessary impressions, conveys them to the brain. ha\v thought it necessary to I

inform you thus much of the structure of the ear, before i-ntering upon the science of
acoustics but when we consider the anatomy of our bodies, we shall learn more
;

about the internal arrangements of this curious structure.

QUESTIONS.
143. T. Is air necessary to tin- ! 144. T. Why is it necessary to have
uration of sonorous vibn- a oonti; i

/ I ,1 use sound cannot be conveyed

/' N >. It is the usual medium; hut
(iii'l, or n< rial body will answer, 145. T. low ,lo you know thataooRd
I

it form* :i cannot be conveyed in a vacuum ?

Etween the sounding body and the ear. /' Ik-cause if a small bell be aw
Pijr. 12. a, the tgmp**m or <n ..,Ht,,,. or llttlr l,.v

f. the comrk*. or external er ; / 1, tb* radttOfjr eawO, or xlwnal

160 S TI(J6. ItaSOii XIV.
,, same manner as a r.i\ <.>' :e i.N a diagram (fig. 41.) that will
4j

light, because the vibra- plain my Suppose that

meaning. :

tion of sound is propa- like the tick of a watch could not b<-
gated in right lines, and heard in the line A r,, it may U- so in-
therefore the angle of re- creased bv reflection as to be disiineth
must always be
flection heard Thus it may go from A to < and .

^V equal to the angle of inci-

-I from c to B, by a motion of lesser reil <-
dence. Hereis a diagram tions from d e c b a, alternately terminal
Fig. 45. to ex pi a n M-hat I mean.
j

i ,

ing at B. This is the principle of the

Let A B be a wall or any dense surface, Whispering Gallery at St. Paul's Cathedral,
|

and suppose that a sound is propagated, London and the speaking-trumpet is alsc
;
j

from F and travels in an oblique line, it I

constructed upon the principle of the re-
will impinge upon the wall A B, in the flection of sound.
direction F c, and be reflected from c in 163. T. How do you account for dis-
the line c E, forming an oblique angle with cordant sounds like cracked bells?
the wall A B. If the sound was emitted P. There is a double vibration, and
from and proceeded in the straight line
D, the sound waves interfere with one an-
D c, itwould return again in the same other consequently, we have discord.
;

line, and be heard again at D, producing 164. T. Why is sound conveyed better
what is called an echo. by night than by day ?

161. T. What is an echo ? P. Because the air is less disturbed by

p. It is a reflected sound, and may be accidental vibrations or currents, and is ol'

double, triple, or even quadruple, accord- a more uniform density.

ing to the number of surfaces from and to 165. T. Why do windows rattle when
which the sound may be reflected. a salute is fired?
162. T. Does the reflection of sound P. Because the vibrations of the air

always produce an echo? are communicated to the glass by imping-

P. No; because instead of producing ing upon the panes, the same as i

an echo, it may con- wall.

centrate the vibra- [See Q. 160.]
tions so as to make
the sounds heard
GENERAL QUESTIONS ON LESSON \1\
very distinctly at a
l
great distance. For 1. How are musical sounds produced?
example, if the sound 2. How many notes are there in music ?
is repeatedly reflected li'om a curved sur- 3. Can you account for the musical
face ; so that if the sound is propagated or notes ?

emitted in the focus of one reflecting sur- 4. How does sound travel ?
face, it will be conveyed to the ear placed 5. Explain how echoes are produced.
in the focus of the other reflecting surface. (i.
Why do we hear discordant sounds ?

C II E A B

Explanation of Answer No. 15i

London : Printed by William Tyler, Bolt-court.

M-H