CORROSION RATE INVESTIGATION DUE TO STRAY CURRENT

AHMAD FARIS BIN WAHID

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA

 DECLARATION OF THESIS / UNDERGRADUATE PROJECT PAPER AND COPYRIGHT

Author’s full name : AHMAD FARIS BIN WAHID

Date of birth : 20th NOVEMBER 1987

Title : CORROSION RATE INVESTIGATION DUE TO STRAY CURRENT

Academic Session: 2009/2010-2

I declare that this thesis is classified as :

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the organization where research was done)*

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open access (full text)

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Certified by :

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE OF SUPERVISOR

871120-23-5095 Assoc. Prof. Dr. Zainal Zakaria

(NEW IC NO. /PASSPORT NO.) NAME OF SUPERVISOR

Date : 21th April 2010 Date : 21th April 2010

NOTES: * If the thesis is CONFIDENTAL or RESTRICTED, please attach with the letter
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 “I hereby declare that I have read this thesis and in my
opinion this thesis is sufficient in terms of scope and quality for the
award of the Degree of Bachelor of Engineering (Chemical-Gas)”

Signature : …………………………..
Supervisor’s Name : Assoc. Prof. Dr. Zainal Zakaria
Date : April 2010
 CORROSION RATE INVESTIGATION DUE TO STRAY CURRENT

AHMAD FARIS BIN WAHID

A report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the
Degree in Bachelor of Engineering (Chemical-Gas)

Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

APRIL 2010
 ii

I declare that this thesis entitled “Corrosion Rate Investigation Due to Stray Current”
is the result of my own research except as cited in the references. The thesis has not
been accepted for any degree and not concurrently in candidature of any other degree

Signature : …………………………………….
Name : Ahmad Faris Bin Wahid
Date :
 iii

To my beloved father and mother for her love and encouragement.

 iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

For the success of my study, it is a great pleasure to acknowledge all lecturers

from Gas Department of Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering. I
would like to express my deepest appreciation to my supervisor, Assoc. Prof. Dr.
Zainal Bin Zakaria for his wise words, advices, sacrifices to help me in completing
this research with flying colours.

Though my parents may not have taught me to generate a study, their eternal
love, support, and confidence in their son contributed significantly in making me the
individual I am today. Finally I would like to express my appreciation to every
person who contributed with either inspirational or actual work to this study.
 v

ABSTRACT

Failures in gas pipelines due to stray current can have severe environmental
and economic consequences. Gas pipeline can severely affected by stray currents
which travel onto a pipeline from nearby external sources. This study is being
conducted to investigate the corrosion rate under variety of external voltage (stray
current) between several pair of metal and investigate the effect of arrangement
metals in electrochemical series at constant stray current supply. The corrosion of
anode metal being categorized to its classes to see the corrosion level of anode metal
based on its corrosion rate. The study was done using Corrosion Kit. Therefore,
different pair of metals (steel and platinum, steel and steel, zinc and steel, copper and
steel, copper and brass) were examined in term of corrosion rate of anode and
cathode metal due to variation of stray current, the effect of arrangement metals in
electrochemical series at constant stray current supply and to classified the condition
of anode metal. All the samples were examined based on electrolytic cell in a test
solution of pH7.The corrosion rate is proportionally to the external voltage (stray
current) supply. From 0 voltage (V) to 4V, for pair of steel-platinum metal, the
corrosion anode metal is increasing from 0.30 millimeter per year (mm/yr) to 2.26
mm/yr while corrosion rate of cathode metal is increasing from 0 mm/yr to 0.006
mm/yr. At constant stray current supply, the corrosion rate at anode metal is
increasing as the distance between metals in electrochemical series increase where
corrosion rate of anode metal pair of steel-platinum metal at 4V is 2.26 mm/yr but
for pair of zinc-steel metal at 4V is 0.48 mm/yr. The classes of corrosion anode metal
define that at corrosion rate anode metal greater than 1.5 mm/yr, the corrosion rate of
anode metal is not satisfactory. For steel-platinum metal, steel metal having high
corrosion rate anode metal which at 3 V and 4V, where corrosion rate is 1.96 mm/yr
and 2.26 mm/yr.
 vi

ABSTRAK

Pada masa kini, kegagalan paip gas disebabkan aliran arus sesat
mengakibatkn kesan terhadap persekitaran dan terhadap ekonomi. Paip gas akan
mengalami kesan pengaratan akibat aliran arus sesat yang mengalir di dalam paip gas
dari sumber aliran arus sesat. Kajian ini dilakukan bagi mengkaji kadar pengaratan
terhadap variasi aliran arus sesat bagi pelbagai pasangan logam dan untuk melihat
kadar pengaratan berdasarkan susunan pasangan logam di dalam siri
keelektromotifan pada aliran tetap arus sesat. Pengaratan bagi logam anod
dikategorikan ke dalam kelasnya untuk melihat tahap pengaratan anod metal
berdasarkan kadar pengaratam. Kajian telah dilakukan menggunakan Kit Pengaratan.
Oleh demikian, beberapa pasangan logam telah dipilih (besi dan platinum, besi dan
besi, zink dan besi, kuprum dan besi, dan besi dan loyang) untuk melihat kadar
pengaratan terhadap variasi aliran arus sesat bagi pelbagai pasangan logam dan
untuk melihat kadar pengaratan berdasarkan susunan pasangan logam di dalam siri
keelektromotifan pada aliran tetap arus sesat. Kesemua pasangan logam diuji
berpandukan sel elektrolitik dimana pH elektrolit adalah 7. Kadar pengaratan
berkadar langsung terhadap variasi arus sesat yang dibekalkan. Dari 0 voltan (V)
hingga 4V, bagi pasangan besi-platinum, kadar pengaratan logam anod meningkat
dari 0.30 milimeter setahun (mm/yr) kepada 2.26 mm/yr, bagi kadar pengaratan
logam katod meningkat dari 0 mm/yr kepada 0.006 mm/yr. Pada kadar aliran arus
yang tetap, kadar pengaratan logam anod meningkat apabila jarak logam dalam siri
keelektromotifan meningkat di mana kadar pengaratan logam anod pasangan besi-
platinum pada 4V adalah 2.26 mm/yr tetapi bagi pasangan zink-besi pada 4V adalah
0.48 mm/yr. Kelas pengaratan logam anod mengkelaskan kadar pengaratan logam
anod lebih dari 1.5 mm/yr, logam anod tersebut tidak memuaskan. Bagi pasangan
besi-platinum, logam besi mengalami kadar pengaratan yang tinggi pada 3V dan 4V
di mana kadar pengaratannya adalah 1.96 mm/yr dan 2.26 mm/yr.
 vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES ix
LIST OF FIGURES x
LIS OF ABBREVIATIONS/SYMBOLS xii
LIST OF APPENDICES xiii

1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Problem Background 1
1.2 Objectives of the project 3
1.3 Scope of the Research 3

2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Corrosion Reaction 5
2.2 Types of Corrosion 11
2.2.1 Uniform Corrosion 11
2.2.2 Pitting Corrosion 13
2.2.3 Bimetallic Corrosion 15
2.2.4 Stray Current Corrosion 17
2.3 Types of Stray Current Corrosion 20
 viii

2.3.1 Direct Stray Current Corrosion 20

2.3.2 Alternating Stray Current Corrosion 23
2.3.3 Telluric Stray Current Corrosion 24
2.4 Controlling Stray Current Corrosion 25
2.5 Corrosion Rate of Metal 28

3 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Equipment Used 30
3.2 Electrode Material 30
3.3 Experimental Setup 31
3.4 Evaluation of Corrosion Rate 33

4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Effect Stray Current at Anode Metal 34
4.2 Effect Stray Current at Cathode Metal 36
4.3 Effect of Constant Stray Current to the Arrangement
of metal in Electrochemical Series 38
4.4 Classes of Corrosion Anode Metal 39

5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECCOMENDATION

5.1 Conclusions 42
5.2 Recommendation 42

REFERENCES 44

APPENDIX 46
 ix

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE

2.1 List of metals in electromotive series 9
2.2 Galvanic series 10
2.3 Materials failures in Japanese oil refineries 12
and petrochemical industry
4.1 Classes of corrosion rate anode metal 40
 x

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE

2.1 Diagrammatic galvanic cell 8

2.2 Electromotive series behavior 10
2.3 Uniform corrosion behavior 11
2.4 Situation uniform corrosion 12
2.5 Pitting corrosion 15

2.6 Bimetallic corrosion 16

2.7 Stray current electrolysis 19

2.8 Complex stray current exposures 22

2.9 Anodic interference 22

2.10 Cathodic interference 23

2.11 Combined cathodic and anodic interference 26

2.12 Use of drainage bond or electrical bonding to mitigate

stray current discharge from the pipeline 27

2.13 Principle cathodic shield prevent anode interfere to

other pipeline 27

2.14 Use of extra sacrificial anode to mitigate cathodic

interference 56

3.1 Corrosion kit 30

3.2 Pair of steel and platinum metal 31

3.3 Pair of steel and steel metal 32

3.4 Pair of zinc and steel metal 32

 xi

3.5 Pair of copper and steel metal 32

3.6 Pair of steel and brass metal 33

4.1 Corrosion rate of anode metal 35

4.2 Corrosion rate of cathode metal 37

4.3 Corrosion rate pair of metal due to arrangement in 38

electrochemical series
 xii

LIST OF SYMBOLS

emf - Electromotive force

Erev - Reversible potential
AC - Alternating current
DC - Direct current
M - Metal
n - Electron charge
e - Electron
Cu2+ - Copper ion
Fe3+ - Iron ion
I - Current in ampere, Amp
F - Faraday
Ib - Pound
V - Voltage
g - Weight losses, gram
cm2 - Surface area of metal, cm2
+ - Anode connection
- - Cathode connection
mm/yr - Millimeter per year
ipy - Inches per year
 xiii

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX TITLE PAGE

A No external voltage supply 0V 47

B External voltage supply at 2V 49

C External voltage supply at 3V 50

D External voltage supply at 4V 52

E Effect corrosion rate anode metal to the variation

external voltage 53

F Effect corrosion rate cathode metal to the variation

external voltage 53

G Corrosion rate pair of metal due to arrangement in

electrochemical series 54

H Potential voltage pair of metal based on electrochemical

series 55
xiv
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Problem Background

Corrosion is usually defined as the deterioration of a metal or its properties

caused by a reaction with its environment. Most metals occur naturally in the form of
oxides and are usually chemically stable. When exposed to oxygen and other
oxidizing agents, the refined metal will try to revert to its natural oxide state. In the
case of iron, the oxides will be in the form of ferrous or ferric oxide, commonly
known as rust. This situation will cause the loss of metal by conversion from element
state to chemically state. Metallic corrosion is caused by the flow of direct current
from one part of the metal surface to another. This flow of direct current causes the
loss of metal at the point where current discharges into the environment (oxidation or
anodic reaction).

Protection occurs at the point where current returns to the metal surface
(reduction or cathodic reaction). The corrosion process consists of an anodic and a
cathodic reaction. In the anodic reaction (oxidation) the metal is dissolved and
transferred to the solution as ions. The electrons released by the anodic reaction are
conducted through the metal to the cathodic area where they are consumed in the
cathodic reaction. A necessary condition for such a corrosion process is that the
environment is a conducting liquid (an electrolyte) that is in contact with the metal.
The electrical circuit is closed by ion conduction through the electrolyte. In
accordance with the conditions this dissolution process is called wet corrosion, and
 2

the mechanism is typically electrochemical. Corrosion is express and measure in

term of corrosion rate. Normally, there are three main methods that are used to
express the corrosion rate. The corrosion rate is express in term of thickness
reduction of the material in unit time, weight loss per unit area and time and
corrosion current density (Einar, 2003). The most related for this study is
determining the corrosion rate by measuring weight loss per unit are and time.

Stray currents are currents flowing in the electrolyte from external sources,
not directly associated with the cathodic protection system. Any metallic structure,
for example, a pipeline, buried in soil represents a low-resistance current path and is
therefore fundamentally vulnerable to the effects of stray currents. Stray current
tends to enter buried structure in a certain location and leave it in another. It is where
the current leaves the structure that severe corrosion can be expected. Corrosion
damage induced by stray current effects has also been referred to as electrolysis.
Electrolysis process is a production of chemical changes in the electrolyte by the
passage of current through an electrochemical cell. An electrochemical cell can either
drive an external electrical device (load) or be driven by it (power supply), depending
upon the relative electromotive forces applied by the cell and the device. The current
that flows through a cell will produce an electrochemical reaction that follows the
principles of electrochemical stoichiometry. The electromotive force (emf) of the cell
is then called its reversible potential (Erev). An electrochemical cell can be described
as galvanic, reversible, or electrolytic: A galvanic cell is a cell in which current
flows, power is produced, and the cell reaction is proceeding spontaneously. An
electrolytic cell is a cell in which current flows, power is consumed, and the cell
reaction being driven is the reverse of the spontaneous cell reaction. A reversible cell
is a cell in which no current flows. The cell reaction in a reversible cell is neither
spontaneous nor non spontaneous; it is called reversible because an infinitesimal
change in the cell potential can cause it to proceed in either direction. Electromotive
force series (emf series) is a list of elements arranged according to their standard
electrode potentials, with noble metals such as gold being positive and active metals
such as zinc being negative. For the study and understanding of stray current effects
it is important to bear in mind that current flow in a system will not only be restricted
to the lowest-resistance path but will be distributed between paths of varying
 3

resistance, as predicted by elementary circuit theory. Naturally, the current levels will
tend to be highest in the paths of least resistance (Roberge, 2000). Besides, for this
study the focus of the study in determines the rate of corrosion due to stray current is
based on electrolytic cell.

Literature and research supports the position that the steel in the gas pipelines
can and does carry electric current, often when the pipeline is within a high power
electric line easement, near an electric station or other source of high voltage Induced
AC current is not grounded adequately, the AC discharge on the pipeline can in the
long term, cause serious metal loss on the pipe wall and leaks. This problem has
become more acute due to the increased tendency to locate pipelines in utility
corridors near high-voltage electric transmission lines. The problem of stray current
and the harm it can cause to a dairy operation has been recognized in the courts. In
1999, a jury awarded a dairy farmer $700,000 after deciding stray current from an
automated feeding system slashed the herd's milk output and increased the death rate
among the Jersey cows (Smart et al, 1999).

1.2 Objective of the Project

Gas pipeline can severely affected by stray currents which travel onto a line
from nearby external sources. The objective of the study is to investigate the rate of
corrosion due to stray current.

1.3 Scope of the Research

The research will focus on the experimental process using SOLTEQ

Corrosion Study Kit. Below are the scopes:

i) To investigate corrosion rate under variety of external voltage (stray current)

between several pair of metals.
 4

ii) To investigate effect of constant external voltage (stray current) to the pair of
metals in electrochemical series.
iii) To investigate classes of corrosion rate of anode metal.
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

The effect of stray current to the pipeline will greatly affect the life span of
the gas pipeline. It may shorten the life period of the pipeline without notice.
Furthermore, this will lead to the severe danger to the surroundings if the pipeline
contains flammable substance. Besides it will give great effect to the economic
consequences. The stray currents represent a serious problem for each electric system
for transportation where the rails are the return conductor of traction circuit.
Especially for the traction systems, the stray currents create or accelerate the
electrolytic corrosion of metallic structures located in the proximity. In particular the
presence of structures in reinforced concrete requires a careful monitoring of the
scaffolds that in presence of stray currents can be damaged by corrosion phenomena
(Bertolini et al, 2006).

2.1 Corrosion Reaction

Corrosion specifically refers to any process involving the deterioration or

degradation of metal components. Corrosion may be defined as any reaction between
a metal and its environment which results in a transformation of the metallic to the
combined state. Nearly, all metals are inherently unstable and it is their tendency to
seek self destruction by reacting with their environment to attain a state of lower
energy by forming a metal compound. This is the state in which the majority of the
metals are found in nature as a mineral, a compound of the metal and a non metal.
 6

This is usually accomplished by a reduction process in which energy (either chemical

or electrical) is supplied to the mineral to generate the metallic state. In this process
the metal is pushed up the energy hill into instability. This instability will then
demand that the metal endeavors to return to the combined state as fast as its
environment will allow the haven where its energy is at a minimum. The result of
this reaction is the formation of corrosion product, which is frequently a substance of
very similar decomposition to the original mineral. The basic cause of the corrosion
of metals is their spontaneous tendency to return to their stable state. Except for
noble metals, gold, platinum and possibly silver which have inherent thermodynamic
stability in most environments, practically all metals have intrinsic tendency for
corrosion. An example of this cycle is behavior of iron (steel). Many iron ores
contain iron in oxidized form (oxides and carbonates) which are reduced by carbon
to metallic iron. In the presence of moisture content of the iron, so obtained, will then
oxidized to rust (corrosion product). If the rust is analyzed, it will be found to be an
iron oxide of similar composition to the mineral hematite, though it must be
emphasized that rust is a far more complex substance than Fe2O3 (Sheir, 1968).

Corrosion cell can be described by Figure 2.1. Figure 2.1 shows that
bimetallic galvanic cell. A pair of copper and iron in sodium chloride but it must be
stressed that two different metals are not essential for a corrosion cell to occur, where
corrosion can take place on the exposed surface of a single metal. The fact remains,
however, that the components of corrosion cells are similar to those of the cell now
to be described in which for ease of definition, the electrodes have been made
physically different. If a piece of clean, uncoated pure iron with a homogeneous
surface is immersed in a solution of sodium chloride in contact with oxygen the
corrosion reaction will be relative slow. Similarly, if a piece of clean, pure copper
with a homogeneous surface is placed in an adjacent location in the same solution
but so that the metals are not touching, the immediate corrosion reaction on the
copper will be very slow. If now the two metals are join together by an external
electrical path the corrosion rate of the iron will immediately increase by a very large
factor and corrosion on the copper will be stopped. If Figure 2.1 is consulted it will
be seen that the cell has several well defined component parts. Four of these are
important. The iron electrode which leads the conventional current into the cell. This
 7

is the anode and has a negative polarity and is the electrode at which oxidation of the
metal where corrosion takes place. The copper electrode which leads the
conventional current out of the cell. This is the cathode, which has a positive polarity
and is the electrode at which a process of reduction will occur, so that corrosion is
prevented. The saline solution in which both the anode and the cathode are bathed.
This is the electrolyte solution and is the vehicle which carries the internal current
flow in the cell. The external low resistance metallic path which carries the electronic
current which flows in the opposite sense to the conventional current. Corrosion
normally occurs at anodes, though there are certain exception to this rule. The
polarity may be positive or negative depending on the type of cell. Cells may be
either galvanic where current is generated by an electrochemical reaction or
electrolytic where an electrochemical reaction is made to take place by means of
external source of e.m.f. but irrespective of the polarity the electrode which leads the
electrons out of the cell into the external metallic circuit is the anode as shown in
Figure 2.1 and the electrode by which the electrons enter the cell is the cathode
(Rogers, 1968) .The chemical reaction occurs in Figure 2.1 are

Anode reaction:

Fe Fe2+ + 2e-

Cathode reaction:

1/2O2 + H2O + 2e- 4OH-

Figure 2.1 Diagrammatic galvanic cell

 8

Table 2.1 shows the list of metals in electromotive series and the standard
potential voltage of the metals. Normally this series is used for electrolytic cell. Such
measurements lead to the arrangement of redox (process oxidation and reduction)
couples into an electromotive force (emf) series which allows the prediction of
reaction spontaneity between species or the identification of possible oxidising and
reducing agents in order to determine the corrosion mechanisms (Bertolini, 1993).
Figure 2.3 shows the electromotive series behavior where the upper part is known as
anode due to its electronegativity than lower part as cathode. List of metals whose
order indicates the relative tendency to be oxidized, or to give up electrons. The list
also includes the gas hydrogen. The electromotive series begins with the metal most
easily oxidized, the metal with the greatest electron-donating tendency, and ends
with the metal least easily oxidized. The tendency to be oxidized is not an absolute
quantity; it can only be compared with the tendency of some other substance to be
oxidized. In practice, the tendency to be oxidized, called the oxidation potential and
expressed in volts, is measured relative to a standard hydrogen electrode, which is
arbitrarily assigned an oxidation potential of zero. The oxidation potential measures
the tendency of the half reaction M→M+n+ne− to occur, in which some metal M loses
n electrons, e−, and acquires a positive charge of +n. The more positive the oxidation
potential, the more readily oxidation takes place. The electromotive series is thus a
list of the metals in the order of their tendency to undergo the half reaction. The
series is also called the replacement series, since it indicates which metals replace, or
are replaced by, other metals (or hydrogen) in compounds. In general, a metal will
replace any other metal lower in the series and will be replaced by any metal higher
in the series. The order of some common metals in the electromotive series, starting
with the most easily oxidized, is: lithium, potassium, calcium, sodium, magnesium,
aluminum, zinc, chromium, iron, cobalt, nickel, lead, hydrogen, copper, mercury,
silver, platinum, and gold. A list arranged according to oxidation potential and
including not only metals but also all other elements and ions is called the
electrochemical series (Sheir, 1968).

Table 2.2 shows the galvanic series where the galvanic series is said
commonly used for galvanic cell where a metal nearer to cathodic end of the series
 9

will tend to receive protection and the metal nearer the anodic end will tend to suffer
corrosion. It must be stressed that any galvanic series though it may indicate the
tendency of the more anodic member of the couple to corrode more quickly in terms
of the probable e.m.f(electromotive force) of the corrosion cell formed.Since many
practical corrosion failures are associated with the coupling of metallic areas of
different potential with the consequent formation of a corrosion cell, it is often
thought that the corrosion intensity of a metallic couple might be estimated using
standard electrode potentials that known as electromotive series. Unfortunately this is
not possible. The standard electrode potentials are obtained from thermodynamics
data and although they may be used to predict the tendency of reactive metals to
corrode they cannot be used to predict the rate of corrosion or its location. It goes
same as galvanic series Neither (anode and cathode) can these value be used to
predict with exactitude which electrode couple of a couple will be anode or cathode
in electrolytes which differ from the standard conditions for electromotive series.
Galvanic series do not predict the rate at which attack will occur. This depends on
the current that flows in the cell (Rogers, 1968).

Table 2.1 List of metals in electromotive series

List of metals E° (volts)

-3.03
-2.92
-2.87
-2.71
-2.37
-1.66
-0.76
-0.44
-0.13
0
+0.34
+0.80
+1.50
 10

Figure 2.2 Electromotive series behavior

Table 2.2 Galvanic series

Platinum Cathodic
Gold
Graphite
Titanium
Silver
Stainless Steel
Nickel
Copper & its alloy
Tin
Lead
Cast iron
Steel or iron
Aluminum alloys
Steel or iron
Zinc
Magnesium alloys Anodic

2.2 Types of Corrosion

Generally, all corrosion is interrelated. However, it can take many forms.

Corrosion can be uniform or localized. It may also combine with other forms of
attack to produce even more undesirable effects.
 11

2.2.1 Uniform Corrosion

This is characterized by an even or equal distribution of corrosion that leaves

the surface clean or coated with corrosion products. In simple meaning uniform
corrosion is the attack of a metal at essentially the same at all exposed areas of its
surface. This even or equal distribution is due to the movement of the anodic and
cathodic sites on the metal’s surface. With uniform attack, fouling of the metal is
usually a bigger problem than failure. Uniform (or general) corrosion refers to the
relatively uniform reduction of thickness over the surface of a corroding material. It
is relatively easy to measure, predict and design against this type of corrosion
damage. Uniform corrosion is usually controlled by selecting suitable materials,
protective coatings, cathodic protection and corrosion inhibitors (Graver, 1985).
Figure 2.3 shows the uniform corrosion behavior where the thickness of the metals
reduces uniformly. While in Figure 2.4 shows the real picture of the uniform
corrosion for one of the port concrete.

Figure 2.3 Uniform corrosion behavior

Figure 2.4 Situation uniform corrosion

 12

Mechanism of uniform corrosion occurs when there are local anodic and
cathodic sites on the surface of the metal. Due to polarization effects, these locations
shift from time to time and a given area on a metal will be act as both an anode and
as a cathode over any extended period of time. The averaging effect of these shifting
local action cells results in a rather uniform attack and general loss of material and
roughening of the surface. Significant measures uniform corrosion is weight loss
approach. The most commonly used method of measuring the corrosion rate of
metals when uniform corrosion occurs. In this method, a test sample is cleaned,
weighed, and its surface area is measured. It is then exposed for a specific period of
time, re-cleaned and re-weighed. The amount of metal loss as measured by the
weight loss is used to calculate the loss in thickness of the metal assuming that the
corrosion was absolutely uniform. In some cases this is further verified by thickness
measurements. These results are commonly expressed in “Mils per Year” or
“Microns per Year.” It must be remembered that these rates are usually calculated
from weight loss rather than thickness loss and are only valid if the attack was
uniform. Table 2.3 shows materials failures in Japanese oil refineries and
petrochemical industry statistic of various type of corrosion. From that figure
uniform corrosion is assumed to be the most common form of corrosion and
particularly responsible for most of the material loss. Traditionally, however, it is not
recognized as a dangerous form of corrosion, because: of the prediction of thickness
reduction rate can be done by means of simple tests. Corresponding corrosion
allowance can be added, taking into account strength requirements and lifetime.
Besides, available protection methods are usually so efficient that the corrosion rate
is reduced to an acceptable level. Actual methods are application of coatings,
cathodic protection or possibly change of environment or material. By use of modern
materials with higher and more precisely defined strength, and higher cost, uniform
corrosion has required increased attention. This is so because the strength data
correspond to thinner and more accurately determined material thickness, and the
material cost makes a thinner corrosion allowance attractive (Einar, 2003).
 13

Table 2.3 Materials failures in Japanese oil refineries and

petrochemical industry

2.2.2 Pitting Corrosion

Pitting corrosion (sometimes only called pitting) occurs on more or less

passivated metals and alloys in environments containing chloride, bromide, iodide or
perchlorate ions when the electrode potential exceeds a critical value, the pitting
potential, which depends on various conditions. The pitting potential is not a
thermodynamically defined potential and depends for one thing upon the rate of
potential increase when the polarization curve is recorded. As in Figure 2.5 shows
pitting corrosion where the small hole form of corrosion is characterized by narrow
pits with a radius of the same order of magnitude as, or less than, the depth. The pits
may be of different shape, but a common feature is the sharp boundary. Pitting is a
dangerous form of corrosion since the material in many cases may be penetrated
without a clear warning (because the pits often are narrow and covered) and the pit
growth is difficult to predict. This is connected to the fact that the extent and the
intensity of pitting corrosion is difficult to measure because the number and size of
 14

pits (diameter and depth) vary from region to region and within each region. Short-
term testing in the laboratory for determination of pit growth is also problematic
because, under realistic conditions, it may take long time, such as many months,
before the pits become visible. Another problem is that the critical size, such as. The
maximum pit depth, increases with increasing surface area.

Factors of general significance for pitting are pH and chloride concentration.

The pitting potential and pitting resistance normally increase with increasing pH and
decreasing chloride concentration. Besides, it depends on flow velocity. When pitting
is initiated, an aggressive environment is established within the pit, and this is
combined with an increased pH at the adjacent free surface. The increased pH gives
an increased resistance to initiation of new pits around the first one formed. If there
is no movement of the liquid, these conditions will be conserved, and the result is
large and few pits. Liquid flow gives a higher probability for washing away the
aggressive environment in the pit, and at the same time it increases the transport of
oxygen to the active area, so that the pit may be passivated before it gets the chance
to grow to a considerable size. The alkaline layer around an active pit is also washed
away to a higher extent, and pit initiation in the neighbourhood of an active pit
occurs more easily. This means that increased flow velocity results in smaller but
more numerous pits, which makes pitting corrosion less serious. Next, the gravity
force. Horizontal top surfaces are often heavily pitted, while underside surfaces are
hardly, or not at all, attacked. Vertical surfaces are intermediate as to the extent of
pitting. The reason is that the aggressive environment in the pits has a higher density
than pure water. Cu2+ and Fe3+ ions favour pit initiation and accelerate pit growth
because they lead to increased potential (they are oxidizers).The Cu ions have a
double effect because Cu is precipitated on the material surface and forms efficient
cathodes. For metallurgical properties as a factor influence the pitting corrosion.
Impurities and inclusions are important such as AlFe secondary phase, which
contributes to the localization of pits on aluminium. It is because of the oxide film on
top of and around the inclusion is weak, thin and stressed and such inclusions are
efficient cathodes. Pitting of this type will usually last only until the pits are so large
that the inclusions are falling out. Next, is about the insulating ability of the oxide. If
the oxide insulates efficiently, the surface is inactive as a cathode. This is to a certain
 15

extent the case for aluminium in seawater; which is the direct reason for the relative
slow growth of pits in this case. For Surface roughness, the main trend is that smooth
surfaces get few, large pits while rough surfaces get numerous smaller pits. For
temperature factor, increasing temperature gives usually decreasing pitting potential
and increasing liability to pitting corrosion Lastly, galvanic contact with a more
noble material increases the tendency to and the rate of pitting corrosion (the
corrosion potential is lifted (Einar, 2003).

Figure 2.5 Pitting Corrosion

2.2.3 Bimetallic Corrosion

Bimetallic corrosion occurs when two metals, with different potentials, are in
electrical contact while immersed in an electrically conducting corrosive liquid.
Figure 2.6 shows the bimetallic corrosion process where the metals have different
natural potentials in the liquid, a current will flow from the anode (more
electronegative) metal to the cathode (more electropositive), which will increase the
corrosion on the anode. The effect of coupling the two metals together increases the
corrosion rate of the anode and reduces or even suppresses corrosion of the cathode.
This additional corrosion is bimetallic corrosion. It is also referred to as a galvanic
corrosion, dissimilar metal corrosion or contact corrosion. In general, the reactions
which occur are similar to those that would occur on single, uncoupled metal, but the
rate of attack is increased, sometimes dramatically. With some metal combinations
the change in the electrode potential in the couple potential can induce corrosion
 16

which would not have occured in the uncoupled state (like pitting corrosion). In
some environments the change in potential of the cathode in the couple can also
introduce problems such as hydrogen embrittlement. Hydrogen embrittlement is the
process by which various metals, most importantly high-strength steel, become
brittle and crack following exposure to hydrogen. The basic requirements necessary
to cause bimetallic corrosion are an electrolyte bridging the two metals which may
not always be aggressive to the individual metals when they are not coupled, and
may be in the form of a bulk volume of solution, a condensed film, or a damp solid
such as soil, salt deposits, or corrosion products. Besides, electrical connection
between the metals, this usually involves direct physical contact but it can also arise
where electrical continuity is established between two metals, for example, by an
insulation-coated conductor, by structural metal work or electrical earthing. It is not
necessary for the metal junction to be immersed in the electrolyte. Furthermore, a
sufficient difference in potential between the two metals to provide a significant
galvanic current (Rogers, 1968).

Figure 2.6 Bimetallic corrosion

2.2.4 Stray Current

Stray currents are currents flowing in the electrolyte from external sources.
Any metallic structure, for example a pipe line, buried in soil represents a low
resistance current path and is therefore fundamentally vulnerable to the effects of
stray currents. Stray current tends to enter a buried structure in a certain location and
 17

leave it in another. It is where the current leaves the structure that severe corrosion
expected. Overprotection might also occur at a location where the high current
densities of stray current enter a structure. There are a number of source of
undesirable stray currents, including foreign cathodic protection installations, dc
transit systems such as electrified railways, subway systems, and streetcars, welding
operations, and electrical power transmission systems.

If an electric current flowing along a metallic conductor leaves the metal for a
water path it will cause ionization of the metal and an area of rapid corrosion (area of
high anodic potential will occur). In ships the most common cause of stray current is
the use of hull as an earth. This procedure is unobjectionable only as long as the
return current does not flow wholly or in part along a sea water path. For example, if
a return current flowing along a piping system carrying sea water meets some
electrical resistance which it jumps by flowing through the sea water a perforation of
the pipe wall can confidently be expected. The phenomenon is most likely to arise if
the supply is direct current but as most alternating current contains some direct
current component. One of the most frequent causes of stray current is welding
machines incorrectly earthed when used on ships alongside jetties, especially if two
ships welded from the same generator set. Corrosion by stray currents is usually
related directly to Faraday’s Law. If current(I) amps passes, the amount of corrosion
suffered will be I/F gram-equivalents per second, the Faraday (F) is 96500 coulombs
per gram equivalent, thus 1 ampere flowing for one year will corrode approximately
20Ib of iron, 22Ib of copper or 75Ib of lead (Graver, 1985).

Cathodic protection was an offshoot of the studies on interference corrosion

caused by the many electric railways and trolley lines which spread over the United
States in the early part of this century. The direct current discharged into the ground
caused many failures of nearby piping systems. Some of the electrical currents which
corrode pipe lines are those which arise from galvanic potential differences between
various parts of the structure in contact with the earth. Others, however, are the result
of the leakage of current from some electrical system so that part of the current path
is through the earth. Whenever a pipe line lies within such as current path, there is an
opportunity for current to enter and leave the line; at the points where it leaves, it will
 18

corrode the pipe. Because of the inherently accidental or unintentional nature of such
currents, they are usually known as stray currents, and the damage they do is known
as stray-current electrolysis. By far the greatest source of stray current is the electric
railway, or its urban counterpart, the street car (Einar, 2003).

Figure 2.7 shows stray current electrolysis, return current from streetcar
divides, part going back to substation along rails, and part leaking off rails onto
pipeline. Near the substation this current flows from the pipe line through the soil to
the rail system, causing corrosion of the pipe. Installation of a metallic bond from the
pipe to the negative bus at the substation will avert the damage in simplified form the
route taken by the current. It should be noted that the rail is supposed to provide the
return path; it might be assumed that, if the rail joints were adequately bonded, no
trouble would result. This, however, is not true. The electric current does not follow
the path of least resistance. At least it does not all follow that path. Electric current,
when offered two or more parallel paths, divides itself between them inversely as the
resistance. If the rail path has one-tenth the resistance of the earth path, then it will
carry 10 times as much current but the remaining portion, the one eleventh of the
total current which flows through the earth, is sufficient to do a great deal of damage.
The situation is not always as simple as that shown in the diagram. Sometimes the
affected line may lie at a considerable distance from the tracks; perhaps the point of
attack is near the crossing of two lines where some current leaves one line and enters
the other. Figure 2.8 shows a complex stray current exposure, the point at which
damage occurs to pipe line "A" is remote from the offending street railway tracks.
Such a condition may be detected by fluctuating potentials or currents in pipe line
"A" and located by a line current survey. a case which proved to be very difficult to
detect, in view of the distance from the nearest track to the point of damage; yet the
relation is clear, once it has been traced out and diagrammed. There are other
possible sources of stray current in addition to electric railways. Almost any DC
power network is capable of causing damage in this way, although most of them are
innocent. Mine railways, cranes, and other machinery using DC should be suspected.
Frequently, there are severe exposures in and near chemical plants using electrolytic
processes. Welding equipment, particularly when employed in production work, is a
common source of trouble, although rarely is the damage done at any great distance
 19

from the equipment; this makes it much easier to locate. Finally, it is unfortunately
true that the direct currents introduced deliberately into the earth for the purpose of
applying cathodic protection to one structure, are capable of doing great damage to
other structures which occupy the same earth. This is not strictly stray current; the
damaging effect is altogether accidental, but the presence of the current in the earth is
not accidental (Marshal, 1954).

Figure 2.7 Stray current electrolysis

Figure 2.8 Complex stray-current exposures.

2.3 Types of Stray Current

There are a number of sources of undesirable stray currents, including foreign

cathodic protection installations, dc transit systems such as electrified railways,
subway systems, and streetcars, welding operations, and electrical power
 20

transmission systems. Stray currents can be classified into three categories. There are
direct stray current corrosion, alternating stray current corrosion and telluric stray
current corrosion. Stray current control is essential in direct current (DC) mass transit
system where the rail insulation is not sufficient quality to prevent corrosion risk to
the rails, supporting and third party infrastructure. For a transit system place above
ground, the primary corrosion is again to the rail and the fixings as well as to any
nearby utility cables and pipes (Cotton et al, 2005). Effects of stray current on the
corrosion behavior of steel in concrete have been studied, with regards to both
corrosion initiation and propagation. Results showed that DC current can induce
corrosion initiation on the reinforcement in the anodic zone only after it has
circulated for a certain time, which depends on the anodic current density, the
presence of chloride in the concrete and interruptions in the current. AC current
proved to be much less dangerous than DC, although it can influence the corrosion
rate of steel in chloride-contaminated concrete and stimulate macrocouples
(Bertolini, 2006).

2.3.1 Direct Stray Current Corrosion

Typically, direct stray currents come from cathodic protection systems, transit
systems, and dc high-voltage transmission lines. A distinction can be made between
anodic interference, cathodic interference, and combined interference. Anodic
interference is found in relatively close proximity to a buried anode, under the
influence of potential gradients surrounding the anode. Figure 2.9 shows a pipeline
will pick up current close to the anode. This current will be discharged at a distance
farther away from the anode. In the current pickup region, the potential of the
pipeline subject to the stray current will shift in the negative direction in essence it
receives a boost of cathodic protection current locally. This local current boost will
not necessarily be beneficial, because a state of overprotection could be created.
Furthermore, the excess of alkaline species generated can be harmful to aluminium
and lead alloys. Conversely, in areas where the stray current is discharged, its
potential will rise to more positive values. It is in the areas of current discharge that
anodic dissolution is the most severe. Cathodic interference is produced in relatively
 21

close proximity to a polarized cathode. Figure 2.10 shows the current will flow away
from the structure in the region in close proximity to the cathode. The potential will
shift in the positive direction where current leaves this structure and this area
represents the highest corrosion damage risk. Current will flow onto the structure
over a larger area, at further distances from the cathode, again with possible
damaging over protection effects. An example of the combined anodic and cathodic
interference. In Figure 2.11 shows current pickup occurs close to an anode, and
current discharge occurs close to a cathodically polarized structure. The degree of
damage of the combined stray current effects is greater than in the case of anodic or
cathodic interference acting alone. The effects are most pronounced if the current
pickup and discharge areas are in close proximity. Correspondingly, the damage in
both the current pickup (overprotection effects) and discharge regions (corrosion)
will be greater (Roberge, 2000). In the case of DC, a cathodic reaction example
oxygen reduction or hydrogen evolution takes place where the current enters the
buried structure, while an anodic reaction (e.g., metal dissolution) occurs where the
current returns to the original path, through the soil. Metal loss results at the anodic
points, where the current leaves the structure; usually, the attack is extremely
localised and can have dramatic consequences especially on pipelines (Bertolini et
al, 2006).

Figure 2.9 Anodic interference

 22

Figure 2.10 Cathodic interference

Figure 2.11 Combined cathodic and anodic interference

2.3.2 Alternating Stray Current Corrosion

There is an increasing trend for pipelines and overhead power lines to use the
same right of way. Alternating stray current effects arise from the proximity of
buried structures to high-voltage overhead power transmission lines. There are two
dominant mechanisms by which these stray currents can be produced in buried
 23

pipelines: electromagnetic induction and transmission line faults. In the

electromagnetic coupling mechanism, a voltage is induced in a buried structure under
the influence of the alternating electromagnetic field surrounding the overhead
transmission line. This effect is similar to the coupling in a transformer, with the
overhead transmission line acting as the primary transformer coil and the buried
structure acting as the secondary coil. The magnitude of the induced voltage depends
on factors such as the separation distance from the power line, the relative position of
the structure to the power lines, the proximity to other buried structures, and the
coating quality. Such induced voltages can be hazardous to anyone who comes in
contact with the pipeline or its accessories. The second mechanism is one of resistive
coupling, whereby ac currents are directly transmitted to earth during transmission
line faults. Causes of such faults include grounding of an overhead conductor,
lightning strikes, and major load imbalances in the conductors. Usually such faults
are of very short duration, but due to the high currents involved, substantial physical
damage to coated structures is possible. Ancillary equipment such as motorized
valves, sensors, and cathodic protection stations could also be damaged. These faults
represent a major threat to human and animal life, even if no contact is made with the
pipeline (Roberge, 2000). Effects of stray AC currents are more complex; AC can
influence the anodic behaviour of steel and thus may increase the corrosion rate of
steel, as well as galvanic effects. Nevertheless, steel in soil is usually under cathodic
protection and it was shown that stray AC current can induce corrosion only in those
particular circumstances where very high currents are picked up by the buried
structure, so that the current density in the points where the current enters and leaves
the structure is extremely high. A threshold ranging between 20 and 100A/m2 has
been proposed (Bertolini, 2006).

2.3.3 Telluric Stray Current Corrosion

These stray currents are induced by transient geomagnetic activity. The

potential and current distribution of buried structures can be influenced by such
disturbances in the earth’s magnetic field. Such effects, often assumed to be of
greatest significance in closer proximity to the poles, have been observed to be most
 24

intense during periods of intensified sun spot activity. In general, harmful influences
on structures are of limited duration and do not remain highly localized to specific
current pickup and discharge areas. Major corrosion problems as a direct result of
telluric effects are therefore relatively rare. The geomagnetic field varies with time,
generating electric fields and currents in power transmission systems and pipelines
(oil, gas, water). Geomagnetically induced currents (GIC) and their effects on
technological systems have previously been studied at high latitudes where the
effects of geomagnetic disturbances can be large. There have been few reports of
GIC effects in pipelines at low latitudes. Australia has the majority of its population
distributed along the coastal regions. Pipelines are essential for transporting
resources to these centres. Enertrade is responsible for the gas pipeline in north
Queensland which runs from Townsville, south east to Moranbah which is located
south west of Mackay.

The pipeline has a cathode protection system that maintains the pipe to soil
voltage in order to inhibit corrosion. Pipeline voltage measurements have been
compared with the magnetometer data located at Townsville. In this study the
pipeline data were provided at a sample interval of 60sec. Two data intervals are
presented. The first is for geomagnetic quiet conditions while the second is for data
recorded during a geomagnetic disturbed interval. Following a similar approach to
high latitude data, found a moderate correlation between the time varying magnetic
field and the pipeline voltage (correlation coefficient ~0.4). However, that there is a
diurnal variation in the pipeline voltage data which is in phase with the
magnetometer signature of the Sq currents that are routinely detected at low latitudes.
The Australian Standard AS2885.1-1997 Section 5.6.5.3 states that the potential of
structures subject to telluric variations shall not be less negative than -0.85 volts for
more than 10% of the test period and the average potential over the test period must
be more negative than -0.85 volts. Electromagnetic coupling between currents in
space (the ionosphere) and pipelines cause currents and associated voltages in the
pipeline. Estimating the relationship between the space currents and pipeline voltage
variations can be divided in to two parts. Determining the geo electric field at the
surface of the earth and computing the associated currents and voltages using Ohm
and Kirchhoff Laws in the pipeline (Waters, 2006).
 25

2.4 Controlling Stray Current

Stray current need to be control in a way to prevent the pipeline or others

metal instrument being corroded. Way to control stray current is by removing the
stray current source. But this method is not preferable or significant because the
needs of the source to evaluate other material such as cathodic protection as the
source of the stray current. Indeed the cathodic protection is use to protect the target
pipeline. By removing the cathodic protection it may danger the protected pipeline.
Using electrical bonding is the establishment of an electrical connection between the
interfering and interfered-with structure is a common remedial measures. Figure 2.9
shows how the interference problem presented in Figure 2.12is mitigated by an
electrical bond created between the two structures a variable resistance may be used
in the bonded connection. Also-called forced drainage bond imposes an additional
external potential on the bond to assist stray current drainage through the bond
(Roberge, 2000).

Figure 2.12 Use of drainage bond or electrical bonding to mitigate stray

current discharge from the pipeline.

In cathodic shielding the aim is to minimize the amount of stray current

reaching the structure at risk. A metallic barrier (or “shield”) that is polarized
cathodically is positioned in the path of the stray current as shown in Figure 2.13.
The shield represents a low-resistance preferred path for the stray current, thereby
minimizing the flow of stray current onto the interfered-with structure. If the shield is
connected to the negative terminal of the power supply of the interfering structure, its
 26

effects on the protection levels of the interfering structure have to be considered;

these will obviously be reduced for a given rectifier output.

Figure 2.13 Principle cathodic shield prevent anode interfere to other

pipeline.

Sacrificial anodes can be installed at the current discharge areas of interfered-

with structures to mitigate stray current corrosion. This mitigation method is most
applicable to relatively low levels of stray currents. As shown in Figure 2.14 the
current is discharged from these anodes rather than from the structure at risk. The
importance of placing the anodes close to the interfering structure is apparent: to
minimize the resistance to current flowing from the anodes. The galvanically less
noble anodes will generate a cathodic protection current, thereby compensating for
small amounts of residual stray currents that continue to be discharged from the
interfered-with structure (Roberge, 2000).

Figure 2.14 Use of extra sacrificial anode to mitigate cathodic interference

 27

AC induced stray current effects can be reduced by locating buried structures

sufficiently far away from power lines. Non metallic pipeline construction materials
such as high-density polyethylene can be used in some cases, where operating
pressures are low. The highest potential shifts occur on metallic structures that have
high-integrity coatings. With high-quality coatings, grounding of the pipeline is
clearly limited. Obviously, it is generally not desirable to sacrifice coating quality to
reduce the magnitude of these effects. A similar reduction of the induced potential
shifts can be achieved with distributed sacrificial anodes attached to the structure.
These anodes provide cathodic protection current and reduce the resistance to
ground, which is fundamentally desirable to minimizing the AC-induced voltage
shifts. The use of such anodes will also tend to mitigate the influence of telluric
effects (Sheir, 1968).

2.5 Corrosion rate of metal

There are many ways of recording the extent or progress of corrosion. There
are however, two ways in which the corrosion behaviour of a metal can be evaluated
so that the results may be meaningful for corrosion controls studies, although,
unfortunately, both methods suffer from lack of precision. One approach is to
measure the change in weight of a test specimen with time. If specimens are weighed
while free corroding the change in weight can be either a gain or a loss depending on
the adherence or otherwise corrosion product. In the presence of films or scales
quantitative estimation of the metal lost is difficult, owing to variations in the
chemical compositions of the residues and the possibility that the corrosion
production are mixtures of several compounds, with a degree of hydration depending
on the conditions. For these reasons it is much more be accurate to determine the
amount of the metal removed by the corrosion reaction by weighing what is left of
the specimen the removal of all the adherent corrosion products. The results are then
expressed as weight loss (milligrams) per surface area (square decimetres) per
standard time (day of 24 hours), usually written as mdd. The second approach which
indicated corrosion measurement in which the attack is indicated on some scale
which relates depth of attack to time, for example inches per year and mils per year.
In general, the rate of corrosion can be calculated using Equation (2.1)
 28

Corrosion rate = Average initial weight metal – average final weight metal (2.1)
Day between inspections

Where,

Corrosion rate = weight loss/surface area and time (g/cm2.day)

Average weight metal = weight loss/surface area (g/ cm2)

Day between inspections = period of inspection (day)

 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Equipment Used

Corrosion study kit as shown in Figure 3.1 is the best way to investigate the
corrosion rate due to effect of stray current. This equipment used by numerous of
people to evaluate corrosion behavior. The weight loss of the metal due to stray
current corrosion is evaluated.

Figure 3.1 Corrosion kit

3.2 Electrode Materials

There are five set of electrodes being used for this experiment. The first set is
between steel and platinum. The second set is between steel and steel. The third set is
between zinc and copper. The fourth set is between copper and steel. The last set is
 30

between steel and brass. This all 5 set applied on different parameters relatively
based on the scope stated.

3.3 Experimental Setup

This experiment is tested for different pair of metal regarding to the define
scope. The positive sign shows where the red wire shall be connected while the
negative sign shows where the black wire shall be connected Figure 3.2 shows the
pair of metal where steel as anode platinum as cathode. For Figure 3.3 where steel is
anode while another same type of steel is cathode. While Figure 3.4 where zinc is
anode while steel is cathode. Figure 3.5 where copper is anode while steel is cathode.
Lastly, Figure 3.6 where steel is anode while brass is cathode.

Figure 3.2 Pair of metal steel and platinum

 31

Figure 3.3 Pair of metal steel and steel

Figure 3.4 Pair of metal zinc and steel

 32

Figure 3.5 Pair of metal copper and steel

Figure 3.6 Pair of metal steel and brass

3.4 Evaluation of Corrosion Rate

From all data obtain, the rate of corrosion of stray current is calculated using
weight loss of the steel by taking the average reading for 3 days. From Equation
(2.1), then

Average initial weight = First day + second day + third day reading (3.1)
Three days

Average final weight = First day + second day + third day reading (3.2)
Three days
 CHAPTER 4

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Effect of External Voltage (Stray Current) at Anode Metal

The effect of external voltage at anode metal in the electrolytic corrosion

normally induces largest affect of corrosion. Stray currents are currents flowing in
the electrolyte from external sources, not directly associated with the cathodic
protection system. Any metallic structure, for example, a gas pipeline, buried in soil
represents a low-resistance current path and is therefore fundamentally vulnerable to
the effects of stray currents. To measure metal corrosion it is necessary to make
direct physical contact with the specimen or component acting as the working
electrode (Andrade et al, 2008) .Corrosion is express and measure in term of
corrosion rate of millimeter per year (mm/yr). The metal loss of anode metal will be
rapidly increased as the stray voltage increased that surely increased the corrosion
rate.

By referring to Figure 4.1, there are five pairs of metal used which are steel-
platinum, steel-steel, zinc-steel, copper-steel, and copper-brass. The arrangement is
anode-cathode. There are four corrosion rate measured based on variation of voltage.
The voltage used is 0V, 2V, 3V, and 4V. The area of the metals are used are
approximately 10 cm2 except platinum metal which is 1.26 cm2.The corrosion rate is
measured with difference pair of metal and variation of external voltage.
 34

1.5
Corrosion Rate (mm/yr)

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Voltage (V)
Steel-Steel Zinc - Steel Copper - Steel Copper - Brass

Figure 4.1 Corrosion rate of anode metal

Corrosion rate anode metal (mm/yr) is proportionally to the external voltage

supply. The trends of the results are polynomial. As mentioned before, oxidation
reaction will happen in anode metal and where the corrosion happens here. The
highest the external voltage, the highest will be the corrosion rate of anode metal.
Steel-platinum metal has the highest corrosion rate. At 4V, the corrosion rate of
steel-platinum at anode metal is 2.26 mm/yr follow by copper-copper 1.2 mm/yr,
copper-brass 0.94 mm/yr, copper-steel 0.58 mm/yr, and zinc-steel 0.4 8mm/yr. It is
due to the potential difference between the pair of metal. Steel-platinum metal has
the highest potential difference +0.75V, follow by copper-copper 0V, copper-brass -
0.01V, copper-steel -0.11V and zinc-steel -1.21V. When the stray voltage is supply,
it adds more voltage to the potential difference and hence increases the corrosion rate
anode metal. Before the stray current is picked up by the reinforcement such as gas
pipeline a significant potential difference has to be produced between the point
 35

where the current enters the reinforcement such as underground pipeline system at
cathodic site and the point where the current returns to the concrete back at anodic
site (Hernándeza et al, 2008). The driving force required to produce the circulation of
an appreciable current density in the anodic area greater than 2mA/m2 is at least
500mV (Bertolini et al, 1993).

The relationship between corrosion rate of anode and voltage supplied is not
linear where the relationship between discharge current and anode consumption rate
is not of the simple linear variety; the consumption rate can increase by a higher
percentage for a certain percentage increase in current (Roberge, 2003).

4.2 Effect of External Voltage (Stray Current) at Cathode Metal

Figure 4.2 shows there are five pairs of metal used which are steel-platinum,
steel-steel, zinc-steel, copper-steel, and copper-brass. The arrangement is anode-
cathode. There are four corrosion rate measured based on variation of voltage. The
voltage used is 0V, 2V, 3V, and 4V. The areas of metals used are approximately 10
cm2 except platinum metal which is 1.26 cm2.The corrosion rate is measured with
difference pair of metal and variation of external voltage.

Corrosion rate cathode metal (mm/yr) is proportionally to the external voltage

supply. The trends of the result are polynomial. Basically, cathode will be protected
which mean will be having less corrosion due to cathodic reaction. The highest the
external voltage, the highest will be the corrosion rate. The zinc-steel has the highest
corrosion rate. At 4V, the corrosion cathode rate of zinc-steel is 0.28 mm/yr follow
copper-steel 0.23 mm/yr, copper-brass 0.19 mm/yr, steel-steel 0.01 mm/yr and steel-
platinum 0.006 mm/yr. It is due to the potential difference between the pair of metal.
Steel-platinum metal has the highest potential difference +0.75V, follow by copper-
copper 0V, copper-brass -0.01V, copper-steel -0.11V and zinc-steel -1.21V. For
zinc-steel metal, steel as the cathode has the highest corrosion cathode because of the
pair of metal has the negative potential difference and the ability for the anode metal
 36

to protect cathode become less. Detection of stray current interactions is usually

carried out on the basis of potential measurements. The structure potential value and
its variability are adopted as criteria of the electrolytic corrosion hazard (Darowicki
and Zakowski, 2003).

For each specific anodic reaction a characteristic number of electrons are

produced in the reaction of one metal ion. Thus, all other things being equal, the
metal loss is proportional to the number of electrons that are produced. As the
electrons produced migrate to cathodic areas through the electron path, the metal loss
is proportional to the current flow. In cases where more positively charged ions are
produced, more electrons flow for a given number of corroding metal atoms but the
current flow remains proportional to the metal loss (Rogers, 1968).

0.3

0.25

0.2
Corrosion Rate (mm/yr)

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
-0.05

Voltage (V)

Steel-Platinum Steel-Steel Zinc - Steel

Copper - Steel Copper - Brass

Figure 4.2 Corrosion rate of cathode metal

 37

4.3 Effect of Constant External Voltage (Stray Current) to the Arrangement

of metal in Electrochemical Series

The electrochemical series is built up by arranging various redox (reduction

and oxidation process) equilibrium in order of their standard electrode potentials.
The most negative electrode potential values are placed at the top of the
electrochemical series, and the most positive at the bottom. The electromotive series
begins with the metal most easily oxidized, the metal with the greatest electron-
donating tendency, and ends with the metal least easily oxidized. The tendency to be
oxidized is not an absolute quantity; it can only be compared with the tendency of
some other substance to be oxidized. The electromotive series is thus a list of the
metals in the order of their tendency to undergo the half reaction. The overall
electrochemical cell reaction can be written as two half-equations, one equation for
the reduction reaction and one equation for the oxidation reaction.

2.26

2.01
Corrosion Rate (mm/yr)

1.51

1.01

0.48
0.51

0.01
Steel Anode Platinum Cathode Zinc Anode Steel Cathode

Figure 4.3 Corrosion rate pair of metal due to arrangement in electrochemical

series
 38

Figure 4.3 shows the rate of corrosion of the pair of metal with supply
constant external voltage at 4V due to arrangement in electrochemical series. The
pair of steel-platinum metal gives the highest corrosion rate at anode metal (2.26
mm/yr) than the pair of zinc-steel metal (0.48 mm/yr). This is because of the distance
between the pair of metal in electrochemical series. Besides, the potential difference
pair of steel-platinum is +0.75v while the zinc-steel is -1.21V.The pair of zinc-steel
metal need supply of 1.21V for electrolytic reaction to happen. The larger the
distance in electrochemical series, the cathode metal will be more protective and
anode metal will be more corrosive. In electrochemical series, the top of the series
easily oxidized, and the bottom part easily reduced (Roberge, 2000).The results can
be apply in real case where the stray current flow exit the metal (anode part) where
corrosion happen badly if the metal at the top of the electrochemical series which
easy to oxidized.

4.3 Classes of Corrosion of Anode Metal

The National Bureau of Standards in the USA has investigated corrosion of

various materials in a large number of environments (Fontana and Greene, 1986).
For corrosion rate below than 0.005 inches per year (ipy) or equivalent to 0.15
millimeter per year (mm/y).Metals in this category have good corrosion resistance
and can be used for critical parts. Besides, corrosion rate between 0.005 to 0.05 ipy
(0.15 mm/y to 1.5 mm/y) .Metals in this group are satisfactory if a higher rate of
corrosion can be tolerated. For corrosion rate greater than 0.05 ipy (1.5 mm/y)
usually not satisfactory for good resistance (Kabir, 2008). These findings can be
related to the stray current phenomena where the current leave the metal (anode part),
corrosion will occur. At good corrosion anode metal means that the anode metal is
having low corrosion rate as the external voltage is increasingly supply while at not
satisfactory corrosion anode metal the anode metal is having high corrosion rate as
the external voltage is increasingly supply.
 39

Table 4.1 Classes of corrosion rate anode metal

Pair of Metal External Voltage (Volt)

2 3 4
Steel - Platinum Satisfactory Not Not satisfactory corrosion
corrosion satisfactory anode metal
anode metal corrosion
anode metal
Steel - Steel Satisfactory Satisfactory Satisfactory corrosion anode
metal
corrosion corrosion
anode metal anode metal
Zinc - Steel Good Good Satisfactory corrosion anode
metal
corrosion corrosion
anode metal anode metal
Copper - Steel Good Satisfactory Satisfactory corrosion anode
corrosion metal
corrosion
anode metal
anode metal

Copper - Brass Good Satisfactory Satisfactory corrosion anode

corrosion corrosion metal
anode metal anode metal

Table 4.1 shows the classes of corrosion for pair of steel-platinum, steel-steel,
zinc-steel, copper-steel, and copper-brass metal. For anode steel in steel-platinum
metal, at 2V it has satisfactory corrosion anode metal but for 3V and 4V have not
satisfactory corrosion anode metal where the corrosion rate at anode very high. For
anode steel in steel-steel metal, at 2V, 3V and 4V it has moderate corrosion anode
metal. For anode zinc in zinc-steel metal, at 2V and 3V it has good corrosion anode
metal but 4V it has moderate corrosion anode metal. For anode copper in copper-
steel metal, at 2V and 3V it has good corrosion anode metal but for 4V it has
moderate corrosion anode metal. For anode copper in copper-brass, at 2V it has good
corrosion anode metal but 3V and 4V it has moderate corrosion anode metal. Those
classes of corrosion anode metal can be related to the effect of stray current enter the
metal where the protection happen (cathode part) but where the part the current exits
the metal (anode part) where corrosion will occur.
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND RECCOMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion

As conclusion, the corrosion rate is proportionally to the external voltage

(stray current) supply. From 0V to 4V, pair of steel-platinum metal, the corrosion
anode metal is increasing from 0.30 mm/yr to 2.26 mm/yr while corrosion rate of
cathode metal is increasing from 0 mm/yr to 0.006 mm/yr.

At constant stray current supply, the corrosion rate at anode metal is

increasing as the distance between metals in electrochemical series increase where
corrosion rate of anode metal pair of steel-platinum metal at 4V is 2.26 mm/yr but
for pair of zinc-steel metal at 4V is 0.48 mm/yr.

The classes of corrosion anode metal define that at corrosion rate anode metal
greater than 1.5 mm/yr, the corrosion rate of anode metal is not satisfactory. For
steel-platinum metal, steel metal having high corrosion rate anode metal which at 3
V and 4V, the corrosion rate is 1.96 mm/yr and 2.26 mm/yr.

5.2 Recommendation

Further research shall be made for this research on different parameters such
as effect of pH electrolyte to the corrosion rate of stray current and the prevention of
 41

stray current phenomena. These parameters affect the corrosion rate investigation
due to stray current.
 REFERENCES

Andrade, C., Martinez, F., and Castellote, M. (2008). Feasibility of Determining

Corrosion Rates by Means of Stray Current-Induced Polarization. Journal
Application Electrochemical.

Bertolini Luca, Maddalena Carsana, and Pedeferri Pietro (2006). Corrosion

Behaviour of Steel In Concrete In The Presence Of Stray Current. Corrosion
Science 49 (2007) 1056–1068.

Bertolini, L., Bolzoni, F., Pastore, and T., Pedeferri, P. (1993). Stray Current Induced
Corrosion in Reinforced Concrete Structures. Institute of Materials, London.

Cotton, Member, IEEE, Charalambos Charalambous, Pete Aylott, and Petra Ernst
(2005). Stray Current Control in DC Mass Transit Systems. IEEE Transactions
On Vehicular Technology,Vol.54,No.2,March 2005.

Darowicki, K., and Zakowski, K. (2003). A New Time–Frequency Detection Method

of Stray Current Field Interference on Metal Structures. Department of
Anticorrosion Technology, Chemical Faculty, Gdansk University of Technology

Einar Bardal (2003). Corrosion and Protection. Springer.

Fontana, M. G., and Greene, N. D. (1986). Corrosion Engineering. McGraw-Hill.

 43

Gaillard-Allemand, B., Littner*, A., Podor, R., and Rapin, C. (2003).

Characterisation of Molten Glass Corrosion Behaviour by Use of
Electrochemical Techniques. Journal Corrosion Science and Engineering,
Volume 6 Paper HD24.

Graver, D.L. (1985). Corrosion Data Survey-Metals Section. NACE International,

Houston.

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Technology.

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Publishing Company.

Roberge, P. R. (2000). Handbook of Corrosion Engineering. McGraw-Hill.

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Waters, C.L. (2006). Telluric Currents. Space Physics Group Newcastle Australia.
 APPENDIX

Table A No External Voltage Supply 0V

Densit
y
Sample (Steel- Initial Final Weight Corrosion (g/cm3 Corrosion Rate Corrosion
Platinum) weight(g) weight(g) loss(g) Rate(g/day) Area(cm2) ) (mm/d) Rate (mm/y)
Steel (anode) 22.809 22.611 0.198 0.066 10 7.86 0.000839695 0.30648855
Platinum (cathode) 3.553 3.553 0 0 1.26 21.45 0 0

Densit
y
Initial Final Weight Corrosion (g/cm3 Corrosion Rate Corrosion
Sample (Zinc-Zinc) weight(g) weight(g) loss(g) Rate(g/day) Area(cm2) ) (mm/d) Rate (mm/y)
0.07333333
Zinc(Anode) 26.112 25.892 0.22 3 10 7.86 0.000932994 0.340542833
0.00066666
Zinc (cathode) 26.12 26.118 0.002 7 10 7.86 8.48176E-06 0.003095844
 Densit
y
Initial Final Weight Corrosion (g/cm3 Corrosion Rate Corrosion
Sample (Zinc-Steel) weight(g) weight(g) loss(g) Rate(g/day) Area(cm2) ) (mm/d) Rate (mm/y)
0.00166666
Zinc (anode) 23.87 23.865 0.005 7 10 7.15 2.331E-05 0.008508159
Steel (cathode) 22.742 22.739 0.003 0.001 10 7.86 1.27226E-05 0.004643766

Densit
y
Sample (Copper- Initial Final Weight Corrosion (g/cm3 Corrosion Rate Corrosion
Steel) weight(g) weight(g) loss(g) Rate(g/day) Area(cm2) ) (mm/d) Rate (mm/y)
0.00433333
Copper (anode) 26.113 26.1 0.013 3 10 8.96 4.83631E-05 0.01765253
Steel (cathode) 23.008 23.005 0.003 0.001 10 7.86 1.27226E-05 0.004643766

Densit
y
Sample (Copper- Initial Final Weight Corrosion (g/cm3 Corrosion Rate Corrosion
Brass) weight(g) weight(g) loss(g) Rate(g/day) Area(cm2) ) (mm/d) Rate (mm/y)
0.00533333
Copper (anode) 26.095 26.079 0.016 3 10 8.96 5.95238E-05 0.02172619
Brass (cathode) 24.269 24.266 0.003 0.001 10 8.47 1.18064E-05 0.004309327
Table B External Voltage at 2V

Sample (Steel- Initial Final Weight Corrosion Density Corrosion Corrosion Rate
Platinum) weight(g) weight(g) loss(g) Rate(g/day) Area(cm2) (g/cm3) Rate (mm/d) (mm/y)
Steel (anode) 23.173 22.813 0.36 0.12 10 7.86 0.001526718 0.557251908
Platinum
(cathode) 3.553 3.553 0 0 1.26 21.45 0 0

Sample (Zinc- Initial Final Weight Corrosion Density Corrosion Corrosion Rate
Zinc) weight(g) weight(g) loss(g) Rate(g/day) Area(cm2) (g/cm3) Rate (mm/d) (mm/y)
Zinc(Anode) 26.24 25.955 0.285 0.095 10 7.86 0.001208651 0.441157761
Zinc (cathode) 26.12 26.116 0.004 0.001333333 10 7.86 1.69635E-05 0.006191688

Sample (Zinc- Initial Final Weight Corrosion Density Corrosion Corrosion Rate
Steel) weight(g) weight(g) loss(g) Rate(g/day) Area(cm2) (g/cm3) Rate (mm/d) (mm/y)
Zinc (anode) 24.24 24.185 0.055 0.018333333 10 7.15 0.00025641 0.093589744
Steel (cathode) 23.01 22.99 0.02 0.006666667 10 7.86 8.48176E-05 0.030958439
Sample (Copper- Initial Final Weight Corrosion Density Corrosion Corrosion Rate
Steel) weight(g) weight(g) loss(g) Rate(g/day) Area(cm2) (g/cm3) Rate (mm/d) (mm/y)
Copper (anode) 26.11 26 0.11 0.036666667 10 8.96 0.000409226 0.14936756
Steel (cathode) 23.6 23.582 0.018 0.006 10 7.86 7.63359E-05 0.027862595

Sample (Copper- Initial Final Weight Corrosion Density Corrosion Corrosion Rate
Brass) weight(g) weight(g) loss(g) Rate(g/day) Area(cm2) (g/cm3) Rate (mm/d) (mm/y)
Copper (anode) 26.095 25.922 0.173 0.057666667 10 8.96 0.000643601 0.234914435
Brass (cathode) 24.123 24.119 0.004 0.001333333 10 8.47 1.57418E-05 0.005745769

Table C External Voltage at 3V

Sample (Steel- Initial Final Weight Corrosion Density Corrosion Corrosion Rate
Platinum) weight(g) weight(g) loss(g) Rate(g/day) Area(cm2) (g/cm3) Rate (mm/d) (mm/y)
Steel (anode) 22.978 20.864 2.114 0.4228 10 7.86 0.005379135 1.96338422
Platinum
(cathode) 3.553 3.552 0.001 0.0002 1.26 21.45 7.40001E-06 0.002701

Sample (Zinc- Initial Final Weight Corrosion Density Corrosion Corrosion Rate
Zinc) weight(g) weight(g) loss(g) Rate(g/day) Area(cm2) (g/cm3) Rate (mm/d) (mm/y)
Zinc(Anode) 26.154 25.129 1.025 0.205 10 7.86 0.002608142 0.95197201
Zinc (cathode) 26.189 26.182 0.007 0.0014 10 7.86 1.78117E-05 0.00650127
Sample (Zinc- Initial Final Weight Corrosion Density Corrosion Corrosion Rate
Steel) weight(g) weight(g) loss(g) Rate(g/day) Area(cm2) (g/cm3) Rate (mm/d) (mm/y)
Zinc (anode) 23.842 23.62 0.222 0.0444 10 7.15 0.000620979 0.22665734
Steel (cathode) 23.02 22.9 0.12 0.024 10 7.86 0.000305344 0.11145038

Sample (Copper- Initial Final Weight Corrosion Density Corrosion Corrosion Rate
Steel) weight(g) weight(g) loss(g) Rate(g/day) Area(cm2) (g/cm3) Rate (mm/d) (mm/y)
Copper (anode) 26.401 25.741 0.66 0.132 10 8.96 0.001473214 0.53772321
Steel (cathode) 22.768 22.692 0.076 0.0152 10 7.86 0.000193384 0.07058524

Sample (Copper- Initial Final Weight Corrosion Density Corrosion Corrosion Rate
Brass) weight(g) weight(g) loss(g) Rate(g/day) Area(cm2) (g/cm3) Rate (mm/d) (mm/y)
Copper (anode) 23.731 22.764 0.967 0.1934 10 8.96 0.002158482 0.78784598
Brass (cathode) 24.292 24.22 0.072 0.0144 10 8.47 0.000170012 0.06205431
Table D External Voltage at 4V

Density
Initial Final Weight Corrosion Area(cm2 (g/cm3 Corrosion Corrosion
Sample (Steel-Platinum) weight(g) weight(g) loss(g) Rate(g/day) ) ) Rate (mm/d) Rate (mm/y)
0.00620547 2.26499681
Steel (anode) 22.299 20.348 1.951 0.48775 10 7.86 1 9
0.00675250
Platinum (cathode) 3.576 3.574 0.002 0.0005 1.26 21.45 1.85E-05 7

Density
Initial Final Weight Corrosion Area(cm2 (g/cm3 Corrosion Corrosion
Sample (Zinc-Zinc) weight(g) weight(g) loss(g) Rate(g/day) ) ) Rate (mm/d) Rate (mm/y)
0.00329516 1.20273536
Zinc(Anode) 26.188 25.152 1.036 0.259 10 7.86 5 9
0.01044847
Zinc (cathode) 26.189 26.18 0.009 0.00225 10 7.86 2.8626E-05 3

Density
Initial Final Weight Corrosion Area(cm2 (g/cm3 Corrosion Corrosion
Sample (Zinc-Steel) weight(g) weight(g) loss(g) Rate(g/day) ) ) Rate (mm/d) Rate (mm/y)
0.00132867 0.48496503
Zinc (anode) 23.83 23.45 0.38 0.095 10 7.15 1 5
0.28094783
Steel (cathode) 23.222 22.98 0.242 0.0605 10 7.86 0.00076972 7
 Density
Initial Final Weight Corrosion Area(cm2 (g/cm3 Corrosion Corrosion
Sample (Copper-Steel) weight(g) weight(g) loss(g) Rate(g/day) ) ) Rate (mm/d) Rate (mm/y)
0.00161551 0.58966238
Copper (anode) 26.161 25.582 0.579 0.14475 10 8.96 3 8
0.05133333 0.00065309 0.23837998
Steel (cathode) 23.737 23.583 0.154 3 10 7.86 6 3

Density
Initial Final Weight Corrosion Area(cm2 (g/cm3 Corrosion Corrosion
Sample (Copper-Brass) weight(g) weight(g) loss(g) Rate(g/day) ) ) Rate (mm/d) Rate (mm/y)
0.00258928 0.94508928
Copper (anode) 23.048 22.12 0.928 0.232 10 8.96 6 6
0.00052833 0.19284238
Brass (cathode) 24.279 24.1 0.179 0.04475 10 8.47 5 5

Table E Effect Corrosion Rate Anode Metal to the Variation External Voltage

Corrosion Rate (mm/yr)

Pair of Metal /
Volt 0 2 3 4
Steel-Platinum 0.306489 0.557252 1.963384 2.264997
Steel-Steel 0.340543 0.441158 0.951972 1.202735
Zinc - Steel 0.008508 0.09359 0.226657 0.484965
Copper - Steel 0.017653 0.149368 0.537723 0.589662
Copper - Brass 0.021726 0.234914 0.787846 0.945089
Table F Effect corrosion rate cathode metal to the external voltage

Corrosion Rate (mm/yr)

Pair of Metal /
Volt 0 2 3 4
Steel-Platinum 0 0 0.002701 0.006753
Steel-Steel 0.003096 0.006192 0.006501 0.010448
Zinc - Steel 0.004644 0.030958 0.11145 0.280948
Copper - Steel 0.004644 0.027863 0.070585 0.23838
Copper - Brass 0.004309 0.005746 0.062054 0.192842

Table G Corrosion rate pair of metal at constant external voltage due to arrangement in electrochemical series

Anode
Corrosion Rate (mm/yr)
Pair of Metal / Volt 0 2 3 4
Steel-Platinum 0.306489 0.557252 1.963384 2.264997
Zinc - Steel 0.008508 0.09359 0.226657 0.484965

Cathode
Corrosion Rate (mm/yr)
Pair of Metal / Volt 0 2 3 4
Steel-Platinum 0 0 0.002701 0.006753
Zinc - Steel 0.004644 0.030958 0.11145 0.280948
Table H Potential voltage pair of metal based on electrochemical series

E E
Pair of Metal / Volt cathode anode Potential Voltage (E cathode- E anode) in Volt
Steel-Platinum 1.2 0.45 0.75
Steel-Steel 0.34 0.34 0
Zinc - Steel -0.45 0.76 -1.21
Copper - Steel -0.45 -0.34 -0.11
Copper - Brass -0.35 -0.34 -0.01