Turbine

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A Siemens steam turbine with the case opened.

For other uses, see Turbine (disambiguation).

A turbine is a rotary engine that extracts energy from a fluid flow. Claude Burdin
(1788-1873) coined the term from the Latin turbo, or vortex, during an 1828
engineering competition. Benoit Fourneyron (1802-1867), a student of Claude
Burdin, built the first practical water turbine.

The simplest turbines have one moving part, a rotor assembly, which is a shaft with
blades attached. Moving fluid acts on the blades, or the blades react to the flow, so
that they rotate and impart energy to the rotor. Early turbine examples are windmills
and water wheels.

Gas, steam, and water turbines have a casing around the blades that contains and
controls the working fluid. Credit for invention of the modern steam turbine is given
to British Engineer Sir Charles Parsons (1854 - 1931).

A device similar to a turbine but operating in reverse is a compressor or pump. The

axial compressor in many gas turbine engines is a common example.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Theory of operation
• 2 Types of turbines
o 2.1 Other
• 3 Uses of turbines
 • 4 Shrouded tidal turbines
• 5 See also
• 6 Notes

• 7 External links

[edit] Theory of operation

A working fluid contains potential energy (pressure head) and kinetic energy (velocity
head). The fluid may be compressible or incompressible. Several physical principles
are employed by turbines to collect this energy:

Impulse turbines
These turbines change the direction of flow of a high velocity fluid jet. The
resulting impulse spins the turbine and leaves the fluid flow with diminished
kinetic energy. There is no pressure change of the fluid in the turbine rotor
blades. Before reaching the turbine the fluid's pressure head is changed to
velocity head by accelerating the fluid with a nozzle. Pelton wheels and de
Laval turbines use this process exclusively. Impulse turbines do not require a
pressure casement around the runner since the fluid jet is prepared by a nozzle
prior to reaching turbine. Newton's second law describes the transfer of energy
for impulse turbines.
Reaction turbines
These turbines develop torque by reacting to the fluid's pressure or weight.
The pressure of the fluid changes as it passes through the turbine rotor blades.
A pressure casement is needed to contain the working fluid as it acts on the
 turbine stage(s) or the turbine must be fully immersed in the fluid flow (wind
turbines). The casing contains and directs the working fluid and, for water
turbines, maintains the suction imparted by the draft tube. Francis turbines and
most steam turbines use this concept. For compressible working fluids,
multiple turbine stages may be used to harness the expanding gas efficiently.
Newton's third law describes the transfer of energy for reaction turbines.

Turbine designs will use both these concepts to varying degrees whenever possible.
Wind turbines use an airfoil to generate lift from the moving fluid and impart it to the
rotor (this is a form of reaction). Wind turbines also gain some energy from the
impulse of the wind, by deflecting it at an angle. Crossflow turbines are designed as
an impulse machine, with a nozzle, but in low head applications maintain some
efficiency through reaction, like a traditional water wheel. Turbines with multiple
stages may utilize either reaction or impulse blading at high pressure. Steam Turbines
were traditionally more impulse but continue to move towards reaction designs
similar to those used in Gas Turbines. At low pressure the operating fluid medium
expands in volume for small reductions in pressure. Under these conditions (termed
Low Pressure Turbines) blading becomes strictly a reaction type design with the base
of the blade solely impulse. The reason is due to the effect of the rotation speed for
each blade. As the volume increases, the blade height increases, and the base of the
blade spins at a slower speed relative to the tip. This change in speed forces a designer
to change from impulse at the base, to a high reaction style tip.

Classical turbine design methods were developed in the mid 19th century. Vector
analysis related the fluid flow with turbine shape and rotation. Graphical calculation
methods were used at first. Formulas for the basic dimensions of turbine parts are well
documented and a highly efficient machine can be reliably designed for any fluid flow
condition. Some of the calculations are empirical or 'rule of thumb' formulae, and
others are based on classical mechanics. As with most engineering calculations,
simplifying assumptions were made.

Velocity triangles can be used to calculate the basic performance of a turbine stage.
Gas exits the stationary turbine nozzle guide vanes at absolute velocity Va1. The rotor
rotates at velocity U. Relative to the rotor, the velocity of the gas as it impinges on the
rotor entrance is Vr1. The gas is turned by the rotor and exits, relative to the rotor, at
velocity Vr2. However, in absolute terms the rotor exit velocity is Va2. The velocity
triangles are constructed using these various velocity vectors. Velocity triangles can
be constructed at any section through the blading (for example: hub , tip, midsection
and so on) but are usually shown at the mean stage radius. Mean performance for the
stage can be calculated from the velocity triangles, at this radius, using the Euler
equation:
Typical velocity triangles for a single turbine stage

Whence:

where:

specific enthalpy drop across stage

turbine entry total (or stagnation) temperature
turbine rotor peripheral velocity
change in whirl velocity

The turbine pressure ratio is a function of and the turbine efficiency.

Modern turbine design carries the calculations further. Computational fluid dynamics
dispenses with many of the simplifying assumptions used to derive classical formulas
and computer software facilitates optimization. These tools have led to steady
improvements in turbine design over the last forty years.
The primary numerical classification of a turbine is its specific speed. This number
describes the speed of the turbine at its maximum efficiency with respect to the power
and flow rate. The specific speed is derived to be independent of turbine size. Given
the fluid flow conditions and the desired shaft output speed, the specific speed can be
calculated and an appropriate turbine design selected.

The specific speed, along with some fundamental formulas can be used to reliably
scale an existing design of known performance to a new size with corresponding
performance.

Off-design performance is normally displayed as a turbine map or characteristic.

[edit] Types of turbines

• Steam turbines are used for the generation of electricity in thermal power
plants, such as plants using coal or fuel oil or nuclear power. They were once
used to directly drive mechanical devices such as ship's propellors (eg the
Turbinia), but most such applications now use reduction gears or an
intermediate electrical step, where the turbine is used to generate electricity,
which then powers an electric motor connected to the mechanical load.
• Gas turbines are sometimes referred to as turbine engines. Such engines
usually feature an inlet, fan, compressor, combustor and nozzle (possibly other
assemblies) in addition to one or more turbines.
• Transonic turbine. The gasflow in most turbines employed in gas turbine
engines remains subsonic throughout the expansion process. In a transonic
turbine the gasflow becomes supersonic as it exits the nozzle guide vanes,
although the downstream velocities normally become subsonic. Transonic
turbines operate at a higher pressure ratio than normal but are usually less
efficient and uncommon. This turbine works well in creating power from
water.
• Contra-rotating turbines. Some efficiency advantage can be obtained if a
downstream turbine rotates in the opposite direction to an upstream unit.
However, the complication may be counter-productive.
• Statorless turbine Multi-stage turbines have a set of static (meaning stationary)
inlet guide vanes that direct the gasflow onto the rotating rotor blades. In a
statorless turbine the gasflow exiting an upstream rotor impinges onto a
downstream rotor without an intermediate set of stator vanes (that rearrange
the pressure/velocity energy levels of the flow) being encountered.
• Ceramic turbine. Conventional high-pressure turbine blades (and vanes) are
made from nickel-steel alloys and often utilise intricate internal air-cooling
passages to prevent the metal from melting. In recent years, experimental
ceramic blades have been manufactured and tested in gas turbines, with a view
to increasing Rotor Inlet Temperatures and/or, possibly, eliminating
aircooling. Ceramic blades are more brittle than their metallic counterparts,
and carry a greater risk of catastrophic blade failure.
• Shrouded turbine. Many turbine rotor blades have a shroud at the top, which
interlocks with that of adjacent blades, to increase damping and thereby reduce
blade flutter.
 • Shroudless turbine. Modern practise is, where possible, to eliminate the rotor
shroud, thus reducing the centrifugal load on the blade and the cooling
requirements.
• Bladeless turbine uses the boundary layer effect and not a fluid impinging
upon the blades as in a conventional turbine.
• Water turbines
o Francis Turbine, a type of widely used water turbine.
 Kaplan Turbine, a variation of the Francis Turbine.
• Wind turbine. These normally operate as a single stage without nozzle and
interstage guide vanes. An exception is the Éolienne Bollée, which has a stator
and a rotor, thus being a true turbine.

[edit] Other

• Velocity compound "Curtis". Curtis combined the de Laval and Parsons

turbine by using a set of fixed nozzles on the first stage or stator and then a
rank of fixed and rotating stators as in the Parsons, typically up to ten
compared with up to a hundred stages, however the efficiency of the turbine
was less than that of the Parsons but it operated at much lower speeds and at
lower pressures which made it ideal for ships. Note that the use of a small
section of a Curtis, typicaly one nozzle section and two rotors is termed a
"Curtis Wheel"
• Pressure Compund Multistage Impulse or Rateau. The Rateau employs simple
Impulse rotors seperated by a nozzle diaphragm. The diaphragm is essentialy a
partition wall in the turbine with a series of tunnels cut into it, funnel shaped
with the broad end facing the previous stage and the narrow the next they are
also angled to direct the steam jets onto the impulse rotor.

[edit] Uses of turbines

Almost all electrical power on Earth is produced with a turbine of some type. Very
high efficiency turbines harness about 40% of the thermal energy, with the rest
exhausted as waste heat.

Most jet engines rely on turbines to supply mechanical work from their working fluid
and fuel as do all nuclear ships and power plants.

Turbines are often part of a larger machine. A gas turbine, for example, may refer to
an internal combustion machine that contains a turbine, ducts, compressor, combustor,
heat-exchanger, fan and (in the case of one designed to produce electricity) an
alternator. However, it must be noted that the collective machine referred to as the
turbine in these cases is designed to transfer energy from a fuel to the fluid passing
through such an internal combustion device as a means of propulsion, and not to
transfer energy from the fluid passing through the turbine to the turbine as is the case
in turbines used for electricity provision etc.

Reciprocating piston engines such as aircraft engines can use a turbine powered by
their exhaust to drive an intake-air compressor, a configuration known as a
turbocharger (turbine supercharger) or, colloquially, a "turbo".
Turbines can have very high power density (ie the ratio of power to weight, or power
to volume). This is because of their ability to operate at very high speeds. The Space
Shuttle's main engines use turbopumps (machines consisting of a pump driven by a
turbine engine) to feed the propellants (liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen) into the
engine's combustion chamber. The liquid hydrogen turbopump is slightly larger than
an automobile engine (weighing approximately 700 lb) and produces nearly 70,000 hp
(52.2 MW).

Turboexpanders are widely used as sources of refrigeration in industrial processes.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:

Turbine

Turbines could also be used as powering system for a remote controlled plane that
creates thrust and lifts the plane of the ground. They come in different sizes and could
be as small as soda can, still be strong enough to move objects with a weight of
100kg.

[edit] Shrouded tidal turbines

An emerging renewable energy technology is the shrouded tidal turbine enclosed in a
venturi shaped shroud or duct producing a sub atmosphere of low pressure behind the
turbine, allowing the turbine to operate at higher efficiency (than the Betz limit [1] of
59.3%) and typically 3 times higher power output [2] than a turbine of the same size in
free stream.

Asymmetric airfoil

As shown in the CFD generated figure[3], it can be seen that a down stream low
pressure (shown by the gradient lines) draws upstream flow into the inlet of the
shroud from well outside the inlet of the shroud. This flow is drawn into the shroud
and concentrated (as seen by the red coloured zone). This augmentation of flow
velocity corresponds to a 3-4 times increase in energy available to the turbine.
Therefore a turbine located in the throat of the shroud is then able to achieve higher
efficiency, and an output 3-4 times the energy the turbine would be capable of if it
were in open or free stream. For this reason shrouded turbines are not subject to the
properties of the Betz limit.

Considerable commercial interest has been shown in recent times in shrouded tidal
turbines as it allows a smaller turbine to be used at sites where large turbines are
restricted. Arrayed across a seaway or in fast flowing rivers shrouded tidal turbines
are easily cabled to a terrestrial base and connected to a grid or remote community.
Alternatively the property of the shroud that produces an accelerated flow velocity
across the turbine allows tidal flows formerly too slow for commercial use to be
utilised for commercial energy production.

While the shroud may not be practical in wind, as a tidal turbine it is gaining more
popularity and commercial use. A shrouded tidal turbine is mono directional and
constantly needs to face upstream in order to operate. It can be floated under a
pontoon on a swing mooring, fixed to the seabed on a mono pile and yawed like a
wind sock to continually face upstream. A shroud can also be built into a tidal fence
increasing the performance of the turbines.

Cabled to the mainland they can be grid connected or can be scaled down to provide
energy to remote communities where large civil infrastructures are not viable.
Similarly to tidal stream open turbines they have little if any environmental or visual
amenity impact.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbine

Refrigerator
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

"Fridge" redirects here. For other uses, see Fridge (disambiguation).
"Freezer" redirects here. For other uses, see Freezer (disambiguation).
For the football player, see The Refrigerator.
A typical American refrigerator with its door open

A refrigerator (often called a "fridge" for short) is a cooling appliance comprising a

thermally insulated compartment and a mechanism to transfer heat from it to the
external environment, cooling the contents to a temperature below ambient.
Refrigerators are extensively used to store foods which deteriorate at ambient
temperatures; spoilage from bacterial growth and other processes is much slower at
low temperatures. A device described as a "refrigerator" maintains a temperature a
few degrees above the freezing point of water; a similar device which maintains a
temperature below the freezing point of water is called a "freezer". The refrigerator is
a relatively modern invention amongst kitchen appliances. It replaced the common
icebox which had been placed outside for almost a century and a half prior, and is
sometimes still called by the original name "icebox".

Freezers keep their contents frozen. They are used both in households and for
commercial use. Most freezers operate at around -18 °C (0 °F). Domestic freezers can
be included as a compartment in a refrigerator, sharing the same mechanism or with a
separate mechanism, or can be standalone units. Domestic freezers are generally
upright units, resembling refrigerators, or chests, resembling upright units laid on their
backs. Many modern freezers come with an icemaker.

Commercial fridge and freezer units, which go by many other names, were in use for
almost 40 years prior to the common home models. They used toxic ammonia gas
systems, making them unsafe for home use. Practical household refrigerators were
introduced in 1915 and gained wider acceptance in the United States in the 1930s as
prices fell and non-toxic, non-flammable synthetic refrigerants such as Freon or R-12
were introduced. It is notable that while 60% of households in the US owned a
refrigerator by the 1930s, it was not until 40 years later, in the 1970s, that the
refrigerator achieved a similar level of penetration in the United Kingdom.[1]

Contents
[hide]

• 1 History of the refrigerator

• 2 How a refrigerator works
• 3 Types of domestic refrigerators
• 4 Impact on lifestyle
• 5 Features
• 6 Temperature zones and ratings
• 7 See also
• 8 Notes and references

• 9 External links

[edit] History of the refrigerator

See also: Timeline of low-temperature technology
Before the invention of the refrigerator, icehouses were used to provide cool storage
for most of the year. Placed near freshwater lakes or packed with snow and ice during
the winter, they were once very common. Using the environment to cool foodstuffs is
still common today. On mountainsides run off from melting snow higher up is a
convenient way to cool drinks, and during the winter months simply placing one's
milk outside one's window is sufficient to greatly extend its useful life.

The first known artificial refrigeration was demonstrated by William Cullen at the
University of Glasgow in 1748, and relied on the vapor-compression refrigeration
process explained by Michael Faraday. Between 1805, when Oliver Evans designed
the first refrigeration machine that used vapor instead of liquid, and 1902 when Willis
Haviland Carrier demonstrated the first air conditioner, scores of inventors
contributed many small advances in cooling machinery. In 1850 or 1851, Dr. John
Gorrie demonstrated an ice maker. In 1857, Australian James Harrison introduced
vapor-compression refrigeration to the brewing and meat packing industries. The
absorption refrigerator was invented by Baltzar von Platen and Carl Munters in 1922,
while they were still students at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm,
Sweden. It became a worldwide success and was commercialized by Electrolux.
Other pioneers included Charles Tellier, David Boyle, and Raoul Pictet.

A Monitor-style (General Electric format) refrigerator, more like an icebox with its
refrigerating mechanisms on top.

At the start of the 20th Century, about half of households in the United States relied
on melting ice (and an icebox) to keep food cold, while the remaining half had no
cooled storage at all. The ice used for household storage was expensive because ice
had to be cut from winter ponds (or mechanically produced), stored centrally until
needed, and delivered regularly.

In a few exceptional cases, mechanical refrigeration systems had been adapted by the
start of the 20th century for use in the homes of the very wealthy, and might be used
for cooling both living and food storage areas. One early system was installed at the
mansion of Walter Pierce, an oil company executive.[2]

Marcel Audiffren of France championed the idea of a refrigerating machine for

cooling and preserving foods at home. His U.S. patents, issued in 1895 and 1908,
were purchased by the American Audiffren Refrigerating Machine Company.
Machines based on Audiffren's sulfur dioxide process were manufactured by General
Electric in Fort Wayne, Indiana and marketed by the Johns-Manville company. The
first unit was sold in 1911. Audiffren machines were expensive, selling for about
$1,000 — about twice as much as an automobile cost at the time.

General Electric sought to develop refrigerators of its own, and in 1915 the first
Guardian unit was assembled in a back yard wash house as a predecessor to the
Frigidaire. In 1916 Kelvinator and Servel came out with two units among a field of
competing models. This number increased to 200 by 1920. In 1918, Kelvinator had a
model with automatic controls.

These home units usually required the installation of the mechanical parts, motor and
compressor, in the basement or an adjacent room while the cold box was located in
the kitchen. There was a 1922 model that consisted of a wooden cold box, water-
cooled compressor, an ice cube tray and a 9 cubic foot compartment for $714. (A
1922 Model-T Ford cost about $450.) In 1923 Frigidaire introduced the first self-
contained unit. About this same time porcelain covered metal cabinets began to
appear. Ice cube trays were introduced more and more during the 1920s; up to this
time freezing was not a function of the modern refrigerator.

The first refrigerator to see widespread use was the General Electric "Monitor-Top"
refrigerator introduced in 1927. The compressor assembly, which emitted a
substantial amount of heat, was placed above the cabinet, and surrounded with a
decorative ring. Over 1,000,000 units were produced. These refrigerators used either
sulfur dioxide or methyl formate as a refrigerant. Many units are still functional today.
Older U.S. refrigerator model, with freezer compartment

The introduction of freon expanded the refrigerator market during the 1930s, and
freezer units became a little more common and requested during the 1940s. Home
units did not go into mass production until after WWII. The 1950s and 1960s saw
technical advances like automatic defrosting and automatic ice making. Developments
of the 1970s and 80s brought about more efficient refrigerators, and environmental
issues banned the use of CFC (freon) refrigerants used in sealed systems.

Refrigerators used to consume more energy than any other home appliance, but in the
last twenty years, great strides have been made to make refrigerators more energy
efficient. Current models that are Energy Star qualified use 50 percent less energy
than models made before 1993.[3]

Early refrigerator models (1916 and on) featured a cold compartment for ice cube
trays. Successful processing of fresh vegetables through freezing began in the late
1920s by the Postum Company (the forerunner of General Foods) which had acquired
the technology when it bought the rights to Clarence Birdseye’s successful fresh
freezing methods.

The first successful example of the benefits of frozen foods occurred when General
Foods heiress Marjorie Merriweather Post (then wife of Joseph E. Davies, United
States Ambassador to the Soviet Union ) deployed commercial grade freezers to
Spasso House (US Embassy) in Moscow in advance of the Davies’ arrival. Post,
fearful of the food processing safety observed in the USSR, then fully stocked the
freezers with product processed from General Foods Birdseye unit. The frozen food
stores allowed the Davies’ to lavishly entertain and serve fresh frozen foods that
would otherwise be out of season. Upon returning from Moscow, Post (who resumed
her maiden name after divorcing Davies) directed General Foods to market frozen
product to upscale restaurants.

Introduction of home freezer units occurred in the United States in 1940, and frozen
foods began to make the transition from luxury to necessity.
[edit] How a refrigerator works
Main article: Refrigeration

Refrigerators work by the use of heat pumps operating in a refrigeration cycle. An

industrial refrigerator is simply a refrigerator used in an industrial setting, usually in a
restaurant or supermarket. They may consist of either a cooling compartment only (a
larger refrigerator) or a freezing compartment only (a freezer) or contain both. The
industry has nicknames for these units as well sometimes referring to them as a “cold
box” or a “walk-in.” The dual compartment was introduced commercially by General
Electric in 1939.

The vapor compression cycle is used in most household refrigerators. In this cycle, a
circulating refrigerant such as freon enters the compressor as a vapor at its boiling
point. The vapor is compressed and exits the compressor as a superheated vapor. The
superheated vapor travels through part of the condenser which removes the superheat
by cooling the vapor. The vapor travels through the remainder of the condenser and is
condensed into a liquid at its boiling point. The saturated liquid refrigerant passes
through the expansion valve where its pressure abruptly decreases. The decrease in
pressure results in the flash evaporation and auto-refrigeration of a portion of the
liquid (typically, less than half of the liquid flashes). The cold and partially vaporized
refrigerant travels through the coil or tubes in the evaporator. There, a fan circulates
room air across the coil or tubes, and the refrigerant is totally vaporized, extracting
heat from the air which is then returned to the food compartment. The refrigerant
vapor returns to the compressor inlet to complete the thermodynamic cycle.

An absorption refrigerator works differently from a compressor refrigerator, using a

source of heat, and typically runs more quietly.

The Peltier effect uses electricity directly to pump heat; refrigerators using this effect
are sometimes used for camping, or where noise is not acceptable. They are totally
silent, but less energy-efficient than other methods.

Other alternatives to the vapor-compression cycle but not in current use include
thermionic, vortex tube, air cycle, magnetic cooling, Stirling cycle, Malone
refrigeration, acoustic cooling, pulse tube and water cycle systems.[4]

[edit] Types of domestic refrigerators

Household refrigerator output in 2000

Domestic refrigerators and freezers for food storage are made in a range of sizes.
Amongst the smallest is a 4 L Peltier fridge advertised as being able to hold 6 cans of
beer. A large domestic fridge stands as tall as a person and may be about 1 m wide
with a capacity of 600 L. Some models for small households fit under kitchen work
surfaces, usually about 86 cm high. Fridges may be combined with freezers, either
stacked with fridge or freezer above, below, or side by side. A fridge without a true
freezer may have a small compartment to make ice. Freezers may have drawers to
store food in, or they may have no divisions (chest freezers).

Fridges and freezers may be free-standing, or built into a kitchen.

Compressor refrigerators are by far the most common type; they make a noticeable
noise. Absorption or Peltier units are used where quiet running is required; Peltier
coolers are used in the smallest refrigerators as they have no bulky mechanism.

Compressor and Peltier refrigerators are invariably powered by electricity; absorption

units can in principle be designed to be powered by any heat source. Gas-only and
dual power gas/electricity units are available.

Refrigeration units for commercial and for non-food use are made in a huge range of
sizes and styles.

Many Koreans store kimchi in a kimchi refrigerator (hangul: 김치냉장고) that is

specifically designed with precise controls to keep different varieties of kimchi at
optimal temperatures for various stages of fermentation and also for longer storage
than in regular refrigerators.

[edit] Impact on lifestyle

The invention of the refrigerator has allowed the modern family to purchase, store,
freeze, prepare and preserve food products in a fresh state for much longer periods of
time than was previously possible. For the majority of families without a sizeable
garden in which to grow vegetables and raise livestock, the advent of the refrigerator
along with the modern supermarket led to a vastly more varied diet and improved
health resulting from improved nutrition. Dairy products, meats, fish, poultry and
vegetables can all be kept refrigerated in the same space within the kitchen (although
raw meat should be kept separate from other foodstuffs for reasons of hygiene).

The refrigerator allows families to consume more salads, fresh fruits and vegetables
during meals without having to own a garden or an orchard. Exotic foodstuffs from
far-off countries that have been imported by means of refrigeration can be enjoyed in
the home because of the availability of domestic refrigeration.

The luxury of freezing allows households to purchase more foods in bulk that can be
eaten at leisure while the bulk purchase provides cost savings (see economies of
scale). Ice cream, a popular commodity of the 20th century, was previously only
available by traveling long distances to where the product was made fresh and had to
be eaten on the spot. Now it is a practically ubiquitous food item. Ice on-demand not
only adds to the enjoyment of cold drinks, but is useful in first-aid applications, not to
mention cold packs that can be kept frozen for picnics or in case of emergency.

[edit] Features
The inside of a common U.S. home refrigerator

Newer refrigerators may include:

• Frost-free refrigeration;
• A power failure warning, alerting the user by flashing a temperature display.
The maximum temperature reached during the power failure may be
displayed, along with information on whether the frozen food has defrosted or
may contain harmful bacteria;
• Chilled water and ice available from an in-door station, so the door need not
be opened;
• Cabinet rollers that allow the refigerator to be easily rolled around for easier
cleaning;
• Adjustable shelves and trays that can be moved around to suit the user;
• A Status Indicator to notify the user when it is time to change the water filter;
• An in-door ice caddy, which relocates the ice-maker storage to the freezer
door and saves approximately 60 litres (about 2 cubic feet) of usable freezer
space. It is also removable, and helps to prevent ice-maker clogging;
• A cooling zone in the refrigerator door shelves. Air from the freezer section is
diverted to the refrigerator door, to better cool milk or juice stored in the door
shelf;

• Extras unrelated to refrigeration, such as a television set, radio, or DVD player

built into a door.

Early freezer units accumulated ice crystals around the freezing units. This was a
result of humidity introduced into the units when the doors to the freezer were
opened. This build up of frost required periodic thawing of the units to maintain their
efficiency. Advances in frost-free refrigeration eliminating the thawing task were
introduced in the 1950s. Also, early units featured freezer compartments located
within the larger refrigerator, and accessed by opening the refrigerator door, and then
the smaller internal freezer door; units featuring entirely separate freezer compartment
were introduced in the early 1960s, becoming the industry standard by the middle of
that decade.

Later advances included automatic ice units and self compartmentalized freezing
units.
An increasingly important environmental concern is the disposal of old refrigerators -
initially because of the freon coolant damaging the ozone layer, but as the older
generation of refrigerators disappears it is the destruction of CFC-bearing insulation
which causes concern. Modern refrigerators usually use a refrigerant called HFC-134a
(1,2,2,2-tetrafluoroethane), which has no ozone layer depleting properties, instead of
freon.

Disposal of discarded refrigerators is regulated, often mandating the removal of doors:

children playing hide-and-seek have been asphyxiated while hiding inside a discarded
refrigerator. This was particularly true for the older models that had latching doors.
More modern units use a magnetic door gasket to hold the door sealed but can
actually be pushed open from the inside. However, children can be unwittingly
harmed by hiding inside any discarded refrigerator.[5]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refrigerator