1

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION :

The broadcast of a programme from source to listener involves use of studios,

microphones, announcer console, switching console, telephone lines / STL and Transmitter.
Normally the programmes originate from a studio centre located inside the city/town for the
convenience of artists. The programme could be either “live” or recorded”. In some cases, the
programme can be from OB spot, such as commentary of cricket match etc. Programmes that
are to be relayed from other Radio Stations are received in a receiving centre and then sent to
the studio centre or directly received at the studio centre through RN terminal/telephone line.
All these programmes are then selected and routed from studio to transmitting centre through
broadcast quality telephone lines or studio transmitter microwave/VHF links
A broadcast studio is an acoustically treated room. It is necessary that the place where
a programme for broadcast purposes is being produced should be free of extraneous noise.
This is possible only if the area of room is insulated from outside sound. Further, the
microphone which is the first equipment that picks up the sound, is not able to distinguish
between wanted and unwanted signals and will pick up the sound not only from the artists and
the instruments but also reflections from the walls marring the quality and clarity of the
programme. So the studios are to be specially treated to give an optimum reverberation time
and minimum noise level.
The entry to the studios is generally through sound isolating lobby called sound lock.
Outside of every studio entrance, there is a warning lamp, which glows ‘Red’ when the studio
is ‘ON-AIR’. The studios have separate announcers booths attached to them where first level
fading, mixing and cueing facilities are provided. In addition to control room and studios,
dubbing/recording rooms are also provided in a studio complex.
 CHAPTER 2
STUDIO OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS

Many technical requirements of studios like minimum noise level, optimum reverberation time
etc. are normally met studio at the time of installation of studio. However for operational
purposes, certain basic minimum technical facilities are required for smooth transmission of
programmes and for proper control. These are as follows:

• Programme in a studio may originate from a microphone or a tape deck, or a turntable or a

compact disc or a R-DAT. So a facility for selection of output of any of these equipments
at any moment is necessary. Announcer console does this function.

• Facility to fade in/fade out the programme smoothly and control the programme level
within prescribed limits.

• Facility for aural monitoring to check the quality of sound production and sound meters to
indicate the intensity (VU meters).

• For routing of programmes from various studios/OB spots to a central control room, we
require a facility to further mix/select the programmes. The Control Console in the control
room performs this function. It is also called switching console.

• Before feeding the programmes to the transmitter, the response of the programme should
be made flat by compensating HF and LF losses using equalised line amplifiers.(This is
applicable in case of telephone lines only)

• Visual signalling facility between studio announcer booth and control room should also be
provided.

• If the programmes from various studios are to be fed to more than one transmitter, a master
switching facility is also required.
 3

2.1 ANNOUNCER CONSOLE:

Most of the studios have an attached booth, which is called transmission booth or
Announcer booth or play back studio. This is also acoustically treated and contains a mixing
console called Announcer Console. The Announcer Console is used for mixing and controlling
the programmes that are being produced in the studio using artist microphones, tape playback
decks and turn tables/CD players. This is also used for transmission of programmes either live
or recorded.
The technical facilities provided in a typical announcer booth, besides an Announcer
Console are one or two microphones for making announcements, two turn tables for playing
the gramophone records and two playback decks or tape recorders for recorded programmes
on tapes. Recently CD and Rotary Head Digital Audio Tape Recorder (R-DAT) are also
included in the Transmission Studio.

2.2 CONTROL ROOM:

For two or more studios set up, there would be a provision for further mixing which is
provided by a control console manned by engineers. Such control console is known as
switching console. In addition to control room and studios, dubbing/recording rooms are also
provided in a studio complex. Following equipments are generally provided in a
recording/dubbing room :

i) Console tape recorders

ii) Console tape decks

iii) Recording/dubbing panel having switches, jacks and keys etc.

• Switching of different sources for transmission like News, O.Bs. other satellite
based relays, live broadcast from recording studio.

• Level equalisation and level control.

• Quality monitoring.

• Signalling to the source location.

• Communication link between control room and different studios.

 5

CHAPTER 3
AMPLIFIERS USED IN AIR STUDIOS

Amplifier is one of the basic building blocks of modern electronics. The present day
electronics would not exist without this. Amplification is necessary because the desired signal
is usually too weak to be directly useful. Present day amplifiers used in studios are mostly
employing ICs and transistors.

3.1 TERMS USED WITH REFERENCE TO AMPLIFIERS:

If you look at the technical specifications of any amplifier used in a studio, you will
come across number of terms such as
• Input Impedance
• Input Level
• Output Impedance
• Output Level
• Gain
• Noise and Equivalent Input Noise
• Frequency response
• Distortion.
Some of these terms have been explained briefly in the following paragraphs.

INPUT IMPEDANCE:
It is defined as the impedance which we get while looking into the input terminals of
an amplifier. The input impedance of a pre-amplifier determines the amount of a.c. voltage the
pre-amplifier will get from a microphone. The input impedance also decides the noise
performance of the amplifier. For best noise performance, the input impedance of a pre
amplifier should exceed ten times the source impedance. It is because of this reason that the
input impedance of a pre amplifier is always 2000 ohm or more. In some amplifiers a bridging
input is provided. This implies that the input impedance is 10,000 ohm or greater and this
impedance is achieved by using a special input transformer. Bridging input permits several
amplifiers to be connected across a line without upsetting the impedance match of other
equipment.

OUTPUT IMPEDANCE:

The actual impedance seen when looking into the output terminals of an amplifier is
called its output impedance. This term should not be confused with load impedance. Load
impedance is defined as a specified impedance into which a device is designed to work. Many
times the load impedance is higher than the output impedance. For example the output
impedance of equalised line amplifier type lab 568 is less than 50 ohm while the specified load
impedance is 600 ohm.

DISTORTION IN AMPLIFIERS:
The amplification of a sinusoidal signal to the input of an ideal class - A amplifier will
result in a sinusoidal output wave. Generally the output waveform is not an exact replica of
the input signal waveform because of various types of distortions that may arise either from
the inherent non-linearity in the characteristics of the active device or from the influence of the
associated circuit. The types of distortions that may exist either separately or simultaneously
are called non-linear distortion, frequency distortion and delay or phase shift distortion.

NON LINEAR DISTORTION:

This type of distortion results from the production of new frequencies in the output
which are not present in the input signal. These new frequencies or harmonics, result from the
existence of non-linear dynamic curve for the active devices. The distortion is sometimes
referred to as amplitude distortion or harmonic distortion. This type of distortion is more
prominent when the signal levels are quite large so the dynamic operation spreads over a wide
range of the characteristics.
 7

FREQUENCY DISTORTION:
This type of distortion exists when the signal components of different frequencies
are amplified differently. In a transistor amplifier, this type of distortion may be caused either
by the internal device capacitances or it may arise because of the associated circuit such as, the
coupling components. If the frequency response characteristic is not a straight line over the
range of frequencies under consideration, the circuit is said to exploit frequency distortion over
this range.

PHASE SHIFT OR DELAY DISTORTION:

Phase shift distortion results from unequal phase shifts of signals of different
frequencies. This type of distortion is not important in audio frequency amplifiers since the
human ear is incapable of distinguishing relative phases of different frequency components.
But it is very objectionable in the system that depends on the wave shape of the signal for their
operation e.g. in television.

NOISE AND EQUIVALENT INPUT NOISE:

The term noise used broadly to describe any spurious electrical disturbances that
causes an output when the signal is zero. Noise may be produced by causes which may be
external to the system or internal to the system regardless of where it originates in the
amplifier, the noise is conveniently expressed as an equivalent noise voltages at the input that
would cause the actual noise output. This noise is amplified along with the signal and tends to
mask up the signal at the output. If in an amplifier, the noise at output is 50dbelow the output
signal level, then the equivalent noise at the input of the amplifier, which has a gain of 70 dB,
will be -120 dbm.

3.2 MEDIUM WAVE TRANSMITTER:

RF circuits consists of a crystal oscillator, transistor power amplifier, RF. Driver
and Power Amplifier of 100 kW HMB 140 MW transmitter are shown in Fig.
 Fig.3.1 Block Diagram of RF Chain (HMB-140)

i)CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR:
To oscillate at a consistent frequency, the crystal is kept in a oven. The temperature
of the oven is maintained between 68 to 72o C and the corresponding indication is available in
the meter panel. Crystal oven is heated by + 12 V. One crystal oscillator with a stand by has
been provided. It gives an output of 5 V square wave which is required to drive the Transistor
Power Amplifier. The crystal oscillator works between 3 MHz and 6 MHz for different carrier
frequencies. Different capacitors are used to select different frequency ranges. In addition,
variable capacitor is used for varying the frequency of the crystal within a few cycles. The
oscillator frequency is divided by 2, 4, or 8 which is selected by jumpering the appropriate
terminals. The oscillator Unit gives 3 outputs, one each for RF output, RF Monitoring and RF
output indication.

ii)TRANSISTOR POWER AMPLIFIER:

Oscillator output is fed to the transistor Power amplifier (TRPA). It gives an output
of 12 Watt across 75 ohms. It works on + 20 V DC, derived from a separate rectifier and
regulator. For different operating frequencies, different output filters are selected. (Low Pass
Filter).

iii)RF DRIVER :
A 4-1000 A tetrode is used as a driver which operates under class AB condition,
without drawing any grid current. About 7 to 10 Watts, of power is fed to the grid of the
driver through a 75 : 800 ohms RF Transformer, which provides proper impedance matching
to the TRPA output and also provides the necessary grid voltage swing to the driver tube.
 9

Because the cathode is at -600 V, the effective grid to cathode bias voltage (fixed) is -50V and
the effective plate voltage is 2500 V. The driver develops a peak grid voltage of 800 to 900 V
at the grid of PA and PA grid current of about 0.3 A to 0.4 Amps. The required wave form for
operating the PA as class -D operation is also developed at the output of the driver by mixing
about 20% third harmonic with the fundamental which is the operating frequency of the
transmitter.

iv)RF POWER AMPLIFIER:

CQK - 50, condensed vapour cooled tetrode valve is used as a PA stage. High level
anode modulation is used, using a class B Modulator stage. The screen of the PA tube is also
modulated by a separate tap on modulation transformer. Plate load impedance of the PA stage
is about 750 ohms and the output impedance is 120 ohms, and it is matched by L-C
components. Using various combination of the L-C circuits plate impedance of third harmonic
is created, the Harmonics also are filtered imaginatively at the output side. 11 kV DC, the HT
voltage is connected to the plate of the PA valves through the secondary of the modulation
transformer and RF chokes : hence the AF signal is super imposed on the DC for the PA plate.

3.3 AF STAGE:

FIG.3.2 AF Stage
The AF stage supply the audio power required to amplitude modulate the final RF
stage. The output of the AF stage is superimposed upon the DC voltage to the RF PA tube via
modulation transformer. An Auxiliary winding in the modulation transformer, provides the
AF voltage necessary to modulate the screen of the final stage. The modulator stage consists
of two CQK-25 ceramic tetrode valves working in push pull class B configuration. The drive
stages up to the grid of the modulator are fully transistorized.

i)HIGH PASS FILTER:

The audio input from the speech rack is fed to active High Pass Filter. It cuts off all
frequencies below 60 Hz. Its main function is to suppress the switching transistors from the
audio input. This also has the audio attenuator and audio muting relay which will not allow
AF to further stage till RF is about 70 kW of power.

ii)AF PRE-AMPLIFIER:
The output of the High Pass Filter is fed to the AF Pre-amplifier, one for each
balanced audio line. Signal from the negative feed back network from the secondary of the
modulation transformer and the signals from the compensator also are fed to this unit.

iii)AF PRE-CORRECTOR:
Pre- amplifier output are fed to the AF Pre-correctors. As the final modulator
valve in the AF is operating as Class B, its gain will not be uniform for various levels of AF
signal. That is the gain of the modulator will be low for low level, input, and high for high
level AF input because of the operating characteristics of the Vacuum tubes. Hence to
compensate for the non linear gain of the modulator. The Pre-corrector amplifies the low level
signal highly and high level signal with low gain. Hum compensator is used to have a better
signal to noise ratio.

iv)AF DRIVER :
The two AF drivers are used to drive the two modulator valves. The driver provides
the necessary DC Bias voltage and also AF signal sufficient to modulate 100%. The output of
AF driver stage is formed by four transistor in series as it works with a high voltage of about
-400 V. the transistors are protected with diodes and Zener diodes against high voltages that
may result due to internal tube flashovers. There is a potentiometer by which any clipping can
be avoided such that the maximum modulation factor will not exceeded.
 11

v)AF FINAL STAGE:

AF final stage is equipped with ceramic tetrodes CQK-25. Filament current of this
tube is about 210 Amps. at 10V. The filament transformers are of special leakage reactance
type and their short circuit current is limited to about 2 to 3 times the normal load current.
Hence the filament surge current at the time of switching on will not exceed the maximum
limit.
A varistor at the screen or spark gaps across the grid are to prevent over voltages.
As the modulator valve is condensed vapour cooled tetrodes, deionised water is used for
cooling. The valve required about 11.5 litres/min. of water. Two water flow switches WF1
and WF2 in the water lines of each of the valves protect against low or no water flow.
Thermostats WT1 and WT2 in each water line provide protection against excessive water
temp. by tripping the transmitter up to stand-by if the temperature of the water exceeds 70o C.

Modulation condenser and modulation choke have been dispensed with due to
the special design of the modulation transformer. Special high power varistor is provided
across the secondary winding of the modulation transformer to prevent transformer over
voltages.

POWER SUPPLY IN 100 KW HMB 140 MW TRANSMITTER :

1. HT -11 kV PA & Modulator : thyristor controlled for smooth variation of HT
2. 800 V Power Supply : Screen voltage to PA valve.
3. 1070 V : Screen voltage to modulate valve.
4. 1900 V : Plate voltage to RF Driver
5. - 650 V : (i) Grid Bias to PA Modulator & RF Driver
(ii) A tap on -650 V provides -600 V supply to the
cathode of RF Driver
(iii) -100 V for the screen of RF Driver.
6. Main supply to transmitter : 415 V. 3 Phase 50 Hertz.

Earthing switch operated by a handle from the front of the rack has been provided in
the filter tank. The main HT terminal and also the live ends of the filter condensers C201 to C
210 have been brought to the earthing switch. In addition all the MT voltage (- 650, 800,
1070, 1900) are also brought to the earthing switch. The 11 kV point is discharged initially
through a resistor R - 543 before it is grounded. The earthing switch is interlocked to the main
transmitter by micro switches S 302, S 303 and S 304. In addition, a key interlock system is
provided to prevent accidental contact with high voltages.

3.4 CONTROL AND INTERLOCK SYSTEMS IN TRANSMITTER:

Switching Sequence of Transmitter:

 Ventilation.
 Filament
 Grid Bias/Medium Tension
 High Tension.

3.4.1VENTILATION :

All the transmitters handle large amount of power. Basically the transmitters
convert power from AC main's to Radio Frequency and Audio Frequency energy. The
conversion process always result in some loss. The loss in energy is dissipated in the form of
heat. The dissipated energy has to be carried away by a suitable medium to keep the raise in
temperature of the transmitting equipment within limits. Hence, in order to ensure that the
heat generated by the equipment is carried away as soon as it is generated the ventilation
equipment need to be switched on first. Normally the cooling provided in a transmitter could
be classified on the following lines :

• Cooling for the tube filaments.

• Cooling for the tube Anodes.
• General cooling of the cubics.
• Cooling for coils, condensers, Resistors etc.
 13

The cooling equipments comprise of blowers, pumps and heat exchangers. Another important
consideration is that during the switching off sequence the cooling equipments should run a
little longer to carry away the heat generated in the equipments. This is ensured by providing
a time delay for the switch off of the cooling equipment. Normal time delay is of the order of
3 to 6 Minutes.

The water flow and the air flow provided by the cooling equipments to the various
equipments are monitored by means of air flow and water flow switches. In case of failure
of water or air flow, these switches provide necessary commands for tripping the
transmitter.

3.4.2 FILAMENTS:
All the transmitters invariably employ tubes in their drive and final stages of RF
amplifiers and sub modulator and modular stages of AF amplifiers. After ventilation
equipments are switched on and requisite air and water flow established, the filament of the
tubes can be switched on. While switching on filament of the tube, the control and
interlocking circuits have to take care of the following points.

The cold resistance of the filament is very low and hence application of full filament
voltage in one strike would result in enormous filament current and may damage the tube
filament. Hence, it becomes necessary to apply the filament voltage in steps. Various
methods adopted are :

i. Use of step starter resistance : Here the filament voltage of the tubes are given
through a series resistance (called step starter resistance). The series resistance
which limits the initial filament current is shorted and after a time interval by
the use of a timer switch.
ii. Use of special filament transformer which allows slow build up of the filament
voltage.
iii. Application of filament voltage in 3 or 4 steps.
 The emission from the tubes depend upon the temperature of the filament.
Generally it takes some time for the filament to reach a steady temperature after it is switched
on. Hence, it is not desirable to draw any power from the tube till it attains a stable
temperature. This means that the further switching on process has to be suspended till the
filament temperature and hence the emission becomes stable. This aspect is taken care of by
providing a time delay of 3 to 5 minutes between the filament switching on and the next
sequence namely bias switching on.

3.4.3 BIAS AND MEDIUM TENSION:

For obvious reasons the control grid of the tube has to be given the necessary
negative bias voltage before its anode voltage can be applied. Hence, after the application of
full filament voltage and after the lapse of necessary delay for the filament temperature to
become stable bias voltage can be switched on. Along with bias generally anode and screen
voltages of intermediate stages and driver stages are also switched on. Application of bias and
medium tension makes available very high voltages for the various transmitter equipment.
Hence, in order to ensure the safety of the personnel access to these equipment should be
forbidden before the application of bias and medium tension. This is ensured by providing the
interlocking so that the bias and medium tension can be put on only after all the transmitter
and other HV equipment doors are closed to prevent access.

3.5 CONNECTION OF LOAD (ANTENNA/DUMMY LOAD):

After the application of ventilation, filament and bias the anode voltage can be
switched on. But before the anode voltage can be increased the interlocking circuit is to
ensure that the load of the transmitter namely antenna or dummy load is connected to the
transmitter. The tuning process of the various RF stages are complete and none of the tuning
motors are moving.

APPLICATION OF SCREEN VOLTAGE :

In the case of tetrode tubes, the screen voltage to the tube should not be applied
before the application of anode voltage to keep the screen current and screen dissipation within
 15

limits. This is taken care of by an interlocking provision that the screen voltage is applied only
after the anode voltage reach a certain pre-determined value well above the normal screen
voltage.

RELEASE OF AUDIO FREQUENCY :

The application of AF signal to the AF stage in the absence of carrier power would
result in the operation of modulation transformer with no load connected. This is not
desirable. Therefore, the AF signal should be applied to the Audio frequency stages only
when the RF power amplifier is delivering the nominal power. Normally AF frequency signal
to the AF stage is released only when the carrier power is approximately 80% of the normal
power.

3.6 MEDIUM WAVE ANTENNA:

When the electromagnetic waves in the medium wave (MW) range are
directed towards the Ionosphere, they are absorbed by the D-region during the day time and
are reflected from the E layer during the night time, which may travel longer distances to cause
interferences. The wave length of MW signals are very large, of the order of few hundred
metres, and therefore the antenna cannot be mounted a few wavelengths above the earth to
radiate as space waves. MW antenna, therefore, have to exist close to the surface of the earth
and the Radio waves from them have to travel close to the earth as ground waves. If the
electric vector of such MW radiation is horizontal, they will be attenuated very fast with
distance due to the proximity of the earth. MW antenna have to be placed vertically, so that
they radiate vertically polarised signals. It is for this reason, all the MW antenna are installed
vertically close to the ground. However vertical wire antenna, inverted 'L' type antenna, top
loaded antenna and umbrella antenna are at a few All India Radio stations. Directional
antenna systems also exist in many All India Radio stations.

3.6.1 SELF RADIATING MW MAST ANTENNAS:

They are broadly of two types :
• Mast isolated from ground and fed at its base.
• Grounded mast fed at a suitable point along its height
 Figure 3.1 :MW Antenna isolated from ground

The first consideration of such mast is its height in terms of the wave length.
What is the optimum height ? Obviously the main considerations are economy consistent with
maximum coverage and minimum high angle radiation (sky wave).
 17

CHAPTER 4
FM TRANSMITTER

There is too much over-crowding in the AM broadcast bands and shrinkage in

the night-time service area due to fading, interference, etc. FM broadcasting offers several
advantages over AM such as uniform day and night coverage, good quality listening and
suppression of noise, interference, etc.

4.1 Salient Features of FM Transmitters :

1. Completely solid state.
2. Forced air cooled with the help of rack-integrated blowers.
3. Parallel operation of two transmitters in passive exciter standby mode.
4. Mono or stereo broadcasting
5. Additional information such as SCA signals and radio traffic signals (RDS) can
also be transmitted.
6. Local/Remote operation
7. Each transmitter has been provided with a separate power supply.
8. Transmitter frequency is crystal controlled and can be set in steps of 10 kHz using
a synthesizer.

4.2 Modern FM Transmitter:

Simplified block diagram of a Modern FM Transmitter is given in Fig.1. The left
and right channel of audio signal are fed to stereo coder for stereo encoding. This stereo
encoded signal or mono signal (either left or right channel audio) is fed to VHF oscillator and
modulator. The FM modulated output is amplified by a wide band power amplifier and then
fed to Antenna for transmission.
 Voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) is used as VHF oscillator and modulator. To
stabilize its frequency a portion of FM modulated signal is fed to a programmable divider,
which divides the frequency by a factor ‘N’ to get 10 kHz frequency at the input of a phase
and frequency comparator (phase detector). The factor ‘N’ is automatically selected when we
set the station carrier frequency. The other input of phase detector is a reference signal of 10
kHz generated by a crystal oscillator of 10 MHz and divided by a divider (1/1000). The output
of phase detector is an error voltage, which is fed to VCO for correction of its frequency
through rectifier and low pass filter.

Figure 4.1: Block Diagram of Modern FM Transmitter

4.2 2 X 3 KW FM TRANSMITTER:
Simplified block diagram of a 2 x 5 kW FM transmitter is shown in Fig.2. 2 x 5 kW
Transmitter setup, which is more common, consists of two 3 kW transmitters, designated as
transmitters A and B, whose output powers are combined with the help of a combining unit.
Maximum of two transmitters can be housed in a single rack along with two Exciter units.
Transmitter A is provided with a switch-on-control unit (GS 033A1) which, with the help of
the Adapter plug-in-unit (KA 033A1), also ensures the parallel operation of transmitter B.
Combining unit is housed in a separate rack.
 19

Figure 4.2: 2 x 3 kW FM Transmitter

Low-level modulation of VHF oscillator is carried out at the carrier frequency in

the Exciter type SU 115. The carrier frequency can be selected in 10 kHz steps with the help
of BCD switches in the synthesizer. The exciter drives four 1.5 kW VHF amplifier, which is a
basic module in the transmitter. Two such amplifiers are connected in parallel to get 5 kW
power. The transmitter is forced air-cooled with the help of a blower. A standby blower has
also been provided which is automatically selected when the pre-selected blower fails. Both
the blowers can be run if the ambient temperature exceeds 40oC.

Power stages are protected against mismatch (VSWR > 1.5) or excessive heat sink
temperature by automatic reduction of power with the help of control circuit. Electronic
voltage regulator has not been provided for the DC supplies of power amplifiers but a more
efficient system of stabilization in the AC side has been provided. This is known as AC-
switch over. Transmitter operates in the passive exciter standby mode with help of switch-on-
control unit. When the pre-selected exciter fails, standby exciter is automatically selected.
Reverse switch over, however, is not possible.
4.2.1 EXCITER:
The Exciter is, basically, a self-contained full-fledged low power FM Transmitter. It
has the capability of transmitting mono or stereo signals as well as additional information such
as traffic radio, SCA (Subsidiary Channel Authorisation) and RDS (Radio Data System)
signals. It can give three output powers of 30 mW, 1 W or 10 W by means of internal links
and switches. The output power is stabilized and is not affected by mismatch (VSWR > 1.5),
temperature and AC supply fluctuations. Power of the transmitter is automatically reduced in
the event of mismatch. The 10 W output stage is a separate module that can be inserted
between 1 W stage and the low pass harmonics filter. This stage is fed from a switching
power supply which also handles part of the RF output power control and the AC supply
stabilizations. In AIR set up this 10 W unit is included as an integral part of the Exciter.

This unit processes the incoming audio signals both for mono and stereo
transmissions. In case of stereo transmission, the incoming L and R channel signals are
processed in the stereo coder circuit to yield a stereo base band signal with 19 kHz pilot tone
for modulating the carrier signal. It also has a multiplexer wherein the coded RDS and SCA
signals are multiplexed with the normal stereo signal on the modulating base band. The
encoders for RDS and SCA applications are external to the transmitter and have to be provided
separately as and when needed.

4.2.2 FREQUENCY GENERATION, CONTROL AND MODULATION:

The transmitter frequency is generated and carrier is modulated in the Synthesiser
module within the Exciter. The carrier frequency is stabilized with reference to the 10 MHz
frequency from a crystal oscillator using PLL and programmable dividers. The operating
frequency of the transmitter can be selected internally by means of BCD switches or externally
by remote control. The output of these switches generates the desired number by which the
programmable divider should divide the VCO frequency (which lies between 87.5 to 108
MHz) to get a 10 kHz signal to be compared with the reference frequency. The stablised
carrier frequency is modulated with the modulating base band consisting of the audio (mono
 21

and stereo), RDS and SCA signals. The Varactor diodes are used in the synthesizer to
generate as well as modulate the carrier frequency.

4.2.3 SWITCH-ON CONTROL UNIT:

The switch-on-control unit can be termed as the “brain” and controls the working of the
transmitter ‘A’. It performs the following main functions:

1. It controls the switching ON and OFF sequence of RF power amplifiers, rack blower
and RF carrier enable in the exciter.

2. Indicates the switching and the operating status of the system through LEDs.

3. Provides automatic switch over operation of the exciter in the passive exciter standby
mode in which either of the two exciters can be selected to operate as the main unit.

4. It provides a reference voltage source for the output regulators in the RF amplifiers.

5. It is used for adjusting the output power of the transmitter.

6. It evaluates the fault signals provided by individual units and generates an overall sum
fault signal which is indicated by an LED on the front panel. The fault is also stored in
the defective unit and displayed on its front panel.

4.3 POWER SUPPLY SYSTEM:

The FM transmitter requires 3-phase power connection though all the circuits, except
the power amplifiers, need only single phase supply for their operation. An AVR of 50 kVA
capacity has been provided for this purpose.

For each transmitter, there is a separate power distribution panel (mounted on the
lower portion on the front of the rack). Both the distribution panels A&B are identical except
for the difference that the LEDs, fuses and relays pertaining to switching circuit of blowers and
absorber are mounted on the ‘A’ panel.
4.4 FM ANTENNA AND FEEDER CABLE SYSTEM:
The Antenna system for FM Transmitters consists of 3 main sub-systems, namely :
a) Supporting tower
b) Main antenna
c) Feeder Cable

4.4.1 TOWER :
A tower of good height is required for mounting the FM antenna since the
coverage of the transmitter is proportional to the height of the tower. For a 100 m height, the
coverage is about 60 km. Wherever new towers were to be provided, generally they are of 100
m height since beyond this height, there is steep rise in their prices because of excessive wind
load on the top of the tower. At some places existing towers of Doordarshan have also been
utilized for mounting the FM antenna. Provision has also been made on the AIR towers for
top mounting of TV antenna below FM antenna (Aperture for Band III).

4.4.2 ANTENNA:
The main requirements of the antenna to be used for FM transmitters are :
• Wide-band usage from 88 to 108 MHz range.
• Omni-directional horizontal pattern of field strength.
• Circular polarization for better reception.
• High gain for both vertical and horizontal signals.
• Two degrees beam tilt below horizontal
• Sturdy design for maintenance-free service.

Further, depending on the type of tower available for mounting the requirement is
for two types of antenna. The first type is to be mounted on a small cross-section AIR Tower.
For which a pole type FM antenna has been selected. For mounting on the existing TV towers,
a panel type antenna has been used. The cross section of the TV tower at the AIR aperture is
2.4 x 2.4 m. the pole type antenna is quite economical as compared to panel type antenna, but
it can not be used on large area towers. For our requirement, the antennae supplied by M/s.
SIRA have been found suitable.
 23

i)Pole Type Antenna:

The pole type antenna is mounted on one of the four faces of the tower. This system
will give a field pattern within a range of 3 dB. The antenna is mounted in such a direction in
which it is required to enhance the signal.
The other important features are :
• Very low power radiation towards Transmitter building.

• Spacing between dipoles is 2.6 m and all the dipoles are mounted one above the
other on the same face.

• Lengths of feed cables of dipoles will be different and has been calculated to give a
beam tilt of 2o below horizontal.

• The feed point of the antenna is looking towards ground so as to avoid deterioration
of the insulating flange. This flange consists of high density PVC. The life of this
is expected to be about 7 to 10 years.

• The distance of the feeding strip is 240 mm from edge and this should not be
disturbed. All the six dipoles are mounted on a 100 mm dia Pole. This pole is
supported by the main tower.

• The antenna is fed through a power divider which divides total power into 6 outlets
for feeding the 6 dipoles. The power divider is mounted on a different face of the
tower.

• The main feeder cables, power divider branch feeder cables, and dipoles are of
hollow construction to enable pressurization of the system.
 • The antenna can handle two channels with diplexing.

• Suitable terminations are supplied for terminating the output of power divider in
case of failure of any dipole.

ii)Panel Type Antenna:

Each panel consists of :
• Reflector panel
• Two numbers of bent horizontal dipoles and
• Two numbers of vertical dipoles
The capacity of each dipole is 2.5 kW. Therefore, each panel is able to transmit 10
kW power. The reflector panels are constructed of GI bars whereas the dipoles are made out
of steel tubes. Since each panel consists of 4 dipoles, there are a total of 64 dipoles for all the
16 panels. Therefore the power divider has 64 outlets to feed each of the dipoles. The power
divider will be mounted inside the tower. This antenna gives an omni-directional pattern when
the panels are mounted on all the four faces.

4.4.3 FEEDER CABLE:

For connecting the output power of the transmitter to the dipoles through the power divider, a
3” dia feeder cable has been used.
This cable is of hollow type construction and has to be handled very carefully.
From the building to the base of the tower, the cable is laid on horizontal cable tray. Along
with the tower this is fixed on the cable rack provided for this purpose. The cable is clamped
at every 1.5 m and the minimum radius of bending of this cable is about 1 m. The cable has
been provided with two numbers of EIA flange connectors of 3 1/8” size on both ends. Both
the connectors are of gas-stop type. The cable connector on the antenna end i.e. on top of the
tower is made gas-through before hoisting. This is achieved by drilling a hole through the
Teflon insulator inside the connector. A dummy hole (drilled only half way) is already
provided by the manufacturer for this purpose.
25
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION