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4.3 Statistics (TOC)

Most symbols for statistics are placed in italics (exceptions are very rare). Nonstandard
symbols are used for some common statistics (check the APA Manual, Table 3.9, for a
complete list of accepted symbols):
M = mean ( ), SD = standard deviation ( ), Mdn = median, SS = sum of squares ( X
2
).
Descriptive statistics give summary information about a sample or population, such as the
average (mean) or standard deviation of some characteristic. For example, "Abigail Scribe has
a GPA of 3.65, which is below the average for students accepted at Ivy and Oak University (M =
3.85, SD = 0.21)." Descriptive statistics may be presented in the text with the appropriate syntax
(e.g., "a GPA of 3.85"). When referred to indirectly they are set in parentheses, as with (M =
3.85, SD = 0.21).
Inferential statistics reason from a sample to the characteristics of a population, often
expressed as a probability. For example, "Abby Scribe has a chance of being accepted at Ivy
and Oak University (p < .15), but counselors advise her that her odds are not great based on
last year's applicants, X2(2, N = 2247) = 2.81, p < .15 (one-tailed)." Inferential statistics are
presented in the text (no parentheses) with "sufficient information to allow the reader to fully
understand the results of the analysis conducted" (APA, 2009, p.116). The following examples
from the APA Manual (p, 117 ):
t(117) = 3.51, p < .001, d = 0.65, 95% CI [0.35, 0.95]
The first number in parentheses is degrees of freedom of the analysis; "95% CI" stands for 95%
confidence interval.
"Space mathematical copy as you would words: a+b=c is as difficult to read as
wordswithoutspacing" (APA, 2009, p. 118). Place a space before and after all arithmetic
operators and signs ( = , < , > , - , + , etc.); a + b = c.

Statistical Notation & Symbol Editing for

Dissertation & Thesis Students

Writing a thesis or dissertation is not an easy task. The process is

often stress inducing because the doctoral student must
prepare a paper according to the format and style specified in
their discipline (e.g. the American Psychological Association).
On top of that, your college or university frequently modifies or
supplements the format outlined by your discipline. Students
normally will have difficulty meeting these specific formatting
criteria and oftentimes will have extra difficulty formatting the
statistical notation and symbols in their paper. While
dissertation writing is one thing, correctly formatting statistical
notation and symbols is another. Appropriate use of statistical
notation and symbols in your work is expected and required by
your dissertation committee.

As a general rule, most of the statistical notation and

symbols for your descriptive statistics and other statistical
tests will be found in the results and data analysis sections of
 your paper. There are several rules regarding capitalization,
bolding, and italics. These rules can be confusing and are best
left to a dissertation consultant. A consultant knows the simple
things about statistical notation and symbols, like how to refer
to statistical tests in text. Hire a dissertation consultant today
and ease some of your formatting worries. Request
Dissertation & Thesis Editing Help

Using Statistical Notation and Symbols in Your

Dissertation

If you are familiar with statistics, you probably are familiar

with some of the statistical notation and symbols. Or, if you
have read empirical journal articles, you have seen statistical
notation and symbols. Many statistical notations, such as
ANOVA for the Analysis of Variance, are probably similar to
what you used or saw in your basic statistics course. Other
statistical notations, like M for the mean, are probably less
familiar to you. Here are some statistical notation and symbols
tips. The below list contains APA-approved statistical notation
and symbols. Consult a dissertation consultant for assistance
with the statistical notation and symbols excluded from this
list.

N = statistical notation for dissertation total sample size

n = statistical notation for dissertation subsample size
M = statistical notation and symbol for dissertation mean
Mdn = statistical notation and symbol for dissertation median
SD = statistical notation and symbol for dissertation standard
deviation
p = statistical notation and symbol for p value
SEM = statistical notation and symbol for dissertation standard error
of the mean
d = statistical notation and symbol for effect size (Cohen)
LR = statistical notation and symbol for the Likelihood ratio

Rest assured that if you undertake the formatting of the statistical

symbols and notations in your dissertation on your own, you
will be annoyed, stressed and confused. Don't do that to
yourself. Get help from a consultant who is knowledgeable
about statistical notation and symbols and your discipline's
format and style requirements.