‘

‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘


‘
‘ ‘
‘


‘

‘
‘
‘ ‘
‘

‘
 ‘ ‘
‘
‘‘‘‘‘‘‘ !‘
‘
‘
‘ ‘
‘‘
‘
‘
‘
‘‘
‘
"#‘
$"‘  ‘
#‘%&‘"‘
#‘  ‘ '‘
‘
‘
"‘(‘"‘)*‘
"‘+,"'-‘./"‘
‘
‘‘
‘
‘
c
 
.‘‘  ‘
‘
#‘ #‘   ‘ 
‘ #‘
01‘ 2+%‘+
3‘ 3
c#‘    + ‘ 5-7
1.1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 5
1.2 HEALTH 6
1.3‘ EDUCATION 6-7
4#‘ %
‘‘
+ ‘ 9 -14
2.1 Globalisation and Impact on Health ± A Third World Review, By 9
Evelyne Hong, People¶s Health Assembly, Bangladesh, August
2000
‘

2.2 Globalisation and Health: A Framework for Analysis and Action, 10

By David Woodward, Nick Drager, Robert Beaglehole, & Debra
Lipson
‘

2.3 Higher Education in India : Seizing the Opportunity, By Sanat Kaul, 10

May 2006, Indian Council for Research on International Economic
Relations

2.4 The Impact of Economic Globalisation on Health, By Meri 10 - 11

Koivusalo, 2006

2.5 Effects of Globalisation on Education and Culture, By S.

11
Chinnammai, ICDE International Conference, 2005

5#‘

‘

3‘
‘   
 ‘‘ 13 - 21

‘ INTRODUCTION 13
3.1 POSITIVE OUTCOMES ON HEALTH 14 - 15
3.2 POSITIVE OUTCOMES ON EDUCATION 15 - 17
3.3 ADVERSE EFFECTS ON HEALTH 17 ±-19
3.4 ADVERSE EFFECTS ON EDUCATION 19 ± 21
6#‘ 
 ‘
‘ + ‘ 23
‘ ..
3‘ 24

(
‘
2+%‘+
3‘
‘
78‘" //‘/‘"‘‘‘" //‘9‘"'‘‘("/( 8‘
-‘ Milan Kundera

The growing integration of economies and societies around the world has been one of the
most hotly-debated topics in international economics over the past few years. Rapid growth and
poverty reduction in China, India, and other countries that were poor 20 years ago, has been a
positive aspect of Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization (LPG).

Globalization has many meanings depending on the context and on the person who is talking
about. Guy Brainbant says that, µthe process of globalisation not only includes opening up of world
trade but also, the development of advanced means of communication, internationalisation of
financial markets, growing importance of MNC¶s, population migrations and more generally
increased mobility of persons, goods, capital, data and ideas but also infections, diseases and
pollution and mutual exchange of technology and knowledge. Ideally, it also contains free inter-
country movement‘of labour.

This paper describes a conceptual framework for the implications of globalization on health
and education and following are the objectives framed for the same:

①To define the concept of population health and identifying its relevance with regard to
globalisation

①To understand the stability of economic and political policies in managing education

in the global economy

①To analyse the further implications, of inevitable growth of globalisation, on health

and education.

‘

 ‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘


 ‘c‘
   + ‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘

‰
 
 c‘:‘   + ‘
‘
c#c‘ 
‘ % ‘

Globalization has been a historical process with ebbs and flows. During the Pre-World War I
period of 1870 to 1914, there was rapid integration of the economies in terms of trade flows,
movement of capital and migration of people. The growth of globalization was mainly led by the
technological forces in the fields of transport and communication. There were less barriers to flow
of trade and people across the geographical boundaries. Indeed there were no passports and visa
requirements and very few non-tariff barriers and restrictions on fund flows.

The pace of globalization, however, decelerated between the First and the Second World
War. The inter-war period witnessed the erection of various barriers to restrict free movement of
goods and services. Most economies thought that they could thrive better under high protective
walls. After World War II, all the leading countries resolved not to repeat the mistakes they had
committed previously by opting for isolation. Although after 1945, there was a drive to increased
integration, it took a long time to reach the Pre-World War I level. In terms of percentage of
exports and imports to total output, the US could reach the pre -World War level of 11 per cent only
around 1970. Most of the developing countries which gained Independence from the colonial rule
in the immediate Post-World War II period followed an import substitution industrialization regime.
The Soviet bloc countries were also shielded from the process of global economic integration.

However, times have changed. In the last two decades, the process of globalization has
proceeded with greater vigour. The former Soviet bloc countries are getting integrated with the
global economy. More and more developing countries are turning towards outward oriented policy
of growth. Yet, studies point out that trade and capital markets are no more globalized today than
they were at the end of the 19th century. Nevertheless, there are more concerns about globalization
now than before because of the nature and speed of transformation. What is striking in the current
episode is not only the rapid pace but also the enormous impact of new information technologies on
market integration, efficiency and industrial organization. Globalization of financial markets has far
outpaced the integration of product markets.

-
c#4‘
‘

Many think about the health effects of modern global trade as involving increased pollution
as corporations strive to limit environmental restraints or global warming caused by the increased
reliance on cheap fossil fuels. Others focus on the changes in diet produced by genetically modified
foods or the increase in the tobacco market penetration. Others might consider the health of child
labourers in Pakistan who produce many of the disposable surgical instruments that are increasingly
used in US hospitals. Or they might consider deaths from toxic exposures in poor countries as US
corporations evade environmental restraints at home. One such example occurred few years ago in
Bhopal, India, where 5 tons of poisonous methyl isocyanine gas leaked into the air from a Union
Carbide pesticide plant, killing more than 3,000 people. These effects are real, but they pale in
comparison with globalization¶s effect on increasing inequality, the most powerful factor affecting
population health and responsible for perhaps 14 to 18 million deaths a year (18% of total deaths)
worldwide. Globalization has also helped to spread some of the deadliest infectious diseases known
to humans. Modern modes of transportation allow more people and products to travel around the
world at a faster pace, but they also open the airways to the transcontinental movement of infectious
disease vector one example of this occurring is AIDS/HIV Due to immigration.

Globalization is a key challenge to public health, especially in developing countries, but the
linkages between globalization and health are complex. Although a growing amount of literature
has appeared on the subject, it is piecemeal, and suffers from a lack of an agreed framework for
assessing the direct and indirect health effects of different aspects of globalization.

Good health for all populations has become an accepted international goal and we can state
that there have been broad gains in life expectancy over the past century. But health inequalities
between rich and poor persist, while the prospects for future health depend increasingly on the
relative new processes of globalisation. In the past globalisation has often been seen as a more or
less economic process.

c#5‘ +
 ‘

Globalisation is a process, which has affected many areas of human life, one of those being
education. In the twentieth century, many developing countries have experienced growth in the
educational facilities available to them due to the entry of institutions from the West. Some believe
that this process is an invaluable opportunity for the people of the developing countries to raise their
r
skills and standards of education. Others fear that it is merely a modern version of cultural
imperialism that will lead to the creation of a universal, ultimately Western society. One aspect of
the globalisation of education has been the creation of µtwinning projects¶ between one Western and
one Non-Western University. Through Globalisation of education, which is being knowledge
transfer from the Western countries into developing countries, is intended to improve the skills and
capabilities of the people receiving it.‘

To speak about education, the knowledge capital within a population is increasingly affected
by developments in global communication and global mobility. The term 'globalisation of
education' suggests getting education into every nook and cranny of the globe. Millions of people
now acquire part of their knowledge from transworld textbooks, due to the supra-territoriality in
publishing.

Education is already a global business. The days when higher education was a matter of
national policy and government regulation are rapidly fading. Higher Education provisioning is now
globalised and in many ways, a commercialized affair and the student is now the customer or client.
With globalization, Universities are spreading their reach beyond geographical and political borders.
The British, Australian and American Universities are setting up campuses in Singapore, China and
the Gulf.

Education is a trillion Dollar industry worldwide. Education industry groups are, therefore,
attracted by the prospects of liberalization and globalization of this industry. They seek more
international deregulation and generally support WTO efforts. As demands for higher education
grow the world over, the governments are also finding it difficult to provide adequate budgetary
allocation. GATS covers educational services of all types for all countries whose educational
systems are not exclusively provided by public sector or those systems that have a commercial
purpose. Hardly any country has education exclusively in the public sector domain and therefore,
almost all the world¶s educational systems come within the purview of GATS.

[
 
 ‘4‘
%
‘‘
+ ‘

‘
ù
 
 ‘4‘:‘ %
‘‘
+ ‘
‘
4#c‘‘‘‘‘‘;‘
‘"‘
"‘ ,9-‘.'‘,'‘/-‘8‘
‘
'-‘./-‘
/ ‘4<<<‘
‘
‘

Globalisation has led to increased environmental threats; the marginalisation of local

communities; increased migration; urbanisation; land use patterns which affect the soil,
deforestation, monoculture, soil depletion, and loss of biodiversity; pollution of the seas and
farmlands from chemicalised agriculture; resource depletion; malnutrition; and the curative
emphasis in health care and public health with increased reliance on technologies like drugs,
vaccines, and chemicals. Integration of markets has resulted in new products and new lifestyles
especially toxic products like tobacco, alcohol, contaminated foods, irradiated foods, junk foods,
dangerous medicines, the trafficking in drugs, organ trade, anti-personal landmines, light weapons,
pornographic materials and the like. These developments have far reaching implications on the
spread of disease and public health.

Clearly the effects of the global economy have been devastating for societies everywhere.
Globalisation as institutionalised in the WTO, IMF-WB acting on the pressures of the TNCs and
their governments has led to the disempowerment of nation states and the collapse of their
economies. Governments especially in the Third World are burdened with debt, economic decline
and environmental disasters: this makes it almost impossible to achieve any meaningful social 76
development for their peoples. Poverty has increased and the gap between the rich and poor have
widened; unemployment is a fact of life; communities have disintegrated; traditional family
structures have broken down, there is more homelessness and destitution, violence in all forms is
escalating; environmental problems and diseases are beyond control. Increasingly peoples have
come to recognise that this system is not working; where people are devalued and life has no social
meaning; where institutions are given unbridled powers to facilitate corporations to accumulate and
concentrate wealth and immiserate the lives of the majority. They are reacting against this system
demanding changes and seeking alternatives: that foster justice and equity; happiness and
fulfillment; promote ecological principles, values of cooperation, community, love, caring, and
respect for life and diversity. Many citizen groups and individuals are now working together in
various networks and coalitions to bring about change at different levels.
‘

o
4#4‘ ‘ ‘ =‘
‘ "9">‘ ("‘
'‘ ‘
-‘ .'‘ ,‘
9"-‘
>‘ "/"-‘ "‘./-‘?‘ "‘‘
‘
‘
‘

Globalization is a key challenge to public health, especially in developing countries, but the
linkages between globalization and health are complex. Although a growing amount of literature
has appeared on the subject, it is piecemeal, and suffers from a lack of an agreed framework for
assessing the direct and indirect health effects of different aspects of globalization. This paper
presents a conceptual framework for the linkages between economic globalization and health, with
the intention that it will serve as a basis for synthesizing existing relevant literature, identifying gaps
in knowledge, and ultimately developing national and international policies more favourable to
health. The framework encompasses both the indirect effects on health, operating through the
national economy, household economies and health-related sectors such as water, sanitation and
education, as well as more direct effects on population-level and individual risk factors for health
and on the health care system. Proposed also is a set of broad objectives for a programme of action
to optimize the health effects of economic globalization. The paper concludes by identifying
priorities for research corresponding with the five linkages identified as critical to the effects of
globalization on health.
‘

4#5‘ /"‘  ‘ ‘ ‘ =‘ @/‘ ‘ " '-‘ .'‘ ‘ A -‘ '‘ 4<<B-‘ ‘
 ‘("‘ "‘‘"‘‘ ‘
‘
‘

Reviews the prevailing policy environment to evaluate its efficacy in ensuring that India is
successfully able to address these challenges in the education sector. Given the well established
constraints on public funding of education, the role of the private sector especially in the provision
of higher education and technical training has been highlighted. The paper suggests that India needs
to have a proactive demand based policy towards private higher education including foreign
institutions/universities desirous of setting up campus in India or entering into joint-ventures. This
has to be combined with the establishment of a regulatory mechanism that ensures that students¶
welfare is not compromised and quality standards are maintained.

4#6‘‘‘(‘‘‘‘-‘.'‘"‘A, -‘4<<B ‘
‘

The analysis of the impact of economic globalisation on health depends on how it is defined and
should consider how it shapes both health and health policies. I first discuss the ways in which

c

economic globalisation can and has been defined and then why it is important to analyse its impact
both in terms of health and health policies. I then explore the ways in which economic globalisation
influences health and health policies and how this relates to equity, social justice, and the role of
values and social rights in societies. Finally, I argue that the process of economic globalisation
provides a common challenge for all health systems across the globe and requires a broader debate
on values, accountability, and policy approaches.

4#C‘ ((‘ (‘ ‘ ‘  ‘ ‘   "-‘ .'‘ #‘ -‘  ‘
"‘("-‘4<<C‘
Education is undergoing constant changes under the effects of globalisation. The effects of
globalisation on education bring rapid developments in technology and communications are
foreseeing changes within learning systems across the world as ideas, values and knowledge,
changing the roles of students and teachers, and producing a shift in society from industrialisation
towards an information-based society. It reflects the effect on culture and brings about a new form
of cultural imperialism. The rise of new cultural imperialism is shaping children, the future citizens
of the world into µglobal citizens¶, intelligent people with a broad range of skills and knowledge to
apply to a competitive, information based society. Globalisation and technological advancements
are delivering and increasing access to the world and subsequently subjects should reflect this
global outlook. The internationalisation of higher education can be linked to various internal and
external changes in the international system. Externally, there have been changes in the labour
market, which have resulted in calls for more knowledge and skilled workers, and workers with
deeper understandings of languages, cultures and business methods all over the world. Education is
becoming more invaluable to individuals. In today's environment, education provides individuals
with a better chance of employment, which in turn leads to a better lifestyle, power and status. The
commodification of knowledge as intellectual property has occurred particularly with regard to
connecting the intellectual work of universities with community, business, and government interests
and priorities. While such a tendency is often welcomed by so-called applied disciplines, it causes
tensions between the more profitable applied subjects of science and technology, and those of basic
theoretical enquiry, particularly in arts and humanities. It also creates institutional winners and
losers. This paper analyse the effect of globalisation on education and also discusses about the
impact of globalisation on higher education, regulations, culture, allocation of operation funds etc.
‘
‘
cc
 ‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘


 ‘5‘


‘

3‘

‘   
 ‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
c(
 
 ‘5‘;‘

‘

3‘
‘   
 ‘
‘

 +
 ‘
‘.

 ‘

That there is a theoretical relationship between education and globalisation - most tamely
defined as the process by which countries and their citizens are increasingly drawn together is
undisputed, though opinion varies as to whether or not it is 'a good thing' and how best to engage
with it. Opponents regard it as the cause of most things evil - competition, public sector downsizing
and creeping privatisation - and as something that adversely affects both public school provision
and social well-being. According to Kuehn and others, globalisation is characterised by unfettered
capitalism, the emergence of constrained democracy resulting from the fact that governments are
limited in how they can act, and the prostitution of schooling whereby its =
‘= is reduced
merely to serving an economic good through a school curriculum driven by commercial
considerations. Supporters, on the other hand, suggest that there are long-term gains to be had from
globalisation, not least in bringing nations together thro ugh trade and greater efficiency in the
provision of better public services. Critics counter by describing this as a 'race to the bottom, where
'wages, working conditions and social programs are all caught in a downward spiral', 1) in which
highly skilled jobs - not just menial, low-skilled ones in textile manufacture - are chased into low-
wage regions of the world and workers in developed countries find themselves increasingly
employed without security in temporary jobs with poor prospects.

As far as schooling is concerned, these same globalisation pressures have forced an

acceptance of the need for greater choice. Supporters see choice as a good thing =‘ ; critics
maintain it benefits only those already advantaged. What is more or less agreed is that globalisation
and international trade agreements, whether or not this was their intended consequence, have had
the effect of stopping governments from being able to intervene in the market on behalf of their
citizens. Critics and supporters posit it differently of course: the former suggest that globalisation
has usurped the ability and obligation of democratic governments to act in the interests of their
people; the latter suggest that globalisation has forced governments to act with proper discipline by
 interfering with the market and that only a free market can guarantee well-being and prosperity
in the long-term.

‘
‘
c

‘
‘.

 ‘
‘
‘‘"‘/‘‘ "04<<D1‘

Country Infant Life Maternal

mortality Expectancy Mortality Total
rate (Years) rate Fertility Rate
(Per 1000 (Per
live births) Male 1,00,000 live
Female births)
India 53 62 64.9 254 2.68
China 22 73.3 74.7 22 1.77
Republic of 4 75.8 82.4 14 1.22
Korea
Indonesia 25 68.5 72.5 420 2.13
Malesia 9 71.9 76.6 62 2.51
Vietnam 19 72.3 76.1 150 2.03
Bangladesh 42 64.7 66.7 570 2.29
Pakistan 62 65.9 66.5 320 3.87
Srilanka 15 70.3 77.9 58 2.31
Source : For India Government, State of World Population 2009

$ "‘‘‘‘‘ "‘

Total as % of GDP Public Per capita US $

%of GDP % of
Total
India 4.1 1.1 26.2 40
China 4.3 1.9 44.7 108
Egypt 6.3 2.4 38.1 101
South Korea 6.3 3.5 54.9 1362
Japan 8.0 6.5 81.3 2751
Russian Federation 5.4 3.5 64.2 493
UK 8.4 6.9 81.7 3867
USA 15.7 7.2 45.5 7285
Source: World Bank World Development Indicators (2010)
‘

5#c‘%‘+‘ ‘
‘

The globalization of trade is particularly relevant for health services that have become a commodity
that can be traded in distinct ways:
①", health services can be provided across borders. Examples include a range of
telemedicine tools, such as tele-diagnostics and tele-radiology as well as medical
consultation through traditional and electronic channels. ‘
c‰
 ‘
①, patients can travel abroad to receive health care or use certain facilities²the UK
government recently allowed UK patients to seek treatment in the European Economic Area.
Other countries, including developing ones such as Cuba and India, openly advertis e to
attract foreign patients to their clinics and hospitals. ‘
‘
①", health services themselves have become an industry that attracts foreign investments.
Several transnational companies from developed and developing countries have already
created commercial health services through the purchase and establishment of hospitals.‘
‘
① ", the international movement of health personnel across borders has become a
significant component of the trade in health services and has attracted considerable attention
in the scientific and lay press‘

Globalisation has become a convenient scapegoat for the failings of governments to prevent
monopoly power. To blame any rise in inequality on global trade as opposed to fiscal and other
policies pursued by governments is simplistic and xenophobic. Worse, it is potentially damaging to
the prospects of poorer countries to improve their lot sooner rather than later. 2-3 The fact is that trade
is the only way for poorer countries rapidly to catch up with the rich world. We need more, not less,
trade. Rather than reject globalisation the public health lobby should fight for a world trading
system based on the principles of freedom and liberty and oppose the tendencies of vested interests
in rich countries to use it as a vehicle for trade protectionism on spurious environmental or human
welfare-grounds.
‘
5#4‘%‘+‘ ‘ +
 ‘
‘

‘‘‘",
Mortimore has suggested that globalisation undermines traditional educational objectives -
the passing on of knowledge accumulated over generations, the development of skills from basic
literacy and numeracy to advanced intellectual analysis, and the appreciation of culture - and he
suggests that school effectiveness research has failed to establish strongly the relationship between
schooling and culture. In this light, Porter's overly simple definition of globalisation, referred to in
the introduction to this paper and which conjures up a 'vision of a peaceful coming together and

c-
renouncing of individual interests', is seen as masking a 'mad scramble for domination by the
powerful' over the rest. Globalisation, to those who share this critical view, is but another form of
colonisation and not an entirely new phenomenon at that. As Robertson has pointed out, it has been
evolving since the fifteenth century, taking off between 1870 and 1925. The current phase is merely
one of 'uncertainty', which term seems especially appropriate given the decline of the traditional
nation state and the gradual emergence of post- and pan-national politics.

‘‘"(‘‘ ‘
The congruence of various national educational initiatives in the UK and the effects of global
neo-liberal governance by powerful financial organisations have established an agenda in schools
characterised by a desire for accountability, entrepreneurialism and measurements. Bottery and
others have examined school leadership in this context, where successful headteachers are defined
mainly in terms of their achievement of government-imposed targets and suggests that the situation
is exacerbated by a professional culture of compliance. In the United Kingdom, the government's
preferred transformational model of school leadership is in many ways a micro-response to
global/macro pressures. Transformational leadership is sensitive (and specific) to political and
economic contexts, so its parameters are to some extent fixed by the forces of globalisation even
when there is disagreement as to the exact effect of such forces. Green and Marginson, for example,
argue that although globalisation predicts the demise of public systems, nation states (and national
cultures) still retain considerable control (and influence) over taxation and education in such a way
as to be able to mediate the effects of globalisation should they wish it. This is not to deny the
existence of global pressures. There is certainly a drive towards a polity beyond that of the nation
state which relocates areas of traditional responsibility and pressurises citizens to identify with
localities rather than with nations , but there are also discernable  

forces, working against
global uniformity, which advocate and have the effect of increasing diversity. Admittedly, while
these counter forces have their effect, it is the pro-globalisation economic pressures that have the
most immediate and greatest impact, so that governments are forced to deal with them first. As a
priority, policy-makers must rush to devise coping strategies to deal with the huge financial clout of
large multinational corporations and in particular their ability to switch production at the drop of a
hat to cheaper locations. The alternative would be to move to the high-tech end of the market, like
Singapore, and away from auctioning cheap labour, but this would require a huge investment in
expensive training programmes to provide a suitably flexible and highly skilled workforce. Thus the
fundamental belief in education as a driver for economic well-being has knock-on effects for
cr
teachers: concerns for cultural diversity allied to social cohesion assume a secondary importance;
and professionals are reduced to mere apparatchiks. Yet schools do little to help teachers cope with
these changes or to develop a better, more generic understanding of globalisation. They tend to
concentrate only on enabling teachers to do a better job in the classroom, which is understandable,
but ignores the bigger picture and any inherent universality within teaching. This is not solely the
result of government legislation - there is seemingly an inherited professional culture in teaching
that leads practitioners to 'collude' in their own 'de-professionalisation - but just as teachers expect
policy-makers to buffer society from the ravages of globalisation, so it is reasonable for policy-
makers to expect teachers to reclaim their traditional appreciation of forces beyond the power of the
state to withstand.‘
‘
5#5‘
% ‘‘ ‘
‘
°°° ‘
‘‘ ‘ 
‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
‘‘
 ‘ ‘ ‘
‘‘ 
‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘‘ ‘ ‘ °°°‘
As borders disappear, people and goods are increasingly free to move, creating new challenges to
global health. These cannot be met by national governments alone but must be dealt with instead by
international organizations and agreements

①Alcohol consumption is another area in which the globalization of an industry has led to
more health risks. However, unlike tobacco use, which substantially increases the risk of
mortality from an impressive array of diseases, the impact of alcohol consumption on health
is much more complex. There is a strong relationship between alcohol consumption and liver
cirrhosis, some cancers, and most causes of injuries and violence, although minimal amounts
of alcohol are sufficient to reduce the risk of CVD.‘
‘
①One major problem is the increasing internationalization of health risks. How-ever defined,
this term has many dimensions, including economic, technological, political, social, scientific
and cultural aspects. The links between globalization and health are complex and
globalization is a multifaceted phenomenon that can affect health in myriad ways. Its
consequences can be either direct, at the level of whole populations, individuals and
healthcare delivery systems, or indirect, through the economy and other factors, such as
education, sanitation and water supply‘
‘
c[
①The spread of universal brand names of popular beverages and fast foods has contributed to
the global epidemic of obesity by replacing traditional diets with fat - and calorie-rich foods‘
‘
①Globalization of trade is also manifested in the implementation of the WTO's agreement on
Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), which extends patent
protection on new drugs for a minimum period of 20 years. As a result of high prices, TRIPS
threatens to limit and undermine access to new medicines, especially to poor populations
living in the developing world. In this sense, the implementation of TRIPS can be seen as
exacerbating health risks. Trade and movement of infected cattle and poultry across national
borders may also have contributed to recent outbreaks of mad cow disease in the Northern
hemisphere and avian influenza in Asia. ‘
‘
①One major and increasing problem is the movement of health professionals from developing
countries to high-income countries, which threatens the sustainability of health systems in the
poor world. Health systems depend most of all on skilled and dedicated personnel, and here
we face big challenges, particularly in this region which, on top of everything else, suffers
heavy losses to the brain drain". The extent of the problem has been highlighted previously
and a recent survey from Lithuania, where 61% of medical residents and 26% of physicians
surveyed said they intended to leave for the EU or other countries, illustrates well the
potential magnitude of health professional brain drain, not just for African countries ‘
‘
①The current models of international relations, mobility and movement of goods and people
are responsible for the globalization of health risks. These developments clearly lead to an
increase in health risks either directly or indirectly, particularly in the developing world
where the benefits of globalization are often offset by its adverse effects. More insidiously,
the threat of misuse of globalized information for bioterrorism purposes is becoming a
serious concern for many governments. International organizations can have an important
role in minimizing such risks through regulations, policy recommendations, advocacy and
promoting dialogue among interested parties. In addition, to reap the benefits of
globalization, we need novel approaches to international cooperation that place national self-
interest in the context of global mutual interest and, in this way, promote international
cooperation and goodwill‘
‘
‘
cù
5#6‘
% ‘‘ ‘ +
 ‘

The deterministic notion that globalisation is homogeneous in its effects around the world
and within states implies acceptance of a structure that imposes its irresistible will on people and
circumstances without any possibility of lo cal moderation. This is not a credible theorisation,
though there is widespread acceptance of it. In schools, when globalisation is conceptualised at all,
it is as an external phenomenon and as a byword for competition. For teachers and headteachers
looking to the bigger picture, it is also seen to result in the forced replication of unsavory policies on
accountability, inspection and effectiveness. Local Authority control, by contrast, is perceived to be
aligned with good old-fashioned welfarism and as a benign counterbalance. Yet there is something
overly simplistic in this dichotomy. Dale and others have suggested that the sense of professional
partnership that existed in the UK prior to globalisation was not simply the 'gift of government', but
the result of hotly-contested 'educational politics. So it must at least be a possibility that it is the
absence of contestation and not the presence of globalisation =‘  that has today enslaved
schooling, and that the super-technocrats in transnational organisations like the OECD and the EU
are not initiating change according to their  agenda, but are simply responding to changing
circumstances of someone else's making.

Irrespective of the dichotomy, false or otherwise, between welfare and 
 ‘
=, it is true
that many of the global pressures that have re-conceptualised teacher professionalism   resulted
in the disempowerment of teachers and caused a shift in the relative status of their professional
values. Despite this, teachers have generally retained their enthusiasm and acquiesce in the new
regime only to maintain an influence in something about which they care passionately. Part of being
a member of a profession is being able to define that profession in terms of its cultural and symbolic
capital so although professional norms may be contested from within, a profession's legitimacy rests
largely on a sense of its own external distinctiveness. The focus on competition and performance
which has come about as a result of globalisation is a pragmatic imperative that threatens this
distinctiveness, but while the autonomy of teacher capital is certainly under seige, the blame for re-
culturing schools and education surely cannot be laid 
= at the door of globalisation. Perhaps
the ability and willingness of teachers to resist unfavourable agendas is 'agency' defined too
narrowly; perhaps it should also be the exercise of engagement in ways that   with external
agendas? The more subtle challenge is to identify how and why teachers and heads resist certain
aspects of it, the circumstances and ways in which they sometimes support it, and the effects of both
on schooling.
co
'‘(‘,"‘‘‘
One of the defining characteristics of globalisation is the demand it creates for 
 
=
economics and for a system of worldwide free trade. Marginson argues that under it nation states are
now merely junior partners to large multinational companies, whose particular politico-economic
agenda is advanced through pro-capitalist manoeuvres such as global trade agreements. The
development of global markets is not a natural occurrence, critics say, but a contrived outcome of
specific national and transnational forces, which have had the effect of introducing to education a
new business lexicon and a new ethic. At its most basic, globalisation affects the 'financial probity
of nation states and their ability to maintain adequate provision of services such as publ ic schooling.
Critics hold that it therefore constrains what a state can do in its own interest, and although national
governments still have a degree of freedom in relation to domestic economic policy, that discretion
is lessening all the time . As the nation state declines, multinational companies are busy creating
networks of coordinated production that pay little or no heed to national borders and the fear of
wealth fleeing from an inhospitable country to a more sympathetic one limits the autonomy of
national governments to act. Decisions are now increasingly made by international bodies such as
the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the European Union (EU), the North American
Free Trade Association, the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and
so on, in a constrained form of democracy where decisions are no longer made by elected
representatives. Simultaneously, the service sector in developed countries has grown enormously
and now represents 70% of the economy of the world's richest countries, so perhaps unsurprisingly,
international bodies have instituted international agreements on trade
‘=
 (GATS) similar to
earlier ones on trade in products (GATT), which means that services such as public education
require a monetary value to be put on them. This is a new departure philosophically for the
professionals involved in its delivery. Education has always been considered in terms of its
intellectual, social and cultural benefit, in addition to its training component as a preparation for
employment, rather than its unit cost to individuals. The values inherent in this consumerist
ideology conflict with those on which public education was founded and has traditionally operated,
so advocates of globalisation need to find new ways to commodify it: to turn the purpose of
schooling to economic well-being in response to the changing nature of developed economies and to
turn schools themselves into commodities to be bought and sold. Molnar and others suggest that
doing this necessarily removes control of schools from the communities they serve. It is in the
nature of globalisation that this should be so, but opponents like Kuehn raise additional objections:
that global agreements which treat education as a tradable commodity fail to recognise that it is
(

essentially a social capability rooted in particular 'cultural realities' and that it supplies individuals
with capabilities and freedoms that go beyond the economic; that global agreements are anti-
democratic because international tribunals can overturn decisions made democratically at national
level; and that global agreements are designed to stop countries changing or adapting policy to suit
local need.‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
(c
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘


 ‘6‘

 ‘
‘
 + ‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘
((
 
 ‘6‘;‘ 
 ‘
‘ + ‘
‘

①Promote self reliance and support traditional and indigenous health systems (including home
based healing traditions) and the recognition of women¶s crucial role as healthcare providers.

①Assure drugs should not benefit only the rich minority. Governments whose countries are
burdened with AIDs, for example, South Africa, Brazil, Thailand and Haiti, should be
allowed to obtain cheaper drugs through compulsory licensing and parallel importing without
being threatened and bullied by the US.

①Reform the medical and health curriculum to make them socially relevant and people
centred.

①Monitor the activities of their governments as to whether they are keeping their global
commitments to treaties and agreements.

①Upgrade, improve, foster and give equal importance, recognition and support to the
development of indigenous systems of health through training, education, research and
development, documentation and so on.

①Foster, support and highlight local initiatives towards sustainable, ecological and self-reliant
community development models.

Finally, changes are not going to happen overnight. It needs a long-term plan and health activists
and social movements need to prepare for a protracted struggle. For this to happen there must be a
programme to nurture and groom new blood and leadership among the young.

 + ‘
‘

Globalisation is causing profound and complex changes in the very nature of our society, bringing
new opportunities as well as risks. In addition, the effects of globalisation are causing a growing
concern for our health and education and the intergenerational equity implied by 'sustainable
development' forces us to think about the right of future generations to a healthy environment an d a
healthy life.‘
(
 ..
3‘

①Globalisation and Impact on Health ± A Third World Review, By Evelyne Hong, People¶s
Health Assembly, Bangladesh, August 2000

①Globalisation and Health: A Framework for Analysis and Action, By David Woodward, Nick
Drager, Robert Beaglehole, & Debra Lipson

①Higher Education in India : Seizing the Opportunity, By Sanat Kaul, May 2006, Indian
Council for Research on International Economic Relations

①The Impact of Economic Globalisation on Health, By Meri Koivusalo, 2006

①Effects of Globalisation on Education and Culture, By S. Chinnammai, ICDE International

Conference, 2005‘

(‰