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Now we want to update the person "Tjessem, Jakob" in the "Persons" table.
UPDATE Persons
SET Address='Nissestien 67', City='Sandnes'
WHERE LastName='Tjessem' AND FirstName='Jakob'
Be careful when updating records. If we had omitted the WHERE clause in the
example above, like this:
UPDATE Persons
SET Address='Nissestien 67', City='Sandnes'
Note: Notice the WHERE clause in the DELETE syntax. The WHERE clause specifies which record or records that
should be deleted. If you omit the WHERE clause, all records will be deleted!
Now we want to delete the person "Tjessem, Jakob" in the "Persons" table.
It is possible to delete all rows in a table without deleting the table. This means
that the table structure, attributes, and indexes will be intact:
or
Note: Be very careful when deleting records. You cannot undo this statement!
To preserve space, the table above is a subset of the Customers table used in the example below.
Try it Yourself
To see how SQL works, you can copy the SQL statements below and paste
them into the textarea, or you can make your own SQL statements.
When using SQL on text data, "alfred" is greater than "a" (like in a
dictionary).
The UNION operator is used to combine the result-set of two or more SELECT statements.
Notice that each SELECT statement within the UNION must have the same number of columns. The columns
must also have similar data types. Also, the columns in each SELECT statement must be in the same order.
Note: The UNION operator selects only distinct values by default. To allow duplicate values, use UNION ALL.
PS: The column names in the result-set of a UNION are always equal to the column names in the first SELECT
statement in the UNION.
"Employees_Norway" :
E_ID E_Name
01 Hansen, Ola
02 Svendson, Tove
03 Svendson, Stephen
04 Pettersen, Kari
"Employees_USA":
E_ID E_Name
01 Turner, Sally
02 Kent, Clark
03 Svendson, Stephen
04 Scott, Stephen
Now we want to list all the different employees in Norway and USA.
E_Name
Hansen, Ola
Svendson, Tove
Svendson, Stephen
Pettersen, Kari
Turner, Sally
Kent, Clark
Scott, Stephen
Note: This command cannot be used to list all employees in Norway and USA. In the example above we have
two employees with equal names, and only one of them will be listed. The UNION command selects only distinct
values.
Result
E_Name
Hansen, Ola
Svendson, Tove
Svendson, Stephen
Pettersen, Kari
Turner, Sally
Kent, Clark
Svendson, Stephen
Scott, Stephen
The SELECT INTO statement selects data from one table and inserts it into a different table.
The SELECT INTO statement is most often used to create backup copies of tables.
SELECT *
INTO new_table_name [IN externaldatabase]
FROM old_tablename
Or we can select only the columns we want into the new table:
SELECT column_name(s)
INTO new_table_name [IN externaldatabase]
FROM old_tablename
Make a Backup Copy - Now we want to make an exact copy of the data in our "Persons" table.
SELECT *
INTO Persons_Backup
FROM Persons
We can also use the IN clause to copy the table into another database:
SELECT *
INTO Persons_Backup IN 'Backup.mdb'
FROM Persons
We can also copy only a few fields into the new table:
SELECT LastName,FirstName
INTO Persons_Backup
FROM Persons
The following SQL statement creates a "Persons_Backup" table with only the
persons who lives in the city "Sandnes":
SELECT LastName,Firstname
INTO Persons_Backup
FROM Persons
WHERE City='Sandnes'
SELECT Persons.LastName,Orders.OrderNo
INTO Persons_Order_Backup
FROM Persons
INNER JOIN Orders
ON Persons.P_Id=Orders.P_Id
The CREATE DATABASE Statement
The data type specifies what type of data the column can hold. For a complete reference of all the data types
available in MS Access, MySQL, and SQL Server, go to our complete Data Types reference.
Now we want to create a table called "Persons" that contains five columns: P_Id, LastName, FirstName,
Address, and City.
The empty table can be filled with data with the INSERT INTO statement.
SQL Constraints
Constraints are used to limit the type of data that can go into a table.
Constraints can be specified when a table is created (with the CREATE TABLE statement) or after the table is
created (with the ALTER TABLE statement).
NOT NULL
UNIQUE
PRIMARY KEY
FOREIGN KEY
CHECK
DEFAULT
The NOT NULL constraint enforces a column to NOT accept NULL values.
The NOT NULL constraint enforces a field to always contain a value. This means that you cannot insert a new
record, or update a record without adding a value to this field.
The following SQL enforces the "P_Id" column and the "LastName" column to
not accept NULL values:
The UNIQUE and PRIMARY KEY constraints both provide a guarantee for uniqueness for a column or set of
columns.
The following SQL creates a UNIQUE constraint on the "P_Id" column when the "Persons" table is created:
MySQL:
To allow naming of a UNIQUE constraint, and for defining a UNIQUE constraint on multiple columns, use the
following SQL syntax:
To create a UNIQUE constraint on the "P_Id" column when the table is already created, use the following SQL:
To allow naming of a UNIQUE constraint, and for defining a UNIQUE constraint on multiple columns, use the
following SQL syntax:
MySQL:
The PRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies each record in a database table.
Each table should have a primary key, and each table can have only one primary key.
The following SQL creates a PRIMARY KEY on the "P_Id" column when the "Persons" table is created:
MySQL:
To allow naming of a PRIMARY KEY constraint, and for defining a PRIMARY KEY constraint on multiple columns,
use the following SQL syntax:
To create a PRIMARY KEY constraint on the "P_Id" column when the table is already created, use the following
SQL:
To allow naming of a PRIMARY KEY constraint, and for defining a PRIMARY KEY constraint on multiple columns,
use the following SQL syntax:
Note: If you use the ALTER TABLE statement to add a primary key, the primary key column(s) must already
have been declared to not contain NULL values (when the table was first created).
MySQL:
Let's illustrate the foreign key with an example. Look at the following two tables:
Note that the "P_Id" column in the "Orders" table points to the "P_Id" column in the "Persons" table.
The "P_Id" column in the "Persons" table is the PRIMARY KEY in the "Persons" table.
The "P_Id" column in the "Orders" table is a FOREIGN KEY in the "Orders" table.
The FOREIGN KEY constraint is used to prevent actions that would destroy link between tables.
The FOREIGN KEY constraint also prevents that invalid data is inserted into the foreign key column, because it
has to be one of the values contained in the table it points to.
The following SQL creates a FOREIGN KEY on the "P_Id" column when the "Orders" table is created:
MySQL:
To create a FOREIGN KEY constraint on the "P_Id" column when the "Orders" table is already created, use the
following SQL:
To allow naming of a FOREIGN KEY constraint, and for defining a FOREIGN KEY constraint on multiple columns,
use the following SQL syntax:
MySQL:
The CHECK constraint is used to limit the value range that can be placed in a column.
If you define a CHECK constraint on a single column it allows only certain values for this column.
If you define a CHECK constraint on a table it can limit the values in certain columns based on values in other
columns in the row.
The following SQL creates a CHECK constraint on the "P_Id" column when the "Persons" table is created. The
CHECK constraint specifies that the column "P_Id" must only include integers greater than 0.
My SQL:
To allow naming of a CHECK constraint, and for defining a CHECK constraint on multiple columns, use the
following SQL syntax:
To create a CHECK constraint on the "P_Id" column when the table is already created, use the following SQL:
The default value will be added to all new records, if no other value is specified.
The following SQL creates a DEFAULT constraint on the "City" column when the "Persons" table is created:
The DEFAULT constraint can also be used to insert system values, by using
functions like GETDATE():
To create a DEFAULT constraint on the "City" column when the table is already created, use the following SQL:
MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons
ALTER City SET DEFAULT 'SANDNES'
MySQL:
What if we only want to delete the data inside the table, and not the table itself?
The ALTER TABLE statement is used to add, delete, or modify columns in an existing table.
To delete a column in a table, use the following syntax (notice that some
database systems don't allow deleting a column):
To change the data type of a column in a table, use the following syntax:
Now we want to change the data type of the column named "DateOfBirth" in the "Persons" table.
Notice that the "DateOfBirth" column is now of type year and is going to hold a year in a two-digit or four-digit
format.
Next, we want to delete the column named "DateOfBirth" in the "Persons" table.
Very often we would like the value of the primary key field to be created automatically every time a new record
is inserted.
By default, the starting value for AUTO_INCREMENT is 1, and it will increment by 1 for each new record.
To let the AUTO_INCREMENT sequence start with another value, use the
following SQL statement:
To insert a new record into the "Persons" table, we will not have to specify a
value for the "P_Id" column (a unique value will be added automatically):
The SQL statement above would insert a new record into the "Persons" table. The "P_Id" column would be
assigned a unique value. The "FirstName" column would be set to "Lars" and the "LastName" column would be
set to "Monsen".
The MS SQL Server uses the IDENTITY keyword to perform an auto-increment feature.
By default, the starting value for IDENTITY is 1, and it will increment by 1 for each new record.
To specify that the "P_Id" column should start at value 10 and increment by 5, change the identity to
IDENTITY(10,5).
To insert a new record into the "Persons" table, we will not have to specify a
value for the "P_Id" column (a unique value will be added automatically):
INSERT INTO Persons (FirstName,LastName)
VALUES ('Lars','Monsen')
The SQL statement above would insert a new record into the "Persons" table. The "P_Id" column would be
assigned a unique value. The "FirstName" column would be set to "Lars" and the "LastName" column would be
set to "Monsen".
By default, the starting value for AUTOINCREMENT is 1, and it will increment by 1 for each new record.
To specify that the "P_Id" column should start at value 10 and increment by 5, change the autoincrement to
AUTOINCREMENT(10,5).
To insert a new record into the "Persons" table, we will not have to specify a
value for the "P_Id" column (a unique value will be added automatically):
The SQL statement above would insert a new record into the "Persons" table. The "P_Id" column would be
assigned a unique value. The "FirstName" column would be set to "Lars" and the "LastName" column would be
set to "Monsen".
You will have to create an auto-increment field with the sequence object (this object generates a number
sequence).
The code above creates a sequence object called seq_person, that starts with 1 and will increment by 1. It will
also cache up to 10 values for performance. The cache option specifies how many sequence values will be
stored in memory for faster access.
To insert a new record into the "Persons" table, we will have to use the nextval
function (this function retrieves the next value from seq_person sequence):
The SQL statement above would insert a new record into the "Persons" table. The "P_Id" column would be
assigned the next number from the seq_person sequence. The "FirstName" column would be set to "Lars" and
the "LastName" column would be set to "Monsen".
A view contains rows and columns, just like a real table. The fields in a view are fields from one or more real
tables in the database.
You can add SQL functions, WHERE, and JOIN statements to a view and present the data as if the data were
coming from one single table.
Note: A view always shows up-to-date data! The database engine recreates the data, using the view's SQL
statement, every time a user queries a view.
If you have the Northwind database you can see that it has several views installed by default.
The view "Current Product List" lists all active products (products that are not
discontinued) from the "Products" table. The view is created with the following
SQL:
Another view in the Northwind database calculates the total sale for each
category in 1997. Note that this view selects its data from another view called
"Product Sales for 1997":
We can also add a condition to the query. Now we want to see the total sale
only for the category "Beverages":
Now we want to add the "Category" column to the "Current Product List" view.
We will update the view with the following SQL:
SQL Dates
The most difficult part when working with dates is to be sure that the format of the date you are trying to
insert, matches the format of the date column in the database.
As long as your data contains only the date portion, your queries will work as expected. However, if a time
portion is involved, it gets complicated.
Before talking about the complications of querying for dates, we will look at the most important built-in
functions for working with dates.
The following table lists the most important built-in date functions in MySQL:
Function Description
NOW() Returns the current date and time
CURDATE() Returns the current date
CURTIME() Returns the current time
DATE() Extracts the date part of a date or date/time expression
EXTRACT() Returns a single part of a date/time
DATE_ADD() Adds a specified time interval to a date
DATE_SUB() Subtracts a specified time interval from a date
DATEDIFF() Returns the number of days between two dates
DATE_FORMAT() Displays date/time data in different formats
The following table lists the most important built-in date functions in SQL
Server:
Function Description
GETDATE() Returns the current date and time
DATEPART() Returns a single part of a date/time
DATEADD() Adds or subtracts a specified time interval from a date
DATEDIFF() Returns the time between two dates
CONVERT() Displays date/time data in different formats
MySQL comes with the following data types for storing a date or a date/time value in the database:
SQL Server comes with the following data types for storing a date or a date/time value in the database:
Note: The date types are chosen for a column when you create a new table in your database!
For an overview of all data types available, go to our complete Data Types reference.
You can compare two dates easily if there is no time component involved!
Now we want to select the records with an OrderDate of "2008-11-11" from the table above.
Now, assume that the "Orders" table looks like this (notice the time component
in the "OrderDate" column):
Tip: If you want to keep your queries simple and easy to maintain, do not allow time components in your
dates!
If a column in a table is optional, we can insert a new record or update an existing record without adding a
value to this column. This means that the field will be saved with a NULL value.
Note: It is not possible to compare NULL and 0; they are not equivalent.
Suppose that the "Address" column in the "Persons" table is optional. This means that if we insert a record with
no value for the "Address" column, the "Address" column will be saved with a NULL value.
It is not possible to test for NULL values with comparison operators, such as =, <, or <>.
We will have to use the IS NULL and IS NOT NULL operators instead.
SQL IS NULL
How do we select only the records with NULL values in the "Address" column?
How do we select only the records with no NULL values in the "Address" column?
In the next chapter we will look at the ISNULL(), NVL(), IFNULL() and COALESCE() functions.
Suppose that the "UnitsOnOrder" column is optional, and may contain NULL values.
SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+UnitsOnOrder)
FROM Products
In the example above, if any of the "UnitsOnOrder" values are NULL, the result is NULL.
Microsoft's ISNULL() function is used to specify how we want to treat NULL values.
The NVL(), IFNULL(), and COALESCE() functions can also be used to achieve the same result.
Below, if "UnitsOnOrder" is NULL it will not harm the calculation, because ISNULL() returns a zero if the value is
NULL:
SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+ISNULL(UnitsOnOrder,0))
FROM Products
Oracle
Oracle does not have an ISNULL() function. However, we can use the NVL()
function to achieve the same result:
SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+NVL(UnitsOnOrder,0))
FROM Products
MySQL
MySQL does have an ISNULL() function. However, it works a little bit different from Microsoft's ISNULL()
function.
SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+IFNULL(UnitsOnOrder,0))
FROM Products
SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+COALESCE(UnitsOnOrder,0))
FROM Products
Data types and ranges for Microsoft Access, MySQL and SQL Server.
In MySQL there are three main types : text, number, and Date/Time types.
Text types:
Data type Description
CHAR(size) Holds a fixed length string (can contain letters, numbers, and special characters). The
fixed size is specified in parenthesis. Can store up to 255 characters
VARCHAR(size) Holds a variable length string (can contain letters, numbers, and special characters). The
maximum size is specified in parenthesis. Can store up to 255 characters. Note: If you
put a greater value than 255 it will be converted to a TEXT type
TINYTEXT Holds a string with a maximum length of 255 characters
TEXT Holds a string with a maximum length of 65,535 characters
BLOB For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to 65,535 bytes of data
MEDIUMTEXT Holds a string with a maximum length of 16,777,215 characters
MEDIUMBLOB For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to 16,777,215 bytes of data
LONGTEXT Holds a string with a maximum length of 4,294,967,295 characters
LONGBLOB For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to 4,294,967,295 bytes of data
ENUM(x,y,z,etc.) Let you enter a list of possible values. You can list up to 65535 values in an ENUM list. If
a value is inserted that is not in the list, a blank value will be inserted.
Note: The values are sorted in the order you enter them.
Number types:
*The integer types have an extra option called UNSIGNED. Normally, the integer goes from an negative to
positive value. Adding the UNSIGNED attribute will move that range up so it starts at zero instead of a negative
number.
Date types:
Note: The supported range is from '1970-01-01 00:00:01' UTC to '2038-01-09 03:14:07'
UTC
TIME() A time. Format: HH:MM:SS
Note: Values allowed in four-digit format: 1901 to 2155. Values allowed in two-digit
format: 70 to 69, representing years from 1970 to 2069
*Even if DATETIME and TIMESTAMP return the same format, they work very differently. In an INSERT or
UPDATE query, the TIMESTAMP automatically set itself to the current date and time. TIMESTAMP also accepts
various formats, like YYYYMMDDHHMMSS, YYMMDDHHMMSS, YYYYMMDD, or YYMMDD.
Character strings:
Unicode strings:
Binary types:
Number types:
Data type Description Storage
tinyint Allows whole numbers from 0 to 255 1 byte
smallint Allows whole numbers between -32,768 and 32,767 2 bytes
int Allows whole numbers between -2,147,483,648 and 2,147,483,647 4 bytes
bigint Allows whole numbers between -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 and 8 bytes
9,223,372,036,854,775,807
decimal(p,s) Fixed precision and scale numbers. 5-17 bytes
The p parameter indicates the maximum total number of digits that can be
stored (both to the left and to the right of the decimal point). p must be a
value from 1 to 38. Default is 18.
The s parameter indicates the maximum number of digits stored to the right
of the decimal point. s must be a value from 0 to p. Default value is 0
numeric(p,s) Fixed precision and scale numbers. 5-17 bytes
The p parameter indicates the maximum total number of digits that can be
stored (both to the left and to the right of the decimal point). p must be a
value from 1 to 38. Default is 18.
The s parameter indicates the maximum number of digits stored to the right
of the decimal point. s must be a value from 0 to p. Default value is 0
smallmoney Monetary data from -214,748.3648 to 214,748.3647 4 bytes
money Monetary data from -922,337,203,685,477.5808 to 8 bytes
922,337,203,685,477.5807
float(n) Floating precision number data from -1.79E + 308 to 1.79E + 308. 4 or 8
bytes
The n parameter indicates whether the field should hold 4 or 8 bytes.
float(24) holds a 4-byte field and float(53) holds an 8-byte field. Default value
of n is 53.
real Floating precision number data from -3.40E + 38 to 3.40E + 38 4 bytes
Date types:
SQL aggregate functions return a single value, calculated from values in a column.
SQL scalar functions return a single value, based on the input value.
Tip: The aggregate functions and the scalar functions will be explained in details in the next chapters.
OrderAverage
950
Now we want to find the customers that have an OrderPrice value higher then the average OrderPrice value.
Customer
Hansen
Nilsen
Jensen
Note: COUNT(DISTINCT) works with ORACLE and Microsoft SQL Server, but not with Microsoft Access.
The result of the SQL statement above will be 2, because the customer Nilsen
has made 2 orders in total:
CustomerNilsen
2
NumberOfOrders
6
Now we want to count the number of unique customers in the "Orders" table.
NumberOfCustomers
3
which is the number of unique customers (Hansen, Nilsen, and Jensen) in the "Orders" table.
The FIRST() function returns the first value of the selected column.
FirstOrderPrice
1000
The LAST() function returns the last value of the selected column.
LastOrderPrice
100
The MAX() function returns the largest value of the selected column.
The MIN() function returns the smallest value of the selected column.
SmallestOrderPrice
100
OrderTotal
5700
The GROUP BY statement is used in conjunction with the aggregate functions to group the result-set by one or
more columns.
Now we want to find the total sum (total order) of each customer.
Customer SUM(OrderPrice)
Hansen 2000
Nilsen 1700
Jensen 2000
Customer SUM(OrderPrice)
Hansen 5700
Nilsen 5700
Hansen 5700
Hansen 5700
Jensen 5700
Nilsen 5700
Explanation of why the above SELECT statement cannot be used: The SELECT statement above has two
columns specified (Customer and SUM(OrderPrice). The "SUM(OrderPrice)" returns a single value (that is the
total sum of the "OrderPrice" column), while "Customer" returns 6 values (one value for each row in the
"Orders" table). This will therefore not give us the correct result. However, you have seen that the GROUP BY
statement solves this problem.
We can also use the GROUP BY statement on more than one column, like this:
The HAVING clause was added to SQL because the WHERE keyword could not be used with aggregate
functions.
Now we want to find if any of the customers have a total order of less than 2000.
Customer SUM(OrderPrice)
Nilsen 1700
Now we want to find if the customers "Hansen" or "Jensen" have a total order of more than 1500.
Customer SUM(OrderPrice)
Hansen 2000
Jensen 2000
Now we want to select the content of the "LastName" and "FirstName" columns above, and convert the
"LastName" column to uppercase.
LastName FirstName
HANSEN Ola
SVENDSON Tove
PETTERSEN Kari
Now we want to select the content of the "LastName" and "FirstName" columns above, and convert the
"LastName" column to lowercase.
LastName FirstName
hansen Ola
svendson Tove
pettersen Kari
Parameter Description
column_name Required. The field to extract characters from
start Required. Specifies the starting position (starts at 1)
length Optional. The number of characters to return. If omitted, the MID() function returns the
rest of the text
Now we want to extract the first four characters of the "City" column above.
SmallCity
Sand
Sand
Stav
The LEN() function returns the length of the value in a text field.
LengthOfAddress
12
9
9
The ROUND() function is used to round a numeric field to the number of decimals specified.
Parameter Description
column_name Required. The field to round.
decimals Required. Specifies the number of decimals to be returned.
Now we want to display the product name and the price rounded to the nearest integer.
ProductName UnitPrice
Jarlsberg 10
Mascarpone 33
Gorgonzola 16
The NOW() function returns the current system date and time.
SQL NOW() Syntax
SELECT NOW() FROM table_name
Now we want to display the products and prices per today's date.
Parameter Description
column_name Required. The field to be formatted.
format Required. Specifies the format.
Now we want to display the products and prices per today's date (with today's date displayed in the following
format "YYYY-MM-DD").
We use the following SELECT statement:
or
or
SELECT column_name
FROM table_name AS table_alias
BETWEEN SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name
BETWEEN value1 AND value2
CREATE DATABASE CREATE DATABASE database_name
CREATE TABLE CREATE TABLE table_name
(
column_name1 data_type,
column_name2 data_type,
column_name2 data_type,
...
)
CREATE INDEX CREATE INDEX index_name
ON table_name (column_name)
or
or
or
SELECT column_name(s)
INTO new_table_name [IN externaldatabase]
FROM old_table_name
SELECT TOP SELECT TOP number|percent column_name(s)
FROM table_name
TRUNCATE TABLE TRUNCATE TABLE table_name
UNION SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1
UNION
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name2
UNION ALL SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1
UNION ALL
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name2
UPDATE UPDATE table_name
SET column1=value, column2=value,...
WHERE some_column=some_value
WHERE SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator value
Source : http://www.w3schools.com/sql/sql_quickref.asp
SQL Hosting
If you want your web site to be able to store and display data from a database, your web server should have
access to a database system that uses the SQL language.
If your web server will be hosted by an Internet Service Provider (ISP), you will have to look for SQL hosting
plans.
The most common SQL hosting databases are MySQL, MS SQL Server, and MS Access.
You can have SQL databases on both Windows and Linux/UNIX operating systems.
MS SQL Server
MySQL
To learn more about web hosting, please visit our Hosting tutorial.
Keep in Mind That...
SQL is not case sensitive
Some database systems require a semicolon at the end of each SQL statement.
Semicolon is the standard way to separate each SQL statement in database systems that allow more than one
SQL statement to be executed in the same call to the server.
We are using MS Access and SQL Server 2000 and we do not have to put a semicolon after each SQL
statement, but some database programs force you to use it.
SQL can be divided into two parts: The Data Manipulation Language (DML) and the Data Definition Language
(DDL).
The query and update commands form the DML part of SQL:
The DDL part of SQL permits database tables to be created or deleted. It also define indexes (keys), specify
links between tables, and impose constraints between tables. The most important DDL statements in SQL are: