Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Committee Statement: At the 69th annual meeting of their significant contributions to these efforts. They would
the American Society of Plastic Surgeons (ASPS) in Oc- also like to recognize DeLaine Schmitz and Pat Farrell of
tober of 2000, the ASPS Board of Directors convened the the ASPS staff for their work on and support of this
Task Force on Patient Safety in Office-Based Surgery Fa- project. (Plast. Reconstr. Surg. 113: 1478, 2004.)
cilities. The task force was assembled in the wake of several
highly publicized patient deaths involving plastic surgery
and increasing state legislative and regulatory activity of
office-based surgery facilities. In response to the increased Most surgical procedures are performed in
scrutiny of the office-based surgery setting, the task force one of three outpatient settings: hospitals, free-
produced two practice advisories: “Procedures in the Of- standing ambulatory surgery centers, or office-
fice-Based Surgery Setting” and “Patient Selection in the based surgery facilities.1 The office-based sur-
Office-Based Surgery Setting.” Since the task force’s in-
ception, professional and public awareness of patient gery setting in particular has many advantages
safety issues has continued to grow. This heightened in- for both the plastic surgeon and the patient,
terest resulted in an increased need for plastic surgeons including greater control over the schedule,
to communicate their views on the topic. To meet this greater privacy for the patient, convenience,
challenge, the task force evolved into the Committee on
Patient Safety, allowing the committee to address topics
and increased efficiency and consistency in
affecting the safety and welfare of plastic surgery patients, nursing staff and support personnel.
regardless of the facility setting. In general, there is little scientific evidence
The “Practice Advisory on Liposuction” is the first ad- available on patient safety issues and even less
visory developed since the committee was formed. It was
a lengthy and painstaking process for the committee,
that specifically addresses liposuction per-
which included representatives from related plastic sur- formed in the office-based surgery setting. The
gery organizations as well as the American Society of An- research and published materials available fo-
esthesiologists (ASA). Committee members included Ro- cus more on the techniques and complications
nald E. Iverson, M.D., chair; Jeffery L. Apfelbaum, M.D., rather than on the provision of safe care.
ASA representative; Bruce L. Cunningham, M.D., ASPS/
Plastic Surgery Educational Foundation (PSEF) Joint Out- Therefore, this advisory is based on the best
comes Task Force representative; Richard A. D’Amico, information available and largely reflects the
M.D., ASPS representative; Victor L. Lewis, Jr., M.D., ASPS collective opinion of the members of the Amer-
Health Policy Analysis Committee representative; Dennis ican Society of Plastic Surgeons (ASPS) Com-
J. Lynch, M.D., ASPS representative; Noel B. McDevitt,
M.D., ASPS Deep Vein Thrombosis Task Force represen-
mittee on Patient Safety. The advisory provides
tative; Michael F. McGuire, M.D., The American Society a synthesis and analysis of expert opinion, clin-
for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery (ASAPS) representative; ical feasibility data, open forum commentary,
Louis Morales, Jr., M.D., American Society of Maxillofacial and consensus surveys.2
Surgeons representative; Calvin R. Peters, M.D., Florida Attempts to reduce or eliminate localized
Ad Hoc Commission on Patient Safety representative;
Robert Singer, M.D., American Association for Accredi- adiposity by diet or exercise alone are often
tation of Ambulatory Surgery Facilities representative; unsuccessful and discouraging. Liposuction, a
Thomas Ray Stevenson, M.D., American College of Sur- surgical intervention designed to treat superfi-
geons representative; Rebecca S. Twersky, M.D., ASA rep- cial and deep deposits of subcutaneous fat dis-
resentative; Ronald H. Wender, M.D., ASA representative;
and James A. Yates, ASAPS representative. The authors
tributed in aesthetically unpleasing propor-
thank members of the committee for the insights they tions, has proven to be a successful method of
brought to this process. The final document represents improving body contour. Liposuction is so suc-
Received for publication May 15, 2003; revised July 28, 2003.
Approved by the American Society of Plastic Surgeons Board of Directors, March 15, 2003.
DOI: 10.1097/01.PRS.0000111591.62685.F8
1478
Vol. 113, No. 5 / PRACTICE ADVISORY ON LIPOSUCTION 1479
cessful, in fact, that it is commonly performed made by the physician in light of all the cir-
in the office-based surgery setting and is the cumstances presented by the patient, the diag-
most frequently performed plastic surgery nostic and treatment options available, and the
procedure.3 available resources.
Developed in France, liposuction was intro- This practice advisory is not intended to de-
duced into the United States in 1982 after a fine or serve as the standard of medical care.
blue ribbon investigative panel of American Standards of medical care are determined on
plastic surgeons, appointed by the ASPS, trav- the basis of all the facts or circumstances in-
eled to Paris to verify its effectiveness. 4 volved in an individual case and are subject to
Through the assistance of a series of educa- change as scientific knowledge and technology
tional programs by American plastic surgery advance and as practice patterns evolve. This
organizations, the clinical availability of the practice advisory reflects the state of knowl-
procedure in the United States grew rapidly edge current at the time of publication. Given
within a short period of time. With a corre- the inevitable changes in the state of scientific
sponding increase in demand from the public, information and technology, periodic review
liposuction quickly became the most fre- and revision will be completed by the
quently performed cosmetic surgery proce- committee.
dure in the nation, a distinction it still holds.
Because of the popularity of liposuction, the LIPOSUCTION TECHNIQUES
U.S. Food and Drug Administration recently
Over the years, a variety of terms have been
issued a statement that gives consumers basic
used to describe liposuction techniques. A
information on the procedure as well as points
summary of these terms follows.
to consider when deciding upon this surgery.5
Liposuction was originally intended to treat
minor contour irregularities. Advances in the Suction-Assisted Lipoplasty
liposuction surgical technique and a more Adipose tissue is removed from the subcuta-
complete understanding of the physiological neous space by means of a blunt-tip hollow
consequences of liposuction have made the cannula attached to high-powered suction,
recontouring of large or even multiple areas of usually one atmosphere of negative pressure.
the body possible. At the same time, these ad-
vances have changed the nature of liposuction, Dry Technique
taking it from the realm of a minor surgical
procedure to that of major surgery. The first method developed, the dry tech-
nique was performed under general anesthesia
DISCLAIMER without the infiltration of subcutaneous solu-
tions before insertion of the liposuction can-
Practice advisories are strategies for patient
nula. Substantial swelling and discoloration,
management, developed to assist physicians in
along with suction aspirate containing 20 to 45
clinical decision making. This practice advi-
percent blood, were common consequences of
sory, based on a thorough evaluation of the
the technique. These sequelae sharply limited
present scientific literature and relevant clini-
the amount of fat that could be removed with-
cal experience, describes a range of generally
out transfusion or hospitalization, which re-
acceptable approaches to diagnosis, manage-
sulted in the abandonment of this approach,6
ment, or prevention of specific diseases or con-
except in limited applications.
ditions. This practice advisory attempts to de-
fine principles of practice that should generally
meet the needs of most patients in most cir- Wet Technique
cumstances. However, this practice advisory The wet technique entails injecting 200 to
should not be construed as a rule, nor should 300 ml of infiltrate or wetting solution, with or
it be deemed inclusive of all proper methods of without additives, into the operative field be-
care or exclusive of other methods of care fore insertion of the liposuction cannula. Small
reasonably directed at obtaining the appropri- doses of the vasoconstrictor epinephrine were
ate results. It is anticipated that it will be nec- added to the infiltrate, which significantly de-
essary to approach some patients’ needs in creased the blood loss to 4 to 30 percent of the
different ways. The ultimate judgment regard- aspirate. The wet technique was the method of
ing the care of a particular patient must be choice in the early 1980s.6
1480 PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERY, April 15, 2004
Superwet Technique benefits to external ultrasound and recom-
The superwet technique, introduced in the mended further study.14
mid-1980s, utilizes larger volumes of subcuta- Recommendations
neous infiltrate, infusing 1 cc of solution for
each 1 cc of fat to be removed. The infiltrate 1. Due to the amount of blood loss associated
solution consists of saline or Ringer’s lactate with the dry technique, its use is not recom-
solution with epinephrine and, in some cases, mended except in limited applications with a
lidocaine. Using this method, blood loss gen- volume of 100 cc of total aspirate or less.
erally decreases to less than 1 percent of the 2. The dry technique should never be used in con-
aspirate volume.6,7 junction with ultrasound-assisted liposuction.
3. No one single liposuction technique is best
Tumescent Technique suited for all patients in all circumstances.
Factors such as the patient’s overall health,
Introduced in 1985, the tumescent tech-
the patient’s body mass index, the estimated
nique uses the largest volume of infiltrate and
volume of aspirate to be removed, the number
involves infusing 3 to 4 cc of the infiltrate
of sites to be addressed, and any other con-
solution for each planned milliliter of aspi-
comitant procedures to be performed should
rate.7,8 Drug concentrations in the tumescent
be considered by the surgeon to determine
infiltrate solution vary, but typically they con-
the best technique for the individual patient.
sist of a range of 0.025% to 0.1% lidocaine and
epinephrine 1:1,000,000 in a Ringer’s lactate LIPOSUCTION CANNULAS
or normal saline solution.9,10 Estimated blood
loss with the tumescent technique is approxi- A liposuction cannula is a hollow rod with a
mately 1 percent of the aspirate, comparable to blunt to sharp tip and an opening or openings
the superwet technique.6,7 through which the fat is detached from the
subcutaneous skin and evacuated into the as-
Ultrasound-Assisted Liposuction pirator. Cannula design varies in both dimen-
sion and length. The sharper or more pointed
Introduced in the late 1980s, ultrasound- the tip of the cannula, the more likely damage
assisted liposuction uses a cannula or probe to can occur to surrounding tissue. However, very
deliver fat-liquefying ultrasound subcutane- blunt-tipped cannulas require more physical
ously, permitting fat to be removed with less exertion and can cause more physician fatigue.
physical effort by the surgeon.11 This technique Many cannulas have more than one opening,
permits the removal of fat from fibrous areas in various configurations, at or near the tip.
such as the upper abdomen, back, and flanks Multiple openings facilitate extraction of fat
with greater ease, especially during secondary and traumatize the tissue less because repeated
procedures. To prevent thermal injuries while movement over a given area is minimized.
performing ultrasound-assisted liposuction, The design, size, and length of the liposuc-
two technique rules are of critical importance. tion cannula vary greatly depending on the
First, the ultrasound probe or cannula must be area(s) to be suctioned, the type of liposuction
kept in motion; second, the infiltrate solution performed, and the physician’s preference.15–18
is a required component of ultrasound-assisted The diameters of cannulas typically range from
liposuction as it plays a crucial role in the 2 to 6 mm and are available in a variety of
process of fat emulsification. The dry tech- lengths.17,18 No one cannula is appropriate for
nique should never be used in ultrasound- all procedures, patients, or surgeons.
assisted liposuction, regardless of the planned
volume of aspirate.7 Specialized Cannulas
Power-assisted liposuction. Power-assisted li-
External Ultrasound Assistance posuction is an approach in which the system
External ultrasound assistance delivers ad- that drives the cannula is a power source other
junctive ultrasound through an external pad- than the surgeon’s arm. Systems are either elec-
dle, but this technique remains under investi- trically driven or gas-driven by nitrogen or com-
gation. Some researchers have reported that pressed air tanks. A small motor moves the 2- to
external ultrasound assistance benefits skin re- 4-mm cannula tip in a forward and backward
traction and ease of aspirate extraction,12,13 motion, replicating the motion of the surgeon
while others have found no significant clinical and decreasing physician fatigue. The cannulas
Vol. 113, No. 5 / PRACTICE ADVISORY ON LIPOSUCTION 1481
are small and flexible and are comparable in Anesthetic Infiltration Solutions
length and diameter to standard suction-as- As liposuction techniques evolved, anes-
sisted liposuction cannulas. Power-assisted lipo- thetic agents were added to the wetting solu-
suction is effective for large-volume removals, tions to provide preemptive and prolonged
fibrous areas, and revisions. It is typically used postoperative local analgesia. In smaller-
in conjunction with the tumescent or superwet volume liposuction cases, anesthetic infiltrate
technique. The excessive vibration of the can- solutions alone may provide adequate pain re-
nula and noise of the power system are the two lief. However, in larger-volume liposuction
main disadvantages of this technique.19 cases, the superwet and tumescent techniques
Ultrasound-assisted liposuction. Ultrasound- are often accompanied by sedation, general
assisted liposuction probes are made of tita- anesthesia, or epidural anesthesia to ensure
nium and deliver the ultrasound energy utilized adequate patient comfort.7 It should be noted
to emulsify fat. Two probe designs are avail- that when infiltration methods such as the tu-
able, either solid with no aspiration port or mescent technique are utilized, they should be
hollow with a central lumen. The hollow regarded as regional or systemic anesthesia be-
probe design allows for aspiration of a con- cause there is potential for systemic toxic
tinuous stream of emulsion during the ultra- effects.25,26
sound phase of liposuction.20,21 The solid
probe is thought to be a more efficient fat Marcaine
emulsification device, but its use requires a
two-step process in which the fat must be In the early stages of the wet technique,
emulsified and then evacuated separately.22 low-dose Marcaine (bupivacaine; Abbott Labo-
Regardless of the probe design, a sheath or ratories, North Chicago, Ill.) was occasionally
skin protector of some kind is required to added to the wetting solution. Marcaine, the
prevent thermal injury at the incision site.15,23 longest-acting anesthetic in its class, is rapidly
absorbed, has the slowest elimination in its
Recommendations class, and is not readily reversed.27 Marcaine
toxicity affects the cardiovascular, neurologic,
No one cannula is best suited for all patients and hematologic systems and may result in
in all circumstances. Factors such as the pa- cardiac arrhythmias, seizure, and coma with
tient’s overall health, the volume of aspirate to respiratory depression.27–29 Marcaine has not
be removed, the areas of the body to be been studied for use in liposuction wetting
treated, the number of sites to be addressed, solutions.
the technique chosen (suction-assisted, power-
assisted, or ultrasound-assisted liposuction), Lidocaine
and physician preference determine the can-
nula best suited for the individual patient. Lidocaine is used more often as the anes-
thetic agent in the wetting solution. It has a
wider range of safety than Marcaine and is
ANESTHESIA more easily reversed. Historically, the recom-
Various types of anesthesia or anesthesia mended dose of lidocaine is less than 7 mg/
combinations are appropriate for liposuction, kg.27,30,31 However, this dose does not take into
depending on the overall health of the patient, consideration the slow absorption from fat, the
the estimated volume of the aspirate to be persistent vasoconstriction from epinephrine,
removed, and the postoperative dismissal plan. and the lidocaine removed in the liposuction
A physician should have the primary respon- aspirate, which all contribute to a reduced risk
sibility for providing and/or supervising anes- of systemic toxicity from the lidocaine.6,7 It is
thesia. All anesthesia should be ordered by a generally accepted that a lidocaine dose of up
physician. Anesthetics may be administered by to 35 mg/kg is safe when injected into the
either a qualified physician, a certified registered subcutaneous fat with solutions containing epi-
nurse anesthetist under physician supervision, or nephrine, although doses up to 50 mg/kg have
another qualified health care provider under the been utilized.
supervision of a qualified physician as required Although lidocaine is safe when adminis-
by law.24 The responsible physician must be phys- tered at an appropriate dose and when the
ically present in the operating room throughout patient is appropriately monitored, toxicity can
the conduct of the anesthetic. present as cardiac and neurologic complica-
1482 PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERY, April 15, 2004
tions. Signs and symptoms of lidocaine toxicity that are metabolized by the liver.26 In larger-
include light-headedness, restlessness, drowsi- volume liposuction cases, staged infiltration of
ness, tinnitus, a metallic taste in the mouth, multiple anatomic sites will provide a wider
slurred speech, and numbness of the lips and safety margin.
tongue. These signs can be seen at plasma Epinephrine use should be avoided in pa-
levels between 3 and 6 g/ml. Shivering, mus- tients who present with pheochromocytoma,
cle twitching, and tremors can occur when hyperthyroidism, severe hypertension, cardiac
plasma levels reach 5 to 9 g/ml. Convulsions, disease, or peripheral vascular disease. In addi-
central nervous system depression, and coma tion, cardiac arrhythmias can occur in predis-
follow at plasma levels greater than 10 g/ml. posed individuals or when epinephrine is used
Above these levels, respiratory depression and with halothane anesthesia. Alterations in the
cardiac arrest can occur.23,32 It is important to rate and force of contraction or cardiac irrita-
note that plasma lidocaine levels can peak 10 bility and hypertension can occur, particularly
to 12 hours after infiltration when epinephrine in hyperthyroid patients.34
is present in the wetting solution.7
Various factors affect the likelihood of lido-
caine toxicity, including the level and rate of Recommendations
drug absorption, drug interactions, fluid man- 1. In small-volume liposuction, infiltrate solu-
agement, prothrombogenic factors, and vol- tions containing local anesthetic agents may
ume of wetting solution and aspirate. To de- be sufficient to provide adequate pain relief
crease the risk of lidocaine toxicity in large- without the need for additional anesthesia
volume liposuction cases, two options are measures. The patient or the surgeon may
available. First is to decrease the concentration prefer the use of sedation or general anes-
of lidocaine in the wetting solution. The sec- thesia even with small volumes of
ond is to utilize smaller volumes of infiltrate liposuction.
with the superwet technique rather than 2. Marcaine (bupivacaine) should be used cau-
choose the larger volumes of infiltrate with the tiously as an additive in infiltrate solutions due
tumescent technique. Lidocaine toxicity has to the severity of side effects, slow elimination,
been implicated in a series of liposuction- and inability to reverse potential toxicity.
related deaths.25,33 In fact, studies have shown 3. Lidocaine administered in wetting solutions
that lidocaine may not always be necessary in to large or multiple regions of the body has
liposuction when other forms of anesthesia are the potential to cause systemic toxicity. Pre-
utilized.10 ventive measures include the following:
Epinephrine
• Limit the lidocaine dose to safe levels of 35
Epinephrine is a critical additive in the infil- mg/kg. This level may not be safe in patients
trate solution. Advantages of its use include with low protein levels and other medical con-
vasoconstriction resulting in hemostasis and ditions where the metabolic byproducts of li-
delayed absorption of the anesthetic agent, docaine breakdown may reach problematic
which prolongs its effect, decreases the amount levels.
of anesthetic needed, and reduces the risk of • Calculate the dose for total body weight.
lidocaine toxicity. The epinephrine dosage uti- • Reduce the concentration of lidocaine when
lized in infiltrate solutions varies and may necessary.
range from 1:100,000 to 1:1,000,000 depend- • Utilize the superwet rather than the tumescent
ing on such variables as the liposuction tech- technique.
nique, the volume of infiltrate infused, and the • Consider not using lidocaine when general or
type of alkalinized fluid utilized in the infiltrate regional anesthesia is utilized.
mixture.34 It is recommended that epinephrine
doses not exceed 0.07 mg/kg, although doses 4. Epinephrine use should be avoided in pa-
as high as 10 mg/kg have been used safely.34 It tients who present with pheochromocytoma,
should be noted that if the dose of vasocon- hyperthyroidism, severe hypertension, cardiac
strictor (epinephrine) is high, its systemic ab- disease, or peripheral vascular disease. In ad-
sorption can affect hepatic blood flow and dition, cardiac arrhythmias can occur in pre-
modify the rate of disposition of the local an- disposed individuals or when epinephrine is
esthetics such as lidocaine and bupivacaine used with halothane anesthesia. The surgeon
Vol. 113, No. 5 / PRACTICE ADVISORY ON LIPOSUCTION 1483
must carefully evaluate these types of patients temic toxicity risk of local anesthetic agents.
before performing liposuction. However, epidural anesthesia can cause vasodi-
5. Consider staging the infiltration of multiple lation and hypotension, which result in the
anatomic sites to reduce the possibility of an administration of extra fluid and increased risk
excess epinephrine effect. of fluid overload.38
Plastic surgeons recognize the definitions of
the American Society of Anesthesiologists re- Moderate Sedation/Analgesia
garding the types and levels of sedation and Anesthetic techniques utilizing intravenous
analgesia. These definitions comprise a contin- sedatives, hypnotics, and narcotics are widely
uum of levels ranging from minimal sedation utilized in the office-based surgery setting.
(anxiolysis) to general anesthesia (Table I).2 When applied to liposuction procedures, clin-
General Anesthesia ical experience suggests an excellent safety
margin.39,40
The use of general anesthesia for liposuction
has been a source of professional debate and
unsubstantiated implications regarding its safe- Recommendations
ty.35,36 However, studies indicate that general 1. Plastic surgeons should utilize the American
anesthesia is safe and effective in an accredited Society of Anesthesiologists’ Guidelines for Se-
office-based surgery facility. In a review of dation and Analgesia.2
23,000 patients undergoing general anesthesia 2. General anesthesia can be used safely in the
in the office-based setting, no intraoperative or office setting.
postoperative deaths and no significant com- 3. General anesthesia has advantages for more
plications occurred.37 General anesthesia is complex liposuction procedures that include
particularly suitable for complex or long oper- precise dosing, controlled patient movement,
ations and may provide a greater margin of and airway management.
safety than other routes of anesthesia because 4. Epidural and spinal anesthesia in the office
the anesthetic dose is more precise. During setting is discouraged because of the possibil-
general anesthesia, the patient is comfortably ity of vasodilation, hypotension, and fluid
asleep, allowing the surgeon to focus full atten- overload.
tion on the procedure without the distraction 5. Moderate sedation/analgesia augments the
of inadvertent patient movement. General an- patient’s comfort level and is an effective ad-
esthesia also decreases the risk of intraopera- junct to anesthetic infiltrate solutions.
tive airway obstruction, aspiration, and intraop-
erative laryngospasm.37
PATIENT SELECTION
Epidural Anesthesia One of the most important aspects in the
Studies indicate that epidural anesthesia success of any surgical procedure is the physi-
combined with the infusion of anesthetic infil- cal condition of the patient at the time of
trate provides patients with a consistent intra- surgery. A discussion of patient selection crite-
operative comfort level. Chloroprocaine is of- ria for the office-based surgery facility can be
ten the anesthetic agent utilized because it is found in the ASPS patient selection practice
rapidly metabolized and has the lowest sys- advisory.41
TABLE I
Continuum of Depth of Sedation: Definition of General Anesthesia and Levels of Sedation/Analgesia
Obesity Recommendations
Large-volume liposuction has become a 1. Even though liposuction is generally an elective
technique for addressing contour irregulari- procedure, the liposuction patient must be as-
ties, but preliminary studies also suggest im- sessed using the same standards as those used
provement in cardiovascular risks, blood for anyone who is undergoing any type of sur-
pressure reduction, and reduced levels of gery, including a complete preoperative history
fasting insulin after liposuction.46 While lipo- and physical examination.
suction may provide some physiologic bene- 2. In some cases, liposuction may be used in the
fit to the obese patient, there are inherent treatment of gynecomastia, breast hypertro-
risks in these patients that must be consid- phy, and obesity.
ered, such as poor wound healing, infection, 3. The body mass index is a good method to
deep venous thrombosis, and sleep apnea.47 assess the liposuction patient’s relative risk/
This is particularly true with respect to the benefit for the procedure.
morbidly obese patient, defined as a patient 4. In obese patients receiving large-volume lipo-
with a body mass index of 30 or higher. The suction, it may be necessary to modify the
relative risk/benefit of surgery can be esti- anesthetic infiltrate solution to prevent lido-
mated based on the body mass index of the caine toxicity.
patient, which is calculated as kilograms per 5. Not all patients are appropriate liposuction
meter squared (kg/m2). A reference chart is candidates. These patients may wish to con-
TABLE II
Body Weight in Pounds According to Height and Body Mass Index
BMI (kg/m2)
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 35 40
load include increased blood pressure, jugular as abdominoplasty, serious complications have
vein distension, full bounding pulse, cough, been reported.53
shortness of breath, and moist crackles on aus-
cultation of the lungs.23 Recommendations
1. Large-volume liposuction combined with cer-
Recommendations
tain other procedures has resulted in serious
1. A data sheet should be used to facilitate complications, and such combinations should
communication. be avoided.54
2. The intake and output of all fluids utilized in 2. Individual patient circumstances may warrant
the operative and postoperative periods performing liposuction as a separate
should be accurately monitored. procedure.54
3. Communication with the anesthesia care pro-
vider about fluid management is critical. INTRAOPERATIVE CARE
4. Fluid management and liposuction surgery There are several precautions that can be
must account for maintenance requirements, taken intraoperatively to maximize the postop-
preexisting deficits, and intraoperative losses erative recovery, including warming the skin
of aspirated tissue and third-space deficit. preparation and intravenous and infiltrate so-
5. Preexisting fluid deficits should be minimal lutions to body temperature with approved de-
after an overnight fast. vices and using surface forced conductive hot
6. Blood loss estimates should be made and con- air warmers to preserve body core tempera-
firmed with preoperative and postoperative he- ture. Patients in the supine position should be
moglobin measurements. However, due to fluid properly positioned and padded on the oper-
shifts, hemoglobin levels may not be reliable ating table, with their knees slightly flexed so as
during the first 24 hours postoperatively. to maximize blood flow through the popliteal
7. Calculation of residual fluid volumes after li- vein. Special attention to positioning is also
posuction is helpful in planning postoperative required for patients in the prone and decub-
care. itus positions. Intermittent pneumatic com-
pression devices should be used intraopera-
MULTIPLE PROCEDURES tively to prevent deep vein thrombosis,
The cumulative effect of multiple proce- particularly with patients at moderate to high
dures performed during a single operation in- risk of blood clots. Low-molecular-weight hep-
creases the potential that complications may arin may also be administered to those patients
develop.53 However, limited liposuction aspira- at higher risk.55
tion volumes are routinely and safely obtained
in combination with additional plastic surgery POSTOPERATIVE CARE
procedures in office-based facilities. Some Immediate postoperative care should in-
states restrict the use of liposuction in combi- clude assessment of fluid and electrolyte bal-
nation with other procedures in the office fa- ance and administration of replacement fluids,
cility, and surgeons should be aware of their as needed. In addition, red blood cell loss
individual state’s regulations. While there are needs to be assessed and replacement red
some data to support these local limitations, blood cells administered, if needed. Patients
the data tend to be anecdotal or in studies who undergo large-volume liposuction or mul-
lacking the rigor necessary to establish stan- tiple procedures should be warmed as they
dards of practice. However, when large-volume recover, using surface forced conductive hot
liposuction is combined with procedures such air warmers.
Vol. 113, No. 5 / PRACTICE ADVISORY ON LIPOSUCTION 1487
All patients who have received general anes- infection can progress, sometimes rapidly,
thesia, regional anesthesia, or deep or moder- causing serious to fatal outcomes. The most
ate sedation should receive appropriate post- serious of these complications include toxic
anesthesia management.2 Medical supervision shock and necrotizing fasciitis.56,58 Aggressive
and coordination of the patient’s care should management of the initial infection can fore-
be performed by a physician. Observation and stall more serious complications. The use of
monitoring by methods appropriate to the pa- prophylactic antibiotics is a decision that is best
tient’s condition by qualified and competent made by the physician. It is essential that
staff are essential. Depending on the amount wounds be kept clean and that any change in
of aspirate removed, the patient needs to be the wound site be reported to the physician
monitored for several hours or, possibly, over- immediately.
night. Before a patient is discharged, the pa- Pulmonary embolus results from one or a com-
tient must be alert and oriented and all vital bination of these three mechanisms: venous sta-
signs must be stable. Compression garments sis, activation of blood coagulation, or injury to
and elastic stockings are generally used for the vascular endothelium. Signs and symptoms
several weeks following surgery. The patient of deep venous thrombosis include calf pain, leg
should expect significant bruising and swelling edema, and venous engorgement. Signs and
for at least the first 48 to 72 hours postopera- symptoms of pulmonary embolism include chest
tively. Pain management in the immediate pain, dyspnea, hemoptysis, tachycardia, tachy-
postoperative period may require small doses pnea, altered mental status, rales, rhonchi, and
of parenteral narcotics. The patient may be decreased oxygen saturation.23,33,59
sent home with oral pain medication, which One of the most important ways to prevent
may be needed for several days. The need for pulmonary embolism is to adequately assess
pain medication should lessen after that time. the patient regarding his or her risk of pulmo-
In fact, if progressively worsening pain is nary embolus. The mechanisms of pulmonary
present, this must be reported immediately to embolism are discussed in detail in the ASPS
the physician, as it may be indicative of infec- statement on deep vein thrombosis prophylax-
tion or other complications.5 is.55 The patient should be assessed for genetic
Long-term follow-up care includes assess- and acquired conditions that predispose him
ment of postoperative recovery at regular in- or her to coagulation disorders, such as the use
tervals, depending on the extent of the proce- of oral contraceptives or hormone replace-
dure. This assessment should examine wound ment therapy. Once the patient’s relative risk is
healing and scar maturation as well as patient determined, appropriate prophylaxis can be
satisfaction. implemented, including preoperative and in-
traoperative interventions such as thromboem-
POSSIBLE COMPLICATIONS bolic disease stockings, compression devices,
Serious medical complications are rare fol- and prophylactic anticoagulation therapy.54
lowing liposuction, though their frequency in- The likelihood of dying from pulmonary em-
creases with the number of sites treated and bolism depends on the size of the embolus, the
the volume of fat aspirated.53 In addition to the size and number of pulmonary arteries
lidocaine toxicity and fluid overload discussed blocked, and the person’s overall health.
earlier, complications may range from rela- Fat emboli, while somewhat less common
tively minor conditions to more serious or life- than pulmonary emboli, have been implicated
threatening events. Minor complications that in liposuction deaths.33,59 There are two theo-
resolve on their own or with little additional ries as to the origin of fat emboli, one mechan-
treatment include small hematomas, seromas, ical and the other biochemical.23,33 In liposuc-
and minor contour irregularities. More severe tion cases, a mechanical blockage can occur
complications include skin perforation, major when the rupture of vessels and damage to
contour defects, skin necrosis, thermal injury, adipocytes allow the entrance of globules of
vital organ injury, adverse anesthesia reaction, triglyceride into the venous circulation. The fat
pulmonary embolus, and fat embolus.23,56,57 globules are too large to pass through the pul-
Some of the most severe complications may monary capillaries, where they become
require additional surgery or hospitalization. trapped. Symptoms of a fat embolus include
Infection can be one of the more serious tachycardia, tachypnea, elevated temperature,
complications of liposuction. Localized wound hypoxemia, hypocapnia, thrombocytopenia,
1488 PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERY, April 15, 2004
and occasionally mild neurological symptoms. Recommendations
It is essential to distinguish fat embolus from 1. Physicians performing liposuction must be
pulmonary embolus because the treatment is trained as surgeons. A surgeon’s scope of prac-
different.23,59 In contrast to a mechanical fat tice is defined by one of the 10 surgical boards
embolism, fat embolism syndrome occurs later recognized by the ABMS.
and is an inflammatory and biochemical con- 2. Surgeons performing procedures outside of
dition. In theory, the syndrome occurs when his or her area of training, defined by the
circulating or hydrolyzed free fatty acids in the surgeon’s specialty, must obtain additional ed-
pulmonary system damage the endothelial ucation, certification, and experience. The
cells and pneumocytes. The clinical course of ABMS surgeon must have liposuction and
the syndrome can vary from mild dyspnea to body-contouring training and must operate in
adult respiratory distress syndrome. The three his or her area of anatomic expertise. The
classic symptoms of fat embolism syndrome are physician who performs liposuction in any sur-
respiratory distress, cerebral dysfunction, and gical setting must meet all of the following
petechial rash, which usually occur within 24 to minimal formal training requirements:
48 hours after surgery. Treatment includes pul- a. The physician must have a basic education:
monary support, evaluation of hemodynamics, M.D. or D.O.
monitoring of fluid status, and, in some cases, b. The physician must be qualified for examina-
the use of high doses of corticosteroids.23 tion or be certified by a surgical board recog-
Hypothermia also poses cardiovascular and nized by the ABMS, and the physician must
wound-healing risks, and preventive warming i. Complete training in liposuction/body
measures should be instituted.54 contouring during an accredited resi-
dency or fellowship; or
FACILITY SELECTION ii. Complete an 8-hour liposuction/body-
contouring training course approved for
The surgical technique used and the surgical category I Continuing Medical Educa-
facility where the liposuction is to be per- tion credit with at least 3 hours of
formed should be determined by the physician hands-on bio-skills cadaver training and
after consideration of the patient’s overall a comprehensive instructional program
health and the area(s) of the body that will be on fluid replacement. Observation by a
liposuctioned. While a surgeon can safely per- proctor with liposuction privileges for
form most liposuction procedures in an ac- the first three clinical procedures is
credited office-based surgery facility or ambu- recommended.
latory surgery facility, hospitalization may be c. The physician must operate within his or
required for some patients. A discussion of her area of training and area of anatomic
patient selection criteria for the office-based expertise, which is defined by his or her
setting can be found in the ASPS patient selec- ABMS surgical specialty board.
tion advisory41 and should be consulted for that 3. A physician should have the primary respon-
purpose. Plastic surgeons who are members of sibility for providing and/or supervising anes-
ASPS are required to perform office-based sur- thesia. All anesthesia should be ordered by a
gery in accredited facilities as well as meet their physician. Anesthetics may be administered by
individual state facility regulations. either a qualified physician, a certified regis-
tered nurse anesthetist under physician super-
TRAINING AND QUALIFICATIONS vision, or another qualified health care pro-
vider under the supervision of a qualified
Physicians who perform liposuction without physician as required by law.24 The responsible
having surgical training may not be as pre- physician must be physically present in the
pared as trained surgeons to handle an unex- operating room throughout the conduct of the
pected complication of liposuction when it oc- anesthetic.
curs. Liposuction is a surgical procedure, and
as such, physicians performing liposuction
must be trained as surgeons. Surgical training FACILITY ACCREDITATION
is defined by one of the 10 surgical boards In addition to the training and qualifications
recognized by the American Board of Medical of the physician performing the liposuction,
Specialties (ABMS). the location where the surgical procedure is
Vol. 113, No. 5 / PRACTICE ADVISORY ON LIPOSUCTION 1489
performed is very important. Plastic surgery, surgery, liposuction can be a safe procedure
including liposuction, performed under anes- that results in significant patient satisfaction.
thesia, other than minor local anesthesia Ronald E. Iverson, M.D.
and/or minimal oral tranquilization, should The Plastic Surgery Center
be performed in a surgical facility that meets at 1387 Santa Rita Road
least one of the following criteria: Pleasanton, Calif. 94566