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Few can question the increasing role of photovoltaic (PV) technology as a scalable, robust means
of renewable energy. Yet PV cells are but one element, albeit a critical one, in an overall PV
system. Another essential subsystem performs what's called ÷



(MPPT).

The concept of MPPT is simple -- to automatically vary a PV array's load conditions so it can
produce its maximum output power. This is necessary because a PV cell has non-linear current-
voltage qualities. The power delivered by an array increases, to a point, as the current draw rises.

The maximum power point (MPP) is at the knee of the curve. Any additional current drawn from
the array results in a rapid drop-off of cell voltage, thus reducing the array power output. The
aim of an MPPT subsystem is to determine just where that point is, and to regulate current
accordingly. Aging effects and external factors such as temperature and partial shading of an
array make locating and tracking the maximum power point a bit more challenging. In most
cases there is only one maxima. However, rapid changes in irradiance (moving clouds) or
temperature (rain, etc.) may briefly introduce multiple local maxima. Some MPPT techniques
address the issue of ³phantom´ maxima better than others.

One indication of how important MPPT can be to a system's overall economics and conversion
efficiency is the number of papers, patents and algorithms describing various approaches. At
least 200 papers on MPPT have been published since the late 1960s, and dozens of patents cover
various techniques. These techniques differ widely in complexity, tracking accuracy, response
time, costs, efficiency and target implementation (i.e., analog circuitry, simple digital circuitry,
microcontrollers, DSPs or ASICs). I'll review the general concepts behind five MPPT systems in
use today ² by no means an exhaustive list. Here we assume a switching dc/dc converter or
dc/ac inverter follows the array in all cases.

The first method is known as 


 
 (P&O). In a P&O system, a small
perturbation in array current is introduced at a regular interval and the resultant power is
measured. This is usually done by slightly varying the duty cycle of the switching converter (the
load) driven by the PV array. Changing the duty cycle changes the load current as well, effecting
a small perturbation. Two sensors, one for PV voltage the other for PV current, are commonly
used to determine if the perturbation resulted in an increase or decrease of instantaneous power.

In operation, the perturbation will oscillate about the MPP. Some P&O implementations vary the
perturbation step size as the system converges, to reduce hunting and increase average
efficiency. This can have drawbacks, however, as the small step sizes lengthens system response
time to rapid changes in irradiance from moving shadows, etc. Variations on the P&O theme
involve using fuzzy logic to adaptively determine step size and microcontrollers to average
successive voltage and current readings and thus avoid phantom maxima.

Another widely used MPPT technique is known as 

  , or . At
MPP, the slope of the curve is zero. IncCond exploits the fact that the power curve slope reveals
whether the array current has yet to reach MPP (positive slope, da/d > 0), is at MPP (da/d =
0), or has exceeded MPP and must be reduced (negative slope, da/d 0).

Because da= d(
), da/d =
 d
/d . Conductance is
 . Thus if the system is at MPP,
incremental conductance (ǻ
/ǻ ) =-
 .

Referring to a simplified flowchart of an IncCond system, we are changing the array current by
altering the converter duty cycle (Į), similar to the P&O method. If the power converter is a
boost configuration, then lengthening its duty cycle will raise inductor current and thus present
more current to the array. With each measurement iteration, we adjust the duty cycle by a step
size ± ǻĮ, so the next duty cycle becomes Įn= Įn+1 ± ǻ?Į. Typically this would be implemented
using individual sensors for both current and voltage plus a microcontroller or DSP with
integrated a/d converters.

The switching action of a dc/dc converter or dc/ac inverter always results in some input current
ripple; this ripple will be apparent in the PV array voltage and current. An interesting MPPT
technique called
 

 
 (RCC) harnesses that imposed ripple current and
offers the advantages of quick response time and potentially less expensive analog
implementation. RCC correlates the time derivative of power with the time derivative of current
or voltage to drive the power gradient to zero, reaching MPP. Essentially, RCC can be viewed as
a method of implementing P&O without the need of external perturbation. RCC is useful in
certain types of mobile systems which may encounter rapidly changing irradiance, such as solar-
powered vehicles that periodically dart under tree shadows.

A PV cell's open circuit voltage will vary under irradiance and temperature conditions with
approximate similarity to an array under load. This is the principle behind 
  

  (FOCV) and pilot cell methods. It can be realized as simply as

aaok· 
 

The proportionality constant k depends on the qualities of the particular PV cells being used. In
the fractional open-circuit voltage scheme, the array is momentarily disconnected from the
converter at regular intervals and the open circuit voltage is measured. Of course this results in a
temporary loss of power. An alternative is to use one or more pilot cells which are selected to
have the same qualities as the cells in the array. In this case the main array is always connected
to the converter and the pilot cells are continuously available for 
  measurement. FOCV
and pilot cell systems are not true MPPT, however, because they can only approximate MPP. But
they are certainly inexpensive to implement and are adequate in certain applications.

These MPPT techniques (and many others) vary greatly in implementation cost, complexity,
performance and design time. P&O and IncCond are well understood and self-tuning, RCC is a
good choice when fast convergence to MPP is important, and fractional OC or pilot cells may be
economical for fixed outdoor lighting which does not need precision control. There are also
some variants, like two-stage IncCond and P&O systems, which offer fast tracking in the first
stage, then shift to fine tracking in the second stage as the MPP approaches.
 ÷  ÷ 

The most important part of the system is control algorithm. Algorithm decides to
increase or decrease duty cycle that drives Mosfets to find maximum power point.
There are mainly two methods in literature:

| Perturbation and Observation Method

| Incremental Conductance Method



  
 ÷ !"
Perturbation and observation is the most used in MPPT circuits because of its
simplicity. Panel terminal voltage is perturbated and compared with previous power
point by periodically.

This method has a problem while tracking maximum power point. Because
perturbation is applied continuously, a oscillations occurs around maximum power
point. Although algorithm reached maximum power point, perturbation still continues
to find this point. Power loss will increase even P&O will be unstable while
atmospheric conditions change rapidly.


     ÷ !"

IncCond method is more efficient than P&O method because panel terminal voltage is
changed according to its value relative to the maximum power point voltage.
Therefore, this method is independent on solar panel characteristics.

Power is increasing with voltage for the left of MPP and power is decreasing with
voltage for the right of maximum power point. This condition can be written by
mathematically:

a ;

a 

;  

; 

  

When current incremental and panel conductance is measured, panel voltage is

adjusted relative to MPP.
[k+1] is present value while [k] is previous value.

IncCond method eliminates the problem that is seen in P&O method. Therefore,
oscillations that cause power loss are not occured in IncCond method.