International Journal of Food

Engineering
Volume 3, Issue 6 2007 Article 9

Engineering Research to Improve Cassava

Processing Technology

Oladele Peter Kolawole, International Institute of Tropical

Agriculture
Leo Ayodeji Sunday Agbetoye, Federal University of
Technology, Akure, Nigeria

Recommended Citation:
Kolawole, Oladele Peter and Agbetoye, Leo Ayodeji Sunday (2007) "Engineering Research to
Improve Cassava Processing Technology," International Journal of Food Engineering: Vol. 3 :
Iss. 6, Article 9.
Available at: http://www.bepress.com/ijfe/vol3/iss6/art9
DOI: 10.2202/1556-3758.1311
©2007 Berkeley Electronic Press. All rights reserved.
 Engineering Research to Improve Cassava
Processing Technology
Oladele Peter Kolawole and Leo Ayodeji Sunday Agbetoye

Abstract
Cassava is an important food crop, and equipment development for processing it in the
developing world requires more research as industrial processing of cassava is still limited.
Research efforts made by local engineers need scientific improvement to meet the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs), aimed at poverty reduction over a stipulated period of time with
globally defined measurable indicators of progress. The World Summit on Sustainable
Development (WSSD), the Report of the Commission for Africa (popularly referred to as the
Tony Blair Report), and the New Partnership for African Development (NEPAD) are targeted at
re-positioning Africa in the world economy. The need for rapid cassava processing equipment and
new equipment development to significantly improve stages involved in its production process is
highlighted in this paper.

KEYWORDS: high quality cassava flour, food security, Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs)

Author Notes: The authors wish to acknowledge the support of Dr. Dixion A., Prof Ogunlowo A.
S., Dr Sanni L., Ilona P., and Bamkefa B.
 Kolawole and Agbetoye: Engineering Processing of Cassava

1. Introduction

Nigeria in Africa is the largest producer of cassava in the world. Its production is
currently estimated at about 49 million tones a year. Total area harvested of the
crop in 2001 was 3.1 million ha with an average yield of about 11 t/ha. Cassava
plays a vital role in the world food security because of its capacity to yield under
marginal soil conditions and its tolerance to drought. It is the most widely
cultivated crop in Nigeria and smallholder farmers who depend on seasonal
rainfall grow it.
Cassava provides the livelihood for over 30 million farmers and countless
processors and traders. Cassava performs five main roles: famine reserve crop,
rural food staple, cash crop for urban consumption, industrial raw material, and
foreign exchange earner, also that Nigeria is the most advanced of the African
countries poised to diversify the use of cassava as a primary industrial raw
material in addition to its the role as livestock feed. Two factors were identified
for Nigeria situation: the rapid adoption of improved cassava varieties and the
development of small-scale processing technologies.
Despite this development, the demand for cassava is mainly for food; and
opportunities for commercial development remain largely undeveloped. Cassava
production exhibits high levels of variability and cyclical gluts, due mainly to the
inability of markets to absorb supplies. As a result, prices of storage roots decline
sharply and production levels are reduced in succeeding years before picking up
again. Such factors were identified by IITA as cause of price instability over the
years, which significantly increase the income risk to producers. Insufficient
processing options and equipment for the processing and storage leading to
inadequate marketing channels, and a lack of linkages between producers and the
end-users are major factors preventing greater profitability for producers and
processors. There is a potential to generate from one crop multiple economic
benefits through improved post harvest handling and processing. Major
constraints are technical, resources, socio-economic and organizational.

1.1 Cassava Principal Products

Cassava could be transformed into two principal products, flour and gari from
new and traditional varieties, the new varieties give higher yields only when
harvested early (Johnson and Masters 2004), where as traditional varieties could
be stored in the ground and harvested as needed for home consumption.
Mechanization allows farmers to process large quantities quickly before they
spoil. People in the less developed countries of the world depend largely on these
food products. And the processing in all cases requires the removal of water,
which is about 70% of any giving tuber. Dewatering in cassava processing

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 International Journal of Food Engineering, Vol. 3 [2007], Iss. 6, Art. 9

requires engineering attention like any other stages, to make cassava processing
more lucrative and competitive all critical stages must be made simple, the most
critical processes in cassava processing towards flour production is the juice
extraction in that it influences greatly the cost of drying. Dewatering is a pre-
drying alternative (Sinha et al., 2000). This operation is mainly carried out
manually under rural conditions. This is not only tasking and ineffective, but also
time consuming.

1.2 Handling and Processing

Handling and processing conditions often result in a very poor quality of the
products. In addition to the high labour intensity and drudgery, the conditions
during processing are generally unsanitary and unwholesome. During processing
by women in rural areas, losses of some mineral and vitamin value do occur
(FOA, 1994). This can be avoided with better-designed equipment (Kolawole et
al 2007).
In the provision of good food, Cassava processors are now responding to
the growing urban demands for food that are more convenient such as bread made
with cassava flour, this flour made with cassava need a better method of
production, this can only be possible by the use of good machines, which
translates to reduction of human effort, improve timeliness and quality of various
operations. The global economic changes, in particular the downswing in the
world economy with its accompanying effects on developing countries, have
increased the importance of cassava processing as an occupation in Africa based
on local processing technology available. Cassava is a crop that deteriorates
quickly, the processing must be fast and this can only be achieved by the use of
well-developed machines. It also contains toxins, its processing consists of four
different stages; each stage exposes the workers to various occupationally related
ailments, which range from accidental physical and biological injuries, fatigue,
cramps and irritation, to cyanide exposure and disorders of ergonomic origin.
These aspects of cassava processing have been found to be hazardous to the
health of the dewatering operators. (Fajemilehin and Jinadu 1992).
Occupationally related ailments are the most common among the cassava graters
and dewatering workers, each beings at risk of suffering from at least four
different ailments.

1.3 Roles of Science, Engineering and Technology

Bamiro (2006) has articulated the key role of engineering and the ways in which it
can be developed to achieve the identified goals of development in Africa.
Notable projects, programmes, declarations etc. addressing development of Africa

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 Kolawole and Agbetoye: Engineering Processing of Cassava

are: the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), aimed at poverty reduction

over a stipulated period of time with globally defined measurable indicators of
progress; the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD); the Report of
the Commission for Africa (popularly referred to as the Tony Blair Report); and
the Partnership for African Development (NEPAD) targeted at re-positioning
Africa in the world economy. The Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (JPOI)
of WSSD identified during the Summit process, the three pillars of sustainable
development as the economic, environmental, and social pillars, and emphasized
the fact that ‘science and technology must be placed at the heart of policies to
promote sustainable development’. It is shown in that many of the means of
implementation of the development initiatives are not related to science and
technology policies only but, in reality, to science, engineering, technology and
innovation (SETI). Two broad categories of technological capabilities for
development was identified: one, the firm/enterprise-level technological
capability (FLTC) based on the technology of the firm, comprising six elements
of capabilities that firms and enterprises must acquire in varying degrees to meet
the challenges in the local and global market place; and two, the national level
technological capability (NLTC) which defines the environment within which
firms and enterprises operate, and has as its elements – the capital goods
manufacturing capability, the educational and training infrastructure for the
production of the requisite technological manpower, the techno-managerial
consultancy service capability to handle project packaging, the Research and
Development capability for innovative development of products and processes,
the financial infrastructure, and the S & T information infrastructure leveraging
on the existing information and communication technology (ICT) infrastructure
available.

1.4 Innovation Capacity

In most discussions of technology in relation to development, reference is made in

most cases to science and technology (S & T) or scientific and technological
capacity while engineering capability is hardly ever formally admitted. Product
innovation is really a trilogy of Science, Engineering and Technology (SET).
Science designates man's organized attempts to comprehend how things work as
causal systems. Science creates understanding that it is neutral, but man to invent
or improve or create technology may use that understanding.
Scientific capability or “know-why” is acquired through research and its
acquisition from whatever sources - domestic or foreign - can take place
meaningfully only if there exists a critical mass of scientific manpower in the our
countries - within firms and/or in national R & D institutions. There is some

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 International Journal of Food Engineering, Vol. 3 [2007], Iss. 6, Art. 9

scientific capacity in Africa. While science essentially aims at understanding how

things work, technology relates to ways of doing things ("know-how").
Technological capability or know-how has always been in existence in
any human society. What varies is the level and intensity of its transformation of
materials into goods and services most especially on a scientific basis,
recognizing within the framework of S & T capability building is the crucial role
of engineering.
Engineering capability is a critical component, the integration of which is
little appreciated. This has come about because engineering is a generic activity
designed to solve technological problems. Engineering is the package of actions
we take to put technology to work in the production of goods and services.
Engineering provides the final vehicle for producing development out of the
knowledge provided by technology and, by extension, science. Engineering
capability comes into play in the translation of new technologies or processes into
plants and processing machinery.
The development of three mutually interacting capabilities - scientific,
engineering, and technological (SET) - should be the focus in contemplating
technology for development (Bamiro 2007).

2. Review of Cassava Processing Technology

The operations involved in cassava processing depend on the end product desired.
In general, the processing stages in cassava include peeling, washing, grating,
chipping, drying, dewatering/fermentation, pulverization and sieving/sifting and
frying/drying. Five distinct operations are involved in producing gari, and these
include peeling, grating, fermentation/dewatering or pressing, sieving (or sifting)
and frying. Peeling is the first operation performed after the cassava tubers have
been harvested. It involves peeling of cassava tuber outer skin with knives, mostly
carried out by the women and children. Mechanized peeling is yet to be fully
developed due to factors that include the irregularity in the shape of the cassava
tuber. Attempts made by engineers, to produce peeling machines (Agbetoye 2005)
Perhaps the most successful motorized cassava peeler was exhibited and
demonstrated by the Federal University of Technology, Akure, Ondo State
University team at the first Nigerian Universities Research and Development fair
held in Abuja in October 2004 where the peeler was awarded a prize for
outstanding innovative design. That development further enhanced the
mechanization of cassava processing.
The next operation after cassava tubers have been peeled is grating. In the
olden days, cassava tubers were grated on a piece of galvanized metal sheet,
punched with about 3 mm diameter nails leaving a raised jagged flange on the
underside. The grating surface is fixed on a flat wooden frame. This method is

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tedious and time consuming and endangers the operator’s fingers. Mechanized
cassava graters have been designed and are replacing manual grating in many
localities of West Africa. A typical cassava grater consist of a wooden drum rotor
of about 250 to 300 mm in diameter, covered with a perforated tin sheet and are
usually powered by electric motors or diesel/petrol engines. This saves time and is
less injurious to operators.
In the traditional operations, fermentation and pressing (de-watering) are
done in one operation. The grated mash is packed inside baskets, jute bags or
perforated plastic sacks and left to ferment for 1-4 days. FAO (1998) stated that
the duration of this fermentation affects the colour, taste and texture of the gari.
After fermentation has been completed, the mash is then pressed to reduce the
water content. The traditional method of dewatering grated cassava mash involves
tying and twisting the neck of the hessian sack over which heavy stones are
placed for one or two days. The fermentation and pressing, takes long period to
accomplish. Presently, the common practice with mechanical presses is to use
either hydraulic jacks or a bolt screw and plate ram to apply pressure to woven
polythene sacks that contain the grated cassava mash. (Babatunde, 1999). It
reduces time for dewatering and less accident is likely to occur compared to
traditional method where stone can fall on the operator’s leg. A lot of
improvement is still required in this regard. A study was conducted (Kolawole et
al (2007) to evaluate the parameters affecting the dewatering of cassava mash.
The dewatering parameters investigated were pressure drop, face area of the filter
medium and mash resistance. The results provides ground for dewatering machine
development.
After pressing, the de-watered cassava mash is a solid cake, which has to
be broken up and sieved to remove the large lumps and fiber and to obtain
homogenous product, uniform particle size is important because it makes for a
more uniform roasting of individual particles during frying operation and that,
smaller particles takes less time energy in roasting. IITA (1990) mentioned that
sieving the final product of gari ensures uniformity of the product. Gari is first
sifted after de-watering in order to remove the fibre (un-grated cassava pieces). In
the final re-sieving, the product gari, is separated into chaffy, fine, coarse and
medium size fractions. This is done after the frying operation. The texture and
consistency of processed cassava food product is an important consideration
throughout sub-saharan Africa. Frying and bagging are the final operations in gari
processing. At village level gari is fried in shallow cast-iron pans. The sieved
cassava mash is spread thinly in the pan in 2-3 kg batches. A piece of calabash is
often used in stirring the gari on the hot surface of the pan to prevent it from
burning until the frying is completed.
Gari frying and Flour drying are complex procedures, which depends on
the skill of the operator. The inability to control the temperature; exposure of the

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operator to heat and smoke from the fire; and steam from the wet cassava mash,
have been major set back in traditional frying of gari. Continues feeding of mash
in flash drying is another. Processing of cassava into its products such as chips
and pellets requires machines. Many of the machines are not available in
commercial quantities in the market. The development of these machines
including their commercial manufacture to feed the rapidly expanding processing
factories is essential.

2.1 Need for Innovation

The need for innovative cassava processing technologies is enormous because

traditional cassava processing has a number of undesirable attributes. It is time
consuming, provides low yields and lacks storage capacities. Many unattractively
describe it as drudgery. Cassava processing in Nigeria where the economies are
primarily agricultural is a major single consumer of energy, most of the
technologies currently in use were not developed with the primary objective of
energy efficiency, and in many cases they did not comprise a large share of the
final cost of the product. The need to make the agricultural processing more
energy-efficient is now receiving attention as we witness sharp increases in the
price of fuels.
The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) disease resistant
varieties of cassava are boosting productivity. One of the newly innovated
products by IITA is the High Quality Cassava Flour (HQCF) an unfermented
cassava flour and a very good substitute to the imported wheat flour. Cassava
flour prepared using traditional methods is often fermented and frequently of poor
quality, thus making it unsuitable as a substitute for wheat flour in bakery
products. The capital investment requirements for HQCF production minimized
by IITA Ibadan with the introduction of a method that makes use of existing
equipment used for gari preparation (Onabolu and Bokanga 1998), proved
suitable for preparing cassava flour from both sweet and bitter varieties of cassava
(IITA, 2004). The technique enables small-scale primary processors produce high
quality unfermented cassava flour that meets industrial users' specifications within
one day.
The major physical bottlenecks for the IITA process are access to
engineering researched processing equipment, power to provide mechanization
and reliance on good weather for drying the product. When the government of
Nigeria announced the use cassava as a foreign revenue earner, and passed a law
that all wheat bread must be made with 10 per cent cassava flour, about saving 40
million dollars was saved annually with stoppage of wheat imports. This lead to
steps in increase HQCF production in order to meet the demand for cassava flour,
very good developed machines are now needed in every stages of Cassava

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 Kolawole and Agbetoye: Engineering Processing of Cassava

processing (Sanni 2004). IITA has identified the need for a rapid cassava mash
dewatering as second major problem after peeling in the production of High
Quality unfermented Cassava Flour (HQCF), the second most important rate
determining factor after drying and the most tedious operations. (Abass et al.,
2003).

2.2 Cassava Dewatering Method

All processing need dewatering to bring the best out of cassava, and dewatering is
done in Nigeria using various methods (Aribisala 1992). The list of these
methods in use for cassava mash dewatering is as follows:

2.2.1 Boulders or logs

Involves application of pressure by placing heavy stones or logs on top of the

sacks or baskets containing the mash, to completely squeezed water out of the
mash requires turning of the mash at intervals. This usually lasts for between 3 –
5 days.

2.2.2 Sticks:

This method involves tying the neck of the sack around string sticks in such a way
that by twisting the sticks, the sack is gradually tightened thus water is squeezed
out.

2.2.3 Parallel Board:

Parallel board method provides uniform pressure to mash filled sacks placed
between them. The parallel boards are screwed together to create pressure on the
sacks. This method takes about 3 – 4 hrs to dewater one bag about 125 kg.

2.2.4 Tree Stumps:

Tree stumps method provides support for a wooden beam support inserted
between them. Bags of grated mash are placed on the wooden wedges are
hammered into the space between the sacks and the tree.

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2.2.5 Chain or String:

This involves 2 or 4 long sticks by tying the chain/string at both ends of the sticks,
as the chain/string are tied act internal, water is squeezed out of the sacks. This
method may last for between 2 and 3 days.

2.2.6 Screw jack:

This can either be in the form of a circular press cage holding the fresh pulp or
square frame exerting pressure on the sacks. Both types work by moving a heavy
circular or square block, which is lowered or raised by means of, threaded shaft.
Capacity of this press is 100 kg/batch usually about 1 to 2 hours depending on the
frequency of applying pressure.

2.2.7 Hydraulic jack:

Some design of press use a hydraulic jack used for cars or lorries to apply
pressure to the material being dewatered, usually between pressboards. The
hydraulic jack usually 20 to 30 tonne jacks are used. The frame consists of 2
vertical metal posts and steel channel section compared to the screw and other
presses it require the least amount of human effort to operate. This method can
dewater six sacks (50 kg each) of cassava mash at a time.

2.2.8 IITA wooden press:

This press, which was designed in IITA, consists of a rectangular fixed wood with
grooves, another rectangular lid and some wedges. As the pressure is applied, on
the bagged mash between fixed and movable lid, and wedges inserted the water is
being squeezed out. The capacity of this press is 62 kg/batch in eight hours.
(Aribisala 1992)

2.3 Engineering Research in Cassava Flour Technology

The equipment being used for the production of HQCF are not designed for the
product but merely adopted from gari production process, machines, that will
further reduce cassava HQCF processing time, and energy are needed. Engineers
developed cassava processing equipment will be better than just mere fabrication
and IITA is currently seeking solution to these processes. The need and capacity
needed to move to higher levels of technology propelled IITA into developing
targets for future research. Developments in cassava processing and utilization

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 Kolawole and Agbetoye: Engineering Processing of Cassava

made IITA to put processing technologies and equipment together at low-level

technologies mainly for rural and small-scale processing.
To solve the problem of equipment is the need for more engineering
research as no champions of cassava processing equipment in Nigeria to support
the equipment users, a lot of variation in the standards of fabricated equipment
and their installation nation wide. The scarcity of good machines and the frequent
breakdown of these machines were noticed problems looking for engineering
solution. The requirements for processing facilities such as chipping machines,
dryers, packaging devices, graters, press (screw and hydraulic type), mills, and
time saving technologies became important and invention of improved processing
equipment are now needed. (IITA, 2004)
Other engineering need is the development of well-defined processing
stages that will minimize delays, Currently IITA has established many factories in
south-south, south-west and south-east zones of Nigeria, more are still being
constructed, they all need good processing equipment for each stages, essential to
the success of cassava industries (Sanni, 2004).
The existing cassava flour processing technologies are not energy-efficient
to accelerate Nigerian development towards self-sufficiency in cassava flour there
is therefore need to improve the existing cassava flour processing technologies by
developing a new ones. The local method of flour processing exposes the product
to dust and foreign matter contaminations, losses due to rodents’ birds and other
domestic animals. Effective innovation and development of these stages that are
economically viable and still simple and hygienic will be from engineering
research efforts such that little rearrangement by engineers could lead the way for
automation.

3. Cassava Processing Machines In Nigeria

The development of cassava processing machines is critical for efficient

mechanization of its production in Nigeria Furthermore; there is no existing
complete process line for any of the cassava products in the market. These
problems can only be solved through a collaborative work among all the
“stakeholders” (Agbetoye, 2003).
The ways out could include the following;
a. The design engineers and processors should start all over again from
fundamental principles such as studies in mechanisms, engineering properties of
roots relevant to tuber damage, development of adequate handling methods to
generate design data for processing machines
b. Research institutes, educational institutions and government establishments
could be empowered to develop machines for cassava processing.

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c. Development of a complete process line for each cassava product. In this

regard, the National Agency for Research and Engineering Infrastructures
(NARSENI) has begun collaborative work with some Universities for the
development of a complete package for cassava processing.
d. In developing machines for cassava processing, special attention could be
directed at the small-scale farmers who still produce the greatest amount of
cassava in Nigeria. For example, a cassava processing handling equipment for
HQCF that is powered by a small tractor suitable for small farms and affordable
by individuals may be a good starting point for the mechanization.
e. The government could provide fund for research in cassava processing
mechanization
f. Private sectors of the economy could show more interest and commitment in the
development of not only cassava processing machines, but also machines for
processing other tropical root crops.
Cassava deteriorates in quality soon after harvest, and this damage is aggravated
when the tubers are bruised, hence the development of mechanized harvesting
system should be complemented by adequate farm-processing factory-market
transportation system. Even when the tubers are to be processed, adequate
measures to ensure their quality preservation must be developed.

4. Conclusion

The importance of cassava as source of human food, animal feeds, and source of
industrial starch and its increasing economic potential as foreign exchange earner
has been substantiated. The problems militating against the development of
cassava processing machineries have been identified. Furthermore, the previous
attempts made in the mechanization of processing of cassava have been discussed.
The roles of the stakeholders towards the achievement of mechanized cassava
processing have also been enumerated.

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Processing, Market Expansion for Cassava Products, and Development of a
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Aribisalla, A. S. (1992). Methods of Dewatering Cassava Mash; In-Country

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