P N E - 107F

NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS - PEACEFUL APPLICATIONS

P R O J E C T GNOME

THE ENVIRONMENT CREATED B Y A NUCLEAR

EXPLOSION I N SALT

D., Rawson
C..Boardman
N . Jaffe -Chazan
Lawrence Radiation L a b o r a t o r y
U n i v e r s i t y of California
Live r m o r e , Califo r n i a

September 1964

This document is
PUBLICLY
n
RELEASABLE
H .

‘b X D &
. Authoriziag Official

-1-
 DISCLAIMER

This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an

agency of the United States Government. Neither the United States
Government nor any agency Thereof, nor any of their employees,
makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal
liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or
usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process
disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately
owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product,
process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or
otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement,
recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any
agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein
do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States
Government or any agency thereof.
 DISCLAIMER

Portions of this document may be illegible in

electronic image products. Images are produced
from the best available original document.
 CONTENTS

ABSTRACT 5

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 7

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION . 8
1.1 Background 8
1.2 Objectives 10
1.3 Exploration P h a s e s . 13
1.4 Observations Immediately Following the
E xpl o s ion 13
CHAPTER 2 THE CAVITY ENVIRONMENT . 15
2.1 General 15
2.2 Cavity Volume and Shape . 17
2.3 Rubble and Associated Radioaciive Melt 20
2.4 Rock T e m p e r a t u r e s 27
CHAPTER 3 PERMANENT DISPLACEMENTS . 30
3.1 General 30
3.2 Displacements Surrounding the Cavity 31
3.3 Implications of Localized Uplift Between the
Cavity and the Ground Surface 33
3.4 S u m m a r y of Cavity Radii and Implications
About "Blow-off" of the Cavity W a l l s . 37

CHAPTER 4 FRACTURING AND DIFFERENTIAL

ROCK MOTIONS 39
4.1 Local Uplift of S t r a t a O v e r the Shot Point 39
4.2 Melt and G a s Injected f r o m the Cavity into
Fractures 41
4.3 Deformation Surrounding the Cavity . 47
4.4 Deformation of the P r e s h o t E m p l a c e m e n t
Drift 51

CHAPTER 5 VENTING 57
5.1 The Venting P r o c e s s 57
5.2 The Vent P a t h Environment . 59

CHAPTER 6 AN INTERPRETATION O F THE EXPLOSION

DYNAMICS . 67
APPENDIX A DESCRIPTION O F ROCK STRATA SUR -
ROUNDING THE GNOME EVENT . 75
APPENDIX B APPROXIMATE PRESHOT CHEMICAL
COMPOSITION O F THE ROCK FUSED AND
VAPORIZED BY THE GNOME EVENT , 78
 ,
CONTENTS (Continued)

APPENDIX C ASSUMPTIONS INHERENT IN THE

TREATMENT O F THE PERMANENT
DISPLACEMENT DATA . 79

APPENDIX D CAVITY VOID, RUBBLE, AND M E L T

VOLUME CALCULATIONS 80
APPENDIX E RUBBLE DIS TRIBU TION 83

REFERENCES 73
TABLES
3.1 T h e o r e t i c a l and F i n a l Cavity R.adii Comparison 37
FIGURES
1.1 V e r t i c a l section through the Gnome postshot
environment 9
1.2 P l a n view showing the post-explosion
exploration and cavity 11
2.1 Gnome cavity: r e f l e c t e d ceiling plan . 16
2.2 Cavity profile A-A' 18
2.3 Cavity profiles B-B'and C - C ' 19
2.4 Schematic sections through the Gnome c a v i t y '
showing approximate distribution of r a d i o -
activity two y e a r s a f t e r the explosion . 22
2.5 Typical m e l t s a m p l e s f r o m underground
d r i l l holes , 26
2.6 T e m p e r a t u r e v s r a d i a l distance f r o m working
point s i x months a f t e r the detonation . 28
3.1 Permanent r o c k d i s p l a c e m e n t vs distance
f r o m working point . 31
3.2 V e r t i c a l section showing configuration of
1o c ali ze d uplift 36
4.1 Map of Gnome ground s u r f a c e showing f r a c t u r e s ,
and approximate boundary of uplifted region 39
4.2 P r o f i l e s of the Gnome g r o u n d - s u r f a c e p e r m a n e n t
displacements showing the uplifted region
configuration 40
4.3 Rock deformation Eevealed b y postshot mining - .
plan view 43
4.4 V e r t i c a l section H1H"'showing defoimati'on at
end of hole # 12 d r i f t 45
4.5 Displacement of underground i n s t r u m e n t and
shock-study s a m p l e holes - plan view 46
4.6 Typical faults produced by the explosion 49
 63
CONTENTS (Continued)

,gC:
4.7 Plan s c h e m a t i c of t r e l l i s f r a c t u r e p a t t e r n
a s s o c i a t e d with deformation along the line-
of - sight e m p l a c e m e n t d r i f t . 50
4.8 V e r t i c a l section E - E f showing p a r t i a l c l o s u r e
of p r e s h o t e m p l a c e m e n t d r i f t 51
4.9 V e r t i c a l sections F-F' and G-G' showing
c l o s u r e of "buttonhook drift" . 53
4.10 I n t r u s i v e m e l t bFeccia 55 I

5.1 Deformation of e m p l a c e m e n t d r i f t n e a r shaft 61

5.2 Deformation of e m p l a c e m e n t d r i f t between
shaft and cavity 63
5.3 Vent path 65
5.4 View of i n t e r i o r of the Gnome cavity. Note
s i z e of m a n 66
6.1 Schematic v e r t i c a l s e c t i o n s showing cavity
development . 69

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 ABSTRACT

The Gnome e v e n t , a 3.1 f 0.5 kiloton n u c l e a r explosion, was

conducted a t a depth of 361 m in bedded r o c k s a l t n e a r C a r l s b a d ,

New Mexico. b a- r . n m e l t e d approximately 3 . 2 X

6
10 kilo-

g r a m s of r o c k s a l t and produced a standin.g cavity with a volume of

about 27,200 cubic m e t e r s .

its equator.
iL The cavity ha.s a pronounced bulge a t

The development of this a s y m m e t r y was controlled by

the p r e s h o t c h a r a c t e r of the rock: horizontal w e a k n e s s e s in the

2
f o r m of bedding planes and c l a y layers./.rhe molten salt m i x e d

with the condensing radioactive d e b r i s ancl about 11.6 X l o 6 kg of

rock f r o m the cavity w a l l s , to f o r m a radioactive "puddle" of m e l t

and r o c k b r e c c i a at the b a s e of the cavity. This zone i s blanketed

by about 13.6 X 10
6 kg of rubble that r e s u l t e d p r i m a r i l y f r o m

ceiling c o l l a p s e , thus shielding the "puddle" so that when p e r s o n n e l

e n t e r e d the cavity, gamma radiation l e v e l s w e r e r a r e l y i n e x c e s s

of 20 &
/
.
,
h
/.
,

During the dynamic cavity growth p e r i o d of about 100 m s e c ,

r a d i a l c r a c k s propagated c l o s e l y behind the outgoing c o m p r e s s i o n a l

shock w a v e . 7 M o l t e n r o c k had not yet mixed well with vaporized

f i s s i o n products and consequently m e l t

was not radioactive o r only slightly s o .

n
extent of t h e s e f r a c t u r e s , m e a s u r e d f r o m the c e n t e r of the explosion,

i s 40 m l a t e r a l l y , 38 m above and 25 m below.

-5-
 69
Leakage of radioactive g a s e s through the r o c k i s detectable

by the p r e s e n c e of radiation damaged salt. G e n e r a l l y , t h e r e was p

no evidence of leakage beyond 40 m and the m a x i m u m o b s e r v e d

extent at 6 5 . 5 m i s thought to be a s s o c i a t e d with f r a c t u r i n g to a

n a t u r a l cavity. *

Close -in s t e m m i n g failed and cavity g a s e s vented dynamically

into the e m p l a c e m e n t d r i f t . Back-up s t e m m i n g confined the

dynamic venting but allowed the low p r e s s u r e r e l e a s e of s t e a m and

gaseous fission p r o d u c t s . The formation of r a d i a l c r a c k s and

bedding plan p a r t i n g s , coupled with the e m p l a c e m e n t configuration

to accommodate a neutron-physics e x p e r i m e n t g c a u s e d the stemming

failure.

A s y m m e t r y of r o c k d i s p l a c e m e n t s , f r a c t u r e s o b s e r v e d , and

the p e r m a n e n t s u r f a c e d i s p l a c e m e n t s indicate localized uplift of the

r o c k between the cavity and the ground s u r f a c e . It i s i n t e r p r e t e d

t h a t this uplift was c a u s e d by spa11 of the u p p e r few hundred f e e t of

r o c k which m o m e n t a r i l y d e c r e a s e d the o v e r b u r d e n p r e s s u r e . The

cavity p r e s s u r e then exceeded o v e r b u r d e n p r e s s u r e and the cavity

expanded p r e f e r e n t i a l l y upwards.

A zone of i n c r e a s e d p e r m e a b i l i t y was defined to extend a t

l e a s t 46 m l a t e r a l l y and 105 m above the point of the explosion.

The p e r m e a b i l i t y i n c r e a s e w a s e s t a b l i s h e d by complete circulation

l o s s of the d r i l l fluid and i s p r i m a r i l y a s s o c i a t e d with motions and

p a r t i n g s along bedding planes - the m a j o r p r e s h o t weakness in the

rock.

-6-
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The a u t h o r s gratefully acknowledge the encouragement and

c r i t i c i s m of D r . G a r y H. Higgins and D r . Philip Randolph. The

c l o s e support of John B r e w e r and Lyn Ballou aided g r e a t l y in

accomplishing the exploration. We would a l s o like to thank the

many p e r s o n n e l of Reynolds Engineering and E l e c t r i c Company

f o r t h e i r d r i l l i n g , mining, and h a z a r d s -control participation

during the exploration; Holmes and N a r v e r , l n c . , f o r s u r v e y

control; Boyles B r o s . , Shaffer Tool Works, and Moran B r o s .

f o r t h e i r drilling a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s . F o r the excellent photo-

graphic coverage we acknowledge Ray ,Jaeger and the L a w r e n c e

Radiation L a b o r a t o r y Graphic A r t s staff.

\ -

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 I

CHAPTER 1

INT RODU C TION

1.1 BACKGROUND

P r o j e c t Gnome was the f i r s t scientific e x p e r i m e n t with

n u c l e a r explosives designed to provide information pertaining

A 3.1 0 . 5 kt
‘
to the n o n - m i l i t a r y u s e s of t h e s e explosives. f

n u c l e a r device was detonated a t a depth of 361 m underground

in bedded salt on D e c e m b e r 10, 1961, The t e s t s i t e f o r P r o j e c t

Gnome w a s located about 48 k m southeast of C a r l s b a d , New

Mexico.

The Gnome e x p e r i m e n t w a s conducted in the Salado r o c k

f o r m a t i o n of P e r m i a n age ( F i g . 1.1). This f o r m a t i o n i n the

vicinity of the explosion i s composed of about 89‘10 h a l i t e , o r

r o c k salt (NaCl), 770 polyhalite [ Ca2MgK2(S04)4. 2H20] , 1’10,

anhydrite ( C a S 0 4 ) , and 370 silt and clay. The i m p u r i t i e s o c c u r

p r i m a r i l y as s e p a r a t e beds i n t e r l a y e r e d with the s a l t strata,

although they a l s o o c c u r mixed with the s a l t c r y s t a l s (Appendix

A and B ) . Overlying the Salado formation a r e the s e d i m e n t a r y

l i m e s tones , dolomites , sands tone s , c l a y s t o n e s , and s i l t s tones

of the R u s t l e r and Dewey Lake F o r m a t i o n s of P e r m i a n age and

alluvial deposits of Q u a t e r n a r y age (Reference 1).

-8-
! c

-
23.8 m I I
D E W E Y L A K E FORMATION

85.9m

RUSTLER FORMATI(3N DRILL

HOLES

I-
-a-
LL I98 m
I
v,

SALAD0 FORMATION

F i g . 1.1 V e r t i c a l section through the Gnome postshot e n v i r o n -

ment.

-9- I
 The Gnome device was e m p l a c e d at the end of a buttonhook-

shaped d r i f t , a distance of 301 m f r o m the shaft ( F i g . 1.2). The

first 2 7 4 m of the d r i f t w e r e s t r a i g h t along a line between the

shaft and the device. The r e m a i n d e r was c u r v e d and is r e f e r r e d

to as the "buttonhook" portion. The d r i f t was designed so t h a t the

buttonhook would close following the detonation and contain the

explosion. Requirements f o r an a s s o c i a t e d neutron-physics e x p e r i -

m e n t w e r e such that m o s t of the d r i f t had to be line-of-sight to the

device., An evacuated pipe (the "neutron pipe") extended f r o m a

revolving wheel (the "neutron wheel") through the s t r a i g h t portion

of the d r i f t and continued through a d r i l l hole to the device r o o m .

Backup s t e m m i n g was provided i n the d r i f t n e a r the shaft to

r e s t r i c t venting i f the c l o s e - i n stemming failed.

1.2 OBJECTIVES

The m a j o r objective of the p o s t s h o t exploration p r o g r a m was

to provide a definition of the environment c r e a t e d by the detonation

in support of the p r i m a r y object of P r o j e c t Gnome: To study the

effects <ofan underground n u c l e a r explosion in s a l t . P r e v i o u s

e x p e r i e n c e with volcanic tuff and alluvium a t the Nevada T e s t Site

had provided a g e n e r a l understanding of the i n t e r a c t i o n between

n u c l e a r explosions and r o c k m a t e r i a l s . An explosion i n s a l t

provided an excellent t e s t of this understanding, since the physical

and c h e m i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of s a l t a r e g r e a t l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m those of

tuff and alluvium.

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 CROSSCUT 2 BUTTON HOOK CAVITY
N WH E EL EXPLORATION \ BOUNDARY
BLAST DOOR

CROSSCUT I

25

SCALE
0 IO 20 30 40 50
I : : : : I
METERS

F i g . 1 . 2 Plan view showing the post-explosion exploration and cavity (shaded) (the
fine line drawing indicates the p r e -detonation configuration).

1
I
 Many da-a w e r e a l s o obtained pertaining to s o m e of the

o t h e r objectives of the e x p e r i m e n t , specifically:

1.2.1 The Isotopes P r o g r a m : To d e t e r m i n e the feasibility

of recovering radioisotopes produced by a n u c l e a r explosion.

This method would r e p r e s e n t a significant a l t e r n a t i v e to r e a c t o r

methods. Although the device u s e d in Gnome was not specifically

designed to produce quantities of useful i s o t o p e s , the mixed fission

products made possible a feasibility study.

1.2.2 The P o w e r P r o g r a m : To investigate the f e a s i b i l i t y

of the m e a s u r e m e n t and e x t r a c t i o n of h e a t deposited by the

explosion. It had been suggested t h a t the h e a t of fusion of the

salt m e l t e d by the explosion might be e x t r a c t e d and u s e d f o r

e l e c t r i c a l power.

1.2.3 Shock Effects Studies: To subject a v a r i e t y of

m i n e r a l and organic s a m p l e s to a range of shock p r e s s u r e s

produced by the explosion in o r d e r to d e t e r m i n e the effects of

the explosion (in t e r m s of phase t r a n s i t i o n s , p r o p e r t y changes,

e t c . ) on the s a m p l e s .

The purpose of r e - e n t r y drilling f r o m the s u r f a c e was to

provide radioactive s a m p l e s f o r yield determination; to enable

m e a s u r e m e n t s concerned with the power feasibility studies; and

to provide p r e l i m i n a r y definition of the environment c r e a t e d .

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1.3 EXPLORATION PHASES

Post-detonation exploration consisted of: 1) examination

of the s u r f a c e f a c i l i t i e s and the ground s u r f a c e o v e r the working

.b

point"' ( R e f e r e n c e 2); 2 ) examination of the shaft and the bottom

station s i x days following the detonation ( R e f e r e n c e 2); 3) r e - e n t r y

drilling f r o m the s u r f a c e into the cavity region during the p e r i o d

f r o m D e c e m b e r 11, 1961 to J a n u a r y 18, 1962; 4) underground

mining and drilling exploration, including r e - e n t r y into the e m p l a c e -

ment d r i f t , r e c o v e r y of shocked s a m p l e s and i n s t r u m e n t s , e n t r y

into the cavity produced by the explosion and g e n e r a l definition,

by d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n , of the postshot environment. Exploration

was complete by the end of S e p t e m b e r , 1963. This r e p o r t c o v e r s

the work accomplished during p h a s e s 3 and 4.

1.4 OBSERVATIONS IMMEDIATELY FOLLOWING THE EXPLOSION

L e s s than one minute following the explosion, radiation was

detected at the blast door near the bottom of the shaft ( F i g . 1 . 2 ) by

r e m o t e - a r e a radiation m o n i t o r s . No radiation was detected at the

shaft c o l l a r until t h r e e minutes and f o r t y seconds a f t e r the detonation.

At approximately seven minutes a f t e r z e r o t i m e , a g r a y s m o k e , s t e a m ,

and a s s o c i a t e d radioactivity s u r g e d f r o m the shaft opening. By eleven

minutes following the explosion, copious quantities of s t e a m i s s u e d

f r o m both shaft and ventilation l i n e s . A l a r g e flow continued f o r

!

~~

1-.6.

The location of the n u c l e a r device.

-13-
about t h i r t y minutes before gradually d e c r e a s i n g . A small flow

was s t i l l detected through the following day. The radioactive

e l e m e n t s that vented through the shaft w e r e volatile and noble

g a s e s (Reference 3 ) .

The unexpected venting of s t e a m and a s s o c i a t e d radio-

active g a s e s l e d to an additional objective f o r the exploration

program - the determination of the c a u s e and n a t u r e of venting.

The Gnome event was monitored by geophone a r r a y s f r o m

shot time until the shot environment was p e n e t r a t e d by r e - e n t r y

drilling. The geophone r e c o r d s indicated that noise produced by

rock movement l a s t e d f o r t h r e e minutes following the explosion

and w e r e v e r y infrequent a f t e r that t i m e .

- 14-
 CHAPTER 2

THE CAVITY ENVIRONMENT

2.1 GENERAL

P o s t s h o t exploration s t a r t e d f i r s t f r o m the s u r f a c e and

then w a s accomplished by drilling and d r i f t excavation underground

( s e e F i g . 2.1).

On May 17, 1962, only five months a f t e r the explosion,

excavation along p r e s h o t d r i l l hole #25 f o r the p u r p o s e of r e c o v e r -

ing shocked s a m p l e s r e s u l t e d in actual p e r s o n n e l e n t r y into the

cavity. This made possible d i r e c t observation of the cavity i n t e r i o r ,

photographic documentation and a m i n i m a l triangulation s u r v e y to

define its s i z e and s h a p e . ( F i g . 2.1). At that t i m e , the air t e m p e r a -

t u r e was 50°C n e a r the cavity e n t r a n c e , the r e l a t i v e humidity w a s

60-7070,and the radiation l e v e l s v a r i e d f r o m place-to-place, but

w e r e r a r e l y in e x c e s s of 20 m R / h r . One month l a t e r a m o r e c o m -

p r e h e n s i v e t e m p e r a t u r e s u r v e y indicated a v a r i a t i o n between 50

and 57°C within the cavity. It should be noted t h a t f o r s e v e r a l

weeks p r i o r to and.following cavity e n t r y , fans located in d r i l l

holes f r o m the s u r f a c e into the cavity had flushed s e v e r a l million

cubic m e t e r s of air through this environment.

-15-
I

METERS
0 5 O
I 15
LNL13 ROCK UNITS

7
44 D 51 CONTOUR LINES (EL. IN METERS)
FEET EX 4 5 - 4 9 El 5 2 - 6 0 - - - - - - - - - BOUNDARIES
OF ROCK UNITS
0 IO 20 30 40 50 EXPOSED IN ROOF
W 5 0 TOPOF61
- RADIAL FRACTURES LOCATED
APPROXIMATELY

F i g . 2.1 Gnome cavity: reflected ceiling plan.

Q I
2.2 CAVITY VOLUME AND SHAPE

A n e s t i m a t e of the total void volume produced by the explosion

was m a d e , using a combination of t h r e e :points f r o m d r i l l h o l e s

penetrating the top of the cavity, photographic guides f o r e x t r a p o -

lation f r o m s u r v e y control within the cavity, and und-rground d r i l l

holes which defined the cavity below the working point in 10 p l a c e s .

This volume was calculated to be 27,200 cubic m e t e r s (Appendix D)

and is in v e r y good a g r e e m e n t with a m e a s u r e m e n t m a d e by

p r e s s u r i z i n g the cavity with c o m p r e s s e d air. A known volume of

air at a known p r e s s u r e was introduced into the cavity. From

t h e s e m e a s u r e m e n t s the cavity volume was calculated to be

28,000 f 2,800 cubic m e t e r s ( J . T r a c y , L R L - verbal commu-

nication).

The total void volume of 27,200 cubic m e t e r s is equivalent

to a s p h e r e with a r a d i u s of 18.7 A e t e r s . The cavity i s a s y m m e t r i c ,

h o w e v e r , because of anisotropic r e s i s t a n c e to cavity expansion,

implosion of the cavity w a l l s , and p a r t i a l ceiling collapse ( s e e

d i s c u s s i o n in Chapter 3 ) . The cavity shown in F i g s . 2.2 and 2.3

h a s a n a v e r a g e r a d i u s of 17.4 m in the l o w e r portion ( m e a s u r e d

f r o m the working point to the boundary of radioactive m e l t ) ; a n

a v e r a g e r a d i u s of 24.4 m in the e q u a t o r i a l plane; and an a v e r a g e

r a d i u s of 22.9 m in the upper portion ( m e a s u r e d f r o m the working

point to the rock-void i n t e r f a c e ) . The shape of the ceiling of the

cavity indicates that the m a j o r p r e - s h o t w e a k n e s s e s i n the

r o c k , the bedding planes o r horizontal boundaries between

-17-
 GNOME CAVITY CROSS SECTION 3kt

C AVlTY VOID

0
L
0

SLIGHTLY RADIOACTIVE MELT

' .
1\1 INJECTED INTO FISSURES
---- FAULT
--
----:- -:CONTACTS
BEDDING
c-se=e>
FRACTURE ZONES

Fig. 2.2 Cavity profile A-A' ( s e e F i g , 2.1 for plan view).

-18-
 C A V I T Y V O ID

RUBBLE P I L E

- A -& -

~ P R E S H O LOCATION
T
OF STRATA

C A V I T Y PROFILE C-C'

SCALE
0

METERS

CAVITY V O ID

MELT DISTRIBUTION, HOLE *F"

-- -
ESHOT LOCATION

h
-?
- --

C A V I T Y PROFILE B-B'

Fig. 2.3 Cavity p r o f i l e s B - B ' and C - C ' ( s e e F i g . 2 . 1 for plan

view).

-19-
rock u n i t s , somewhat controlled the extent of collapse. It is v e r y

likely that l e s s collapse would have o c c u r r e d i f t h e s e weaknesses

had not existed.

The m o s t significant d e p a r t u r e f r o m s p h e r i c a l s y m m e t r y i s

a g i r d l e of r o c k about 9 m high surrounding the e q u a t o r i a l region

of the cavity. This region moved radially f u r t h e r f r o m the work-

ing point than rock n e a r e r the b a s e o r top of the cavity. The

development of this a s y m m e t r y w a s m o s t likely controlled by

bedding plane w e a k n e s s e s and thin horizontal clay strata that

s e p a r a t e d m o r e competent beds of salt and polyhalite. The expla-

nation of t h i s bulge is d i s c u s s e d f u r t h e r in the s e c t i o n s on p e r m a -

nent d i s p l a c e m e n t s and e a r t h d e f o r m a t i o n . The cavity would be

m o r e s y m m e t r i c a l about a v e r t i c a l axis p a s s i n g through a point

about 4 m n o r t h e a s t of the working point r a t h e r than through the

working point (the c e n t e r of the n u c l e a r d e v i c e ) . This d i s p l a c e -

m e n t of the effective c e n t e r of e n e r g y m a y be due to the shape

of the c h a m b e r i n which the device was detonated, r e s u l t i n g i n

the initial distribution of the explosion e n e r g y as a c y l i n d r i c a l

s o u r c e r a t h e r than a s p h e r i c a l one.

2 . 3 RUBBLE AND ASSOCIATED RADIOACTIVE MELT

The m a s s of rock m e l t e d by the explosion, b a s e d on the

(

a n a l y s i s of o r e r e c o v e r e d f r o m d r i l l h o l e s , i s e s t i m a t e d to be
6 6
about 3.2 X 10 kg, equivalent to about 10 kg p e r kiloton of yield.

-20-
This mass c o m p a r e s favorably with the expected mass vaporized
6
and m e l t e d of about 1.4 X 10 kg p e r kiloton. This prediction was

based on the assumption that 41% of the explosive e n e r g y is utilized

in melting the rock (Reference 4). The m e l t became intimately

6
mixed with about 11.6 X 10 kg of rock, much of which w a s probably

imploded, decrepitated, o r f e l l into the cavity'early during the

6
first few seconds following the explosion. An e s t i m a t e d 13.6 X 10

kg of r o c k collapsed l a t e r f r o m the upper h e m i s p h e r e and blank-

eted the region containing the radioactive m e l t b r e c c i a at the cavity

b a s e (Appendix D).

The region denoted as Zone B i n F i g . 2.4 can g e n e r a l l y be

d e s c r i b e d a s a r o c k - m e l t b r e c c i a in which the m e l t f o r m s much

of the m a t r i x between the l a r g e r rock f r a g m e n t s (the range of

p a r t i c l e d i a m e t e r s is e s t i m a t e d to be about 15 c m to 3m). The

m e l t i t s e l f engulfs s m a l l e r rock f r a g m e n t s that range i n d i a m e t e r

f r o m a fraction of a centimeter to a few c e n t i m e t e r s . The degree

of dilution of s a m p l e s of the m e l t v a r i e s g r e a t l y f r o m a l m o s t no

r o c k f r a g m e n t s to as much as 30 o r 40 p e r c e n t .

Because much of this zone is typically a m i x t u r e of rock

f r a g m e n t s cemented together by the m e l t matrix, it is likely

that this m a t e r i a l would be self-supporting i f actual mining r e -

entry were necessary. This is e s p e c i a l l y t r u e n e a r the cavity

boundary where the concentration of melt is the highest. Most

likely, a l i b e r a l amount of rock support would be n e c e s s a r y .

-21-
 -zz-

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1 V l N l O d dQ N 0 1 1 3 3 r O t l d

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Y 1
 This m a t e r i a l was sufficiently self-supporting, however, that the

d r i l l h o l e s r e m a i n e d open without casing.

The rubble in Zone A, Fig. 2.4, above the zone containing

radioactive m e l t is e s s e n t i a l l y a loose pile of r o c k f r a g m e n t s and

i s not self-supporting. During r e - e n t r y drilling the holes caved

in this region, causing considerable difficulty. In t h i s zone, the

p a r t i c l e - s i z e v a r i a t i o n 'can be approximated with r e a s o n a b l e '

a c c u r a c y by d i r e c t observation of the rubble s u r f a c e exposed at

the b a s e of the cavity void. The range in. p a r t i c l e s i z e is e x t r e m e l y

l a r g e , varying f r o m c r u s h e d r o c k f r a g m e n t s l e s s than 1 c m a c r o s s

, to l a r g e blocks as l a r g e as 7 m a c r o s s the m a x i m u m dimension.

Blocks exceeding 2 m a c r o s s account f o r l e s s than 10 p e r c e n t of

the rubble and the a v e r a g e p a r t i c l e d i a m e t e r is about 75 c m .

The explosion l i b e r a t e d at l e a s t 5 X l o 4 kg of w a t e r f r o m

the vaporized and m e l t e d r o c k and an additional 17 X 10 kg o r

4
6
w a t e r could have been l i b e r a t e d f r o m the 11.6 X 10 kg of r o c k

that c a m e f r o m the cavity wall and was m i x e d with the m e l t .

M. Nathans ( R e f e r e n c e 5 ) calculated f r o m the t r i t i u m c o n c e n t r a -

5
tion in the vented s t e a m that as much as 4 X 10 kg of w a t e r

might have.been l i b e r a t e d f r o m the rock. Had t h e r e not been

venting to t a p off much of this w a t e r , i t would have eventually

condensed and collected i n the voids of the rubble -at the b a s e of

the cavity. As it w a s , the w a t e r l e v e l i n the rubble was at an

elevation of 673 m , o r 2.1 m below the working point. Most of

-23-
 b

t h i s w a t e r was added during s u r f a c e r e - e n t r y drilling, although

some is probably condensed s t e a m that did not e s c a p e during

5
cavity venting. A total of about 5 X 10 kg of w a t e r e n t e r e d the

cavity and the voids in the rock above the working point as a

r e s u l t of circulation l o s s e s ' during drilling. Water was still

dripping v e r y slowly into the cavity one y e a r following the

explosion.

As d i s c u s s e d above, the radioactive m e l t f o r m s a puddle ,

intimately mixed with nonradioactive rock. A schematic c r o s s

section through the lower h e m i s p h e r e of the c a v i t y - ( F i g . 2.4)

shows the approximate gamma radiation distribution based on

radiation log data f r o m underground d r i l l holes and hole 2a.

This p i c t u r e i s l a r g e l y conceptual, since it i s b a s e d on l i m i t e d

d a t a and the logs show a g r e a t d e a l of s c a t t e r in radiation l e v e l s

because of the l a r g e amount of nonradioactive rock mixed with

the radioactive m e l t .

This figure shows a zone at the b a s e of the cavity that is

highly e n r i c h e d in radioactivity. In v e r t i c a l hole 2a a 0.6-m-thick

zone had radiation s i x t i m e s l e v e l s g r e a t e r than any o t h e r l e v e l

r e c o r d e d in this hole. Underground h o l e s , G through J , w e r e

d r i l l e d in August, 1963, to b e t t e r define this zone and to obtain

additional radioactive s a m p l e s f o r the isotopes production study.

Data f r o m these holes w e r e used p r i m a r i l y to define the limits

of the e n r i c h e d zone indicated i n F i g . 2.4.

-24-
 o r d e r to d e t e r m i n e methods of p r o c e s s i n g this "ore" f o r e l e m e n t s

that a r e chemically similar to the actinides. A r e p o r t by M. Nathans

( R e f e r e n c e 5) c o v e r s the d e t a i l s of this study. It h a s been d e t e r -

mined that a l m o s t all of the f i s s i o n products ( o t h e r than the gaseous

o r volatile o n e s ) r e m a i n with the salt i m p u r i t i e s when s a m p l e s a r e

e i t h e r dissolved in w a t e r o r r e m e l t e d to s e p a r a t e the NaCl f r o m

the o t h e r i m p u r i t i e s . P a r t of the scope of this study is to d e t e r -

mine with which c h e m i c a l s p e c i e s the different r a d i o - e l e m e n t s

a r e associated.

I t is i n t e r e s t i n g to note that the m i n e r a l olivine, specifically

f o r s t e r i t e (Mg S i 0 ), m a k e s up a significant portion of the w a t e r -

2 4
insoluble f r a c t i o n of s e v e r a l s a m p l e s . This m i n e r a l did not o c c u r

p r e s h o t i n the rock. The m a j o r s o u r c e of m a g n e s i u m was the

m i n e r a l polyhalite [ Ca2MgK2(S0 ) * 2H20] . Magnesium a l s o

4 4
o c c u r s i n the clay minerals and in trace quantities of m a g n e s i t e

( M g C 0 3 ) . Silica o c c u r s p r i m a r i r t z particles
and with the clay m i n e r a e '5 a l s o d e s c r i b e s a v a r i e t y

of o t h e r chemical r e a c t i o s e v e r a l compounds and

1 .

the radioactivity f r a c t i o n d with t h e s e s p e c i e s .

E x a m p l e s of the solidified s,alt m e l t a r e shown in F i g . 2.5.

Sample B-21H i s o n l y slightly vesiculated. It was taken f r o m

about 2 m f r o m the far cavity boundary i n d r i l l hole B ( F i g . 2. 2),

and contains a l a r g e amount of rock f r a g m e n t s , p r e s u m a b l y blown

-25-
 J r

Fig. 2 . 5 Typical melt samples f r o m underground d r i l l holes, I

off the cavity walls. Some of the f r a g m e n t s underwent fusion

b e c a u s e of the s u p e r h e a t of the m e l t . Sample F-21H is f r o m

d r i l l hole F ( F i g , 2.3) n e a r the cavity edge. The m e l t in contact

with the unfused salt f o r m s a dense band in c o n t r a s t with the

v e s i c u l a r m e l t on the o t h e r side of the band. It i s i n t e r p r e t e d

that following cavity growth the r o c k bounding the cavity broke

up and imploded, allowing the s a l t m e l t to invade openings that

resulted. The newly exposed c o l d e r r o c k quenched the m e l t ,

f o r m i n g unvesiculated m e l t at the contact. Under n o r m a l

c i r c u m s t a n c e s , it would be expected that t h i s chilled b o r d e r

would be gradational, but at Gnome it i s quite p o s s i b l e that

when venting o c c u r r e d , the cavity p r e s s u r e dropped r a t h e r

abruptly, causing violent out-gassing of the m e l t . This sudden

out-gassing, which was c l o s e l y followed by solidification of

the m e l t , produced vesiculation. Sample E-3H was taken f r o m

d r i l l hole E n e a r the c e n t r a l portion of the cavity about 25 f t

above the cavity bottom ( F i g . 2.3). This melt cooled m o r e

slowly than m o s t of the m e l t o b s e r v e d and developed l a r g e

crystallites - up to 4 mm in d i a m e t e r . Most of the m e l t

solidified rapidly and i s f i n e - g r a i n e d - less than 1 mm.

2.4 ROCK TEMPERATURES

A plot of t e m p e r a t u r e v e r s u s r a d i a l distance f r o m the work-

ing point i s shown i n F i g . 2 . 6 . Data points shown w e r e taken f r o m

-27-
 IO0
'I
I
HOLE
AVERAGE LOWER e- A
- HEMISPHERE CAVITY

80 - OD"""
6 * +!
v BOUNDARY 0-
0-
m-
E-
E-
B
C
D
E
F
0
-
0
oc = (STEM POINTS DOWN HOLE)
Y

IDEALIZED
w 60-
a
3
I- -
a
a
w
n 40- .,
5 I
W -
+
_______ IL _-AMBIENT
_ _ _TEMPERATURE
_ _ - - - - - - - --
20 - I
I
- I
I
I I I I I I
IO 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 I

RADIAL DISTANCE'.FROM WORKING POINT (METERS)

F i g , 2.6 T e m p e r a t u r e v s r a d i a l distance f r o m working point
s i x months a i t e r the detonation.

t e m p e r a t u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s m a d e about 6 months a f t e r detonation,

in d r i l l holes A through F. This plot indicates that the a v e r a g e

t e m p e r a t u r e was 71°C i n the r u b b l e - m e l t zone of the cavity at

that t i m e . T e m p e r a t u r e s v a r i e d f r o m 63 to 83°C in t h i s region,

depending upon the elevation a t which the m e a s u r e m e n t was m a d e .

Maximum t e m p e r a t u r e s w e r e r e c o r d e d within about 1 m f r o m

the lower cavity boundary in e a c h hole that p e n e t r a t e d this zone.

The logs of holes B and C indicate that below the cavity,

at equal r a d i a l d i s t a n c e s from the working point, and a t equal angles

f r o m the v e r t i c a l ; t e m p e r a t u r e s a r e 10-12" h i g h e r in a n o r t h e r l y

-28-
d i r e c t i o n than in the southerly. This a s y m m e t r y is consistent with

the a s y m m e t r i c a l position of the zone of highly-radioactive m e l t

d e s c r i b e d previously.

-29-
 Q
CHAPTER 3

PERMANENT DISPLACEMENTS

3.1 GENERAL

Displacement of the m a t e r i a l surrounding the Gnome explosion

h a s been m e a s u r e d l a t e r a l l y at a distance of 298 m by gages in a

d r i l l hole ( R e f e r e n c e 6 ) , and the p e r m a n e n t displacement of the

s u r f a c e o v e r the working point is known by s u r v e y s ( R e f e r e n c e 7).

In addition, p e r m a n e n t r a d i a l d i s p l a c e m e n t s have been d e t e r m i n e d

f r o m p r e s h o t and postshot positions of r o c k strata and o t h e r m a r k e r s

such as i n s t r u m e n t h o l e s .

P r e s h o t elevations of beds w e r e obtained f r o m the USGS litho-

logic log (Reference 8) and tunnel m a p (Reference 1). P o s t s h o t

positions w e r e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m geophysical logs of the v e r t i c a l h o l e s

and f r o m c o r e f r o m the underground inclined d r i l l h o l e s . Preshot

and postshot positions of beds a r e g e n e r a l l y known within f 0.3 m.

The locations of i n s t r u m e n t holes branching off f r o m the m a i n d r i f t

w e r e a c c u r a t e l y s u r v e y e d before and a f t e r the detonation.

F i g u r e 3 . 1 i s a plot of the p e r m a n e n t d i s p l a c e m e n t d a t a obtained

by post shot underground exploration. Ri - the p r e s h o t r a d i a l distance

2
of a given point f r o m the working point - is plotted against 1/(R - R ) ,
f i
w h e r e R is the corresponding postshot r a d i a l distance f r o m the work-
f
ing point. F o r convenience, a s c a l e showing values f o r (R - R . ) i s on
f 1
the plck and a t h e o r e t i c a l c u r v e drawn b a s e d on the relationship
\

-30-
-v)
a
W
c
-W
I

I-
2
w 2-
I /-
W
0
4n 3-
DATA BASED ON THE FOLLOWING SOURCES:
4 4-
n
5-
J
5 6-
n
4 7-
a
9-
c
DISPLACEMENT OF PRE-SHOT HOLES N0.3,8.9,12,25
+ VERTICAL HOLE 3 A W BELOW W.P.
VERTICAL HOLE 3 A AND 2A ABOVE W.P.
A THEORETICAL DISPLACEMENT CURVE.ASSUMES GROWTH
20- OF SPHERICAL CAVITY WITH 18.7-M RADIUS AND VOID
VOLUME OF 27,200 M3
E
a 0 L /o 115 ,b 2: do 315 o‘, 5: do 25 ,b 6: jo 715 ,b 8: J
R i INITIAL RADIAL DISTANCE F R O M W.P. (METERS)

F i g , 3.1 P e r m a n e n t r o c k displacement vs distance f r o m working

point,

Rc = [ Rf3 - Rf]1/3 (Appendix C ) . In this equation, R C i s a t h e o r e t i c a l

r a d i u s of the void produced by the explosion. Assuming a void volume

3
of 2 7 , 2 0 0 m resulting f r o m the growth of a s p h e r i c a l cavity, Rc i s

equal to 18.7 m. The s y s t e m a t i c d e p a r t u r e s of the d a t a f r o m the

t h e o r e t i c a l c u r v e a r e d i s c u s s e d below.

3.2 DISPLACEMENTS SURROUNDING THE CAVITY,

P e r m a n e n t d i s p l a c e m e n t s of r o c k strata w e r e obtained f r o m

the r e c o r d s of holes d r i l l e d below the working point ( d r i l l holes B ,

C, D, E , F, and 3 A W ) . T h e s e d i s p l a c e m e n t s g e n e r a l l y plot above

the t h e o r e t i c a l curve f o r given R. v a l u e s , indicating R is l e s s than

1 C

-31-
18.7 m in t h i s region. The a v e r a g e value f o r R calculated f r o m
C

these d a t a is 16.3 m. P e r m a n e n t r a d i a l displacements of i n s t r u -

ment holes #3, 8, 9, 12, and 25 fall below the t h e o r e t i c a l c u r v e ,

thus indicating that Rc in the equatorial region is g r e a t e r than

18.7 m. The a v e r a g e value f o r Rc calculated f r o m t h e s e data is

22.9 m. The displacement at 298 m was about 3.5 c m at 0.5 s e c

a f t e r the explosion, m e a s u r e d by g a g e s in a d r i l l hole at the

elevation of the working point (Reference 6). The Rc of 21 m

calculated f r o m this displacement c o m p a r e s favorably with the

average R calculated f r o m instrument-hole data.

C

P e r m a n e n t - d i s p l a c e m e n t d a t a i n the e q u a t o r i a l region and

below the working point g e n e r a l l y have n e a r l y constant R C v a l u e s ,

and the slopes of t h e s e c u r v e s usually p a r a l l e l the t h e o r e t i c a l

c u r v e ( F i g . 3.1). Variations of Rc can g e n e r a l l y be explained by

differential motions of rock along fault planes r e v e a l e d in the mining

and drilling exploration.

Applying the t h e o r e t i c a l equation to the displacement d a t a

obtained above the working point ( d r i l l holes A, 2A, and 3A), it i s

found that R i n c r e a s e s with r a d i a l distance f r o m the working point

C

and the slopes of the c u r v e s do not p a r a l l e l the t h e o r e t i c a l c u r v e ,

but a r e l e s s steeply inclined.

These d a t a indicate an a s y m m e t r i c a l distribution of rock d i s -

placement surrounding the cavity, implying different phenomena

above the cavity relative to the e q u a t o r i a l region and below the cavity.

This is f u r t h e r d i s c u s s e d in Section 3.3.

-32-
3.3 IMPLICATIONS O F LOCALIZED U P L I F T BETWEEN THE

CAVITY AND THE GROUND SURFACE

The a s y m m e t r y of the r o c k displacement a s s o c i a t e d with cavity

growth and subsequent r o c k motions m a y be explained in the following

manner :

A reasonable assumption i s that the f o r c e r e s i s t i n g cavity

growth is about equal to the weight of the overlying r o c k . In Gnome,

the o b s e r v e d a s y m m e t r y in the e q u a t o r i a l region indicates that this

f o r c e was nonuniformly d i s t r i b u t e d . The growing cavity m e t l e s s

r e s i s t a n c e horizontally, in the direction of the i n h e r e n t weakness

in the rock; i . e . , bedding planes between v a r i o u s r o c k s t r a t a . Thin

clay s e a m s between halite and polyhalite s t r a t a a r e m o s t conspicuous

in that they f o r m both s t r u c t u r a l l y weak planes and l u b r i c a t e d glide

surfaces .

Immediately following an underground n u c l e a r explosion, a

shock wave is produced by the i m p a c t of the expanding hot g a s e s

with the confining r o c k medium. This shock wave t r a v e l s to the

s u r f a c e , ' where it i s r e f l e c t e d back toward the cavity, region. As

the r a r e f a c t i o n wave r e t u r n s f r o m the s u r f a c e , the upper s e v e r a l

hundred f e e t of rock i s spalled (goes into. f r e e fall)2

which a l s o

m o m e n t a r i l y d e c r e a s e s the overburden p r e s s u r e . At that t i m e the

c o m p r e s s e d r o c k can adjust and much of the cavity volume i s t r a n s -

f e r r e d f r o m c o m p r e s s e d r o c k into upward unloading and p e r m a n e n t

s u r f a c e doming. Local cavity growth can a l s o o c c u r , since the g a s

-33-
p r e s s u r e within it m a y well exceed the overburden p r e s s u r e while

the upper few hundred f e e t of r o c k is spalling.

F r o m the elevation about 105 m above the working point down

to the cavity, the r o c k was found to be significantly m o r e porous

and p e r m e a b l e than it was p r e s h o t . This phenomenon r e s u l t e d i n

circulation l o s s e s while drilling f r o m the s u r f a c e and was o b s e r v e d

by comparing p r e s h o t and postshot sonic geophysical logs. The

p e r m e a b i l i t y is p r i m a r i l y a s s o c i a t e d with bedding plane p a r t i n g s

and extends at l e a s t 46 m l a t e r a l l y from the working point as'

evidenced by circulation l o s s e s in USGS d r i l l hole #6 ( R e f e r e n c e 9 ) .

At the f a r end of d r i l l hole A, F i g . 2.1, faulting above the cavity

w a s encountered i n which the r o c k o v e r the working point was dropped

downward r e l a t i v e to the r o c k lateral to the working point. These

data suggest that t h e r e was an inward s a g o r down-drop t c w a r d s the

cavity of r o c k strata above the working point. The backdropping of

s t r a t a o c c u r r e d f o r a distance of about 105 m v e r t i c a l l y above the

working point. This movement is s u p e r i m p o s e d upon a g e n e r a l

uplift of the r o c k between the cavity and the s u r f a c e . E.. i of these

motions a r e i n addition to the r o c k motion a s s o c i a t e d with cavity

growth that took place p r i m a r i l y during the f i r s t 75 to 100 m s e c

following the explosion.

N e a r the top of t h i s p e r m e a b l e zone, at 85 m above the work-

ing point, where backdropping of s t r a t a i s m i n i m a l , the difference

between the A R (i. e . , Rf - Ri) on the t h e o r e t i c a l curve (Fig. 3 . 1 )

-34-
and the g R shown on the c u r v e f r o m d r i l l hole 2A and 3A d a t a ,

i s a l m o s t 2 m. F r o m the existing d a t a , a m i n i m u m of 2m i s the

b e s t e s t i m a t e of the magnitude of the uplift of the r o c k up to 85 m

,
above the cavity that i s additional to the upward deformation

a s s o c i a t e d with cavity growth during the f i r s t 100 m s e c .

Uplift i s probably a l i t t l e g r e a t e r i n the r o c k i m m e d i a t e l y above

the cavity since g r o s s p e r m e a b i l i t y and a s s o c i a t e d p o r o s i t y i n c r e a s e s

w e r e o b s e r v e d as high as 105 m above the working point. This

amount of uplift a s s u m e s a m a x i m u m initial cavity r a d i u s R of 18.7

C

m p r i o r to uplift ( s e e Section 3.4).

Doming a t the s u r f a c e was s p r e a d o v e r a n a r e a about 360 m

in r a d i u s ( R e f e r e n c e 2 ) , and had a m a x i m u m p e r m a n e n t v e r t i c a l

d i s p l a c e m e n t of 0.6 m. The uplift of r o c k n e a r the ceiling of the

cavity r e p r e s e n t s only a s m a l l volume i n c r e a s e r e l a t i v e to the total

cavity volume o r the volume r e p r e s e n t e d by p e r m a n e n t s u r f a c e

uplift. F u r t h e r evidence supporting the hypothesis t h a t an uplifted

plug is f o r m e d i s given in Section 4.1.

The cone-shaped uplifted zone shown in F i g . 3 . 2 indicates

that a possible effect of backdropping of s o m e of the r o c k is to

tighten up the a r c h o v e r the cavity, r a t h e r than weaken it. This

p r o c e s s m a y have been i m p o r t a n t in producing cavity stability.

The l a c k of a significant n u m b e r of open f r a c t u r e s above the cavity

to interconnect the p r e s h o t s t r u c t u r a l w e a k n e s s e s in the r o c k i s

v e r y i m p o r t a n t f r o m a radiation-safety point of view. The r a d i a l

-35-
 LOCAL1 ZED UPLl F T

---

ZONE O F GROSS

t
'

-
0
I

0
'
FEET
100 200 300

25 50
METERS
, 100

TD-450m

F i g . 3.2 V e r t i c a l s e c t i o n showing configuration of l o c a l i z e d

uplift.

-36-'
f r a c t u r e s t h a t w e r e produced by the explosion w e r e fi led, with m e .t ,

sealing i n the g a s e s .

3.4 SUMMARY O F CAVITY RADII AND IMPLICATIONS ABOUT

"BLOW-OFF" O F THE CAVITY WALLS

As pointed out in Section 3.1, Rc is the r a d i u s of the t h e o r e t i c adl

c

cavity void. The void produced by the explosion is equivalent to

an 18.7-m-radius s p h e r e ; and the a v e r a g e value of Rc below the

working point i& 16.2 m , c o n t r a s t e d to a n a v e r a g e of 22.9 m i n the

e q u a t o r i a l region of the cavity. R above the working point cannot

C

be g r e a t e r than about 18.7 m and be consistent with the m e a s u r e d

cavity volume. Table 3.1 summarizes values of Rc, and c o m p a r e s

t h e s e with the final cavity r a d i i defined on p. 17.

TABLE 3.1 THEORETICAL AND FINAL CAVITY RADII

COMPARISON

R,, Radius of
Theoretical F i n a l Cavity
Cavity Void (m) Radius (m)
Range Average Range Average

Below the working point 12.5-21.9a 16.2 14.9- 19.8' 17.4

E q u a t o r i a l region 21.0-26.zb 22.9 19.5- 30.2 24.4

Above the working point Maximum 18.7 20.4-27. l e 22.9

of

a C e
20 d a t a points 10 d a t a points 15 d a t a points
b l 1, d a t a points d25 d a t a points

-37-
 Much of the variation i n both R and final cavity r a d i i shown
C

by the range values in the table can be explained by o b s e r v e d d i f f e r -

ential movement of r o c k along fault planes d i s c u s s e d in Section 4 . 3

on r o c k deformation.

In the region below the working point and in the e q u a t o r i a l

gegion, the difference between the a v e r a g e r a d i u s of the cavity

void ( R c ) and the final cavity r a d i i i s about 1.2 m. It s e e m s probable

that this thickness r e p r e s e n t s a n annular s h e l l of the cavity wall

*
that breaks up, d e c r e p i t a t e s , s p a l l s , o r is imploded into the cavity.

Thus openings develop in the r o c k bounding the l o w e r h e m i s p h e r e

of the cavity and the fluid, radioactive salt m e l t invades t h e s e open-

ings. The extent of the m e l t defines the f i n a l cavity boundary. This

annular zone is called the "blow-off" zone; i t p r o d u c e s the r o c k that

blows into the cavity w h e r e it m i x e s with and cools the m e l t . A s s u m -

ing that the a v e r a g e thickness of this zone i s 1.2 m surrounding a n

3 3
1 8 . 7 - m - r a d i u s s p h e r e , then about 5.6 X 10 m of r o c k mixed with
6
about 3.2 X 10 kg of m e l t in the rubble i s "blow-off" m a t e r i a l f r o m
3 3
the cavity w a l l s . The difference between 5.6 X 10 m and the e s t i -
3
m a t e d total rubble volume i s 11.46 X 10 m3, which would roughly,

be the amount added by ceiling collapse into the cavity. Figure 6.lb

is a s c h e m a t i c drawing i l l u s t r a t i n g the "blow-off" phenomena and

the v a r i o u s dimensions d i s c u s s e d above. Appendix E i s a f u r t h e r

d i s c u s s i o n of the rubble distribution.

-38-
 CHAPTER 4

FRACTURING AND DIFFERENTIAL ROCK MOTIONS

4.1 LOCAL U P L I F T O F STRATA OVER THE SHOT POINT

The existence of an uplifted region o v e r the shot point was

i n f e r r e d on the b a s i s of p e r m a n e n t d i s p l a c e m e n t d a t a and a m e c h -

a n i s m f o r i t s f o r m a t i o n was d i s c u s s e d in Section 3 . 3 . Additional

evidence pointing to i t s existence and c r u d e l y defining its shape i s

d i s c u s s e d in this section. F i g u r e 4.1 is a m a p of the ground-surface

APPROXIMATE BOUNDARY
OF LOCALIZED U P L I F T

BI /

' \
\

I F METERS 83
1
0 50 100 200 300 F E E T

Fig. 4.1 Map of Gnome ground s u r f a c e showing f r a c t u r e s and

approximate boundary of uplifted region (modified a f t e r F i g . 4 . 2 of
Reference 2 ) .

-39-
f r a c t u r e p a t t e r n produced by the explosion as mapped by Hoy and

Foose (Reference 2). F i g u r e 4.2 shows p e r m a n e n t - d i s p l a c e m e n t

p r o f i l e s of the ground s u r f a c e along Section A1-A2, Bl-B3, and

C1-C located in Fig. 4.1. As t h e s e p r o f i l e s show, the s u r f a c e

3

2. I
I
a
2 10.6
PROFILES CONSTRUCTED FROM
HOLMES 8 NARVER DRAWING
'
a No.F.D.137

-0

-0

--0

W HORIZONTAL DISTANCE FROM SURFACE ZERO

F i g . 4.2 ' P r o f i l e s of the Gnome ground-surface p e r m a n e n t d i s -

p l a c e m e n t s ' showing ?he uplifted region configuration ( s e e Fig. 4.1
f o r plan view).

doming i s not a smooth a r c h , but t h e r e a r e locations of a b n o r m a l l y

l a r g e uplift o r differential r o c k motion within f a i r l y r e s t r i c t e d zones

(A1, B1, A2, B2, e t c . ). It i s suggested that t h e s e zones m a y be

the locations of the boundary of the uplifted region. F i g u r e 4.1 shows

the t r a c e of t h e s e boundary zones b a s e d on the s u r v e y d a t a and t h e r e

-40 -
 .

is a p a r a l l e l i s m between this t r a c e and the t r a c e of o b s e r v e d s u r f a c e

fractures.

The USGS d r i l l e d v e r t i c a l hole #6 a t a d i s t a n c e of 46 m f r o m

s u r f a c e ground z e r o . This hole encountered f r a c t u r e s at depths of

122 and 183 m f r o m the s u r f a c e ( R e f e r e n c e 9). This f r a c t u r i n g m a y

be a s s o c i a t e d with the boundary of the uplifted region. This boundary

is probably b r o a d and diffuse consisting of slightly folded s t r a t a and

some s h e a r fracturing. T h e r e is no evidence indicating that

uplift though localized p e r m i t t e d leakage of radioactivity f r o m the

i m m e d i a t e cavity environment.

4.2 M E L T AND GAS INJECTED FROM THE CAVITY INTO

FRACTURES

I r r a d i a t i o n of r o c k salt r e s u l t s i n distinctive yellow, blue ,

and p u r p l e coloration. F o r this r e a s o n , a r e a s w h e r e radioactive

g a s e s w e r e able to permeate a r e detectable even though radiation

l e v e l s i n s o m e i n s t a n c e s w e r e n e a r background at the t i m e of explo-

ration. Molten salt injected into ' c r a c k s f r o m the cavity c h a r a c t e r -

i s t i c a l l y i s black and contains varying amounts of radioactivity.

Using t h e s e c o l o r c r i t e r i a , it was o b s e r v e d thgt above the working

point, both g a s e s and slightly radioactive m e l t p e r m e a t e d a d i s t a n c e

of 3 8 m f r o m the wo+r,kingpoint. This is r a t h e r s u r p r i s i n g s i n c e a

', I

zone of g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d p e r m e a b i l i t y extends v e r t i c a l l y to a d i s -

tance of about 105 m. Because of the infrequency of m e l t injections

-41 -
 LEGEND - Fig. 4 . 3

A. Echelon tension f r a c t u r e s r e s u l t i n g f r o m movement on m a j o r I1

t h r u s t fault. P r o b a b l y extend full length of "buttonhook d r i f t .

B. Voids encountered a t this location.

C. Major t h r u s t fault a s s o c i a t e d with c l o s u r e of the "buttonhook

d r i f t .I f

D. Abrupt t e r m i n a t i o n of radiation damage a t tension f r a c t u r e .

E. Approximate postshot boundary of left r i b of "buttonhook"

indicated by extent of m e l t and r o c k b r e c c i a .

F. Approximate extent of m a j o r tunnel c l o s u r e .

G. Encountered w a t e r leakage f r o m polyhalite #94 f r o m this point

to end of d r i f t .

H. Location of a c c e l e r o m e t e r that failed at 16 m s e c .

I. Major o v e r t h r u s t fault with m a x i m u m o b s e r v e d displacement

of 3 m ( s e e Fig. 4.6a).

J. P o s t s h o t location of sand bags i n hole #25 alcove.

K. Sheet of radioactive m e l t injected along a parting of clay beds.

L. P r e s h o t location of hole #25 alcove.

M. P r e s h o t location of "buttonhook drift. I '

-42-
 NOTE. DATA SHOWN NORTH OF REFERENCE
LINE ARE PLOTTED AT €LEV 676 METERS,
DATA SOUTH OF THE LINE PLOTTED AT
ELEV. 675 METERS.

BUTTONHOOK E

CAVITY WALL
L E G E N D

-MELT &/OR MELT-ROCK BRECCIA

t + + l t * *
-------FAULT D I P P I N G 60"s E
EXPLORATORY
HOLE NO 3 DRlF
DRILLING ALCOVE
HOLE NO. 8 ALCOVE

SCALE

FEET

0 5 IO 15
METERS

Fig. 4.3 Rock deformation r e v e a l e d by postshot mining - plan view.

and radiation-damaged salt encountered in exploration of this region,

the r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t v e r t i c a l extent of t h e s e injections above the work-

ing point, and since the amount of radioactivity in the injected m e l t

is m u c h lower than m e l t encountered within the cavity; i t is concluded

that the open f r a c t u r e s communicating with the cavity developed

e a r l y during the dynamic growth p e r i o d . Injection at this t i m e (10-

100 m s e c ) i s likely because good physical mixing between the molten

r o c k and the vaporized fission p r o d u c t s would not yet have o c c u r r e d .

In the equatorial region beyond the cavity, m e l t was o b s e r v e d

a s far a s 40 m f r o m the working point, and evidence of gaseous

injection w a s o b s e r v e d as far out a s 65.5 m. T h e s e d i s t a n c e s r e f e r

to m e l t and g a s injections t h a t a r e believed to be u n r e l a t e d to the

vent path down the line -of -sight e m p l a c e m e n t d r i f t . Melt was injected

into a clay parting along the line-of- sight e m p l a c e m e n t d r i f t to a

distance of 58 m f r o m the working point, and m e l t was a l s o i n the

d r i f t as f a r away a s the c o n c r e t e block s t e m m i n g ( F i g . 1.2). C r a c k s

f r o m t h i s d r i f t w e r e a l s o p e r m e a b l e to g a s e s . F i g u r e 4 . 3 shows

the f r a c t u r i n g and the distribution of radiation-damaged s a l t and

m e l t injection i n this e q u a t o r i a l region.

P r e s h o t hole #12 was e x p l o r e d to r e c o v e r an i n s t r u m e n t t h a t

failed a t 16 m s e c ( R e f e r e n c e 6) following the explosion. It w a s found

to have been located in a region of anomalously l a r g e r o c k d e f o r m a t i o n

with accompanying radiation d a m a g e in the salt. and w a t e r leakage

( F i g . 4.3) indicating p e r m e a b l e communication with the cavity. The

-44-
 e a r y f a i l u r e of the i n s t r u m e n t , coupled with the i n t e n s e local d e f o r -

mation and i t s a s s o c i a t e d p e r m e a b i l i t y communicating with the cavity,

indicates that the f r a c t u r i n g s t a r t e d a t about 16 m s e c , o r i m m e d i -

a t e l y following the p a s s a g e of the c o m p r e s s i o n a l shock wave. The

c r o s s section H-H'" ( F i g . 4.4) located in plan in F i g . 4.3 is a

detailed m a p of the deformation a t the end of the hole #12 d r i f t .

-
0
SCALE
0.5 1.0 1.5 METERS

LIMIT OF

L E G E N D
H
POLYHALITE MARKER BED No.94 AND BASAL CLAY
RADIATION DAMAGED HALITE ROCK
PLASTICALLY DEFORMED HALITE ROCK
SHEAR PLANES INTERTWINED ROUGHLY PARALLEL
TO BEDDING.
(THESE PLANES WERE PERMEABLE TO RADIOACTIVE
GqSES)

F i g . 4.4 V e r t i c a l section H-H"' showing deformation a t end of

hole # 1 2 d r i f t ( s e e F i g . 4 . 3 f o r plan view).

Note the l o c a l downward motion of r o c k unit #93 through and m i x e d

with that of the lower r o c k unit #94. This i s v e r y intense d e f o r -

mation a t a distance of 6 5 m and c o m p a r e s with the intensity of d e f o r -

mation a s s o c i a t e d with c l o s u r e of the "buttonhook" d r i f t a t a distance

of about 30 m f r o m the working point. The possible e x i s t e n c e of a

-45-
n a t u r a l cavity i n the s a l t n e a r the i n s t r u m e n t location t h a t was col-

l a p s e d by the shock wave could be the explanation of t h i s deformation.

Such c a v i t i e s a r e known to o c c u r in the Salado formation ( C . J o n e s ,

v e r b a l communication) and a r e g e n e r a l l y b r i n e -filled. F i g u r e 4.5

a l s o shows the anomalously l a r g e r a d i a l d i s p l a c e m e n t s i n that region.

.-----wp

S HOLE NO 25

LEGEND
- PRESHOT HOLE LOCbTlONS

--o-- - PoSTSmT HOLE LOCbTlONS SHOW

LOCbTlON OF SURVEY POINT

L Y I P Sl SCALE
0 15 50 60
- b - I
FEET
0 9 D
1
I -
METERS

F i g . 4 . 5 Displacement of underground i n s t r u m e n t and shock-study

s a m p l e holes - plan view.

Exploration along 'the postshot location of the "buttonhook" d r i f t ,

F i g . 4 . 3 , encountered nonradioactive m e l t that was injected into the

open d r i f t and was then caught up i n the r o c k motions a s s o c i a t e d with

the d r i f t c l o s u r e . This relationship again s u p p o r t s the t h e s i s that

m e l t and possibly s o m e radioactive g a s e s e s c a p e d f r o m the cavity

-46-
 . . .. . - . . . . . . -- . .. . . . ...
. ....- .- -

p r i m a r i l y during dynamic cavity growth. An exception, of c o u r s e ,

is m e l t and g a s e s that vented into the e m p l a c e m e n t d r i f t .

Below the shot point, n e i t h e r m e l t s a m p l e s , radiation-damaged

s a l t , n o r radiation l e v e l s above background, w e r e noted f u r t h e r than

25 m f r o m the working point o r 6 m beyond the cavity edge.

4.3 DEFORMATION SURROUNDING THE CAVITY

F r a c t u r e s resulting f r o m the expanding cavity produced by the

explosion and subsequent f r a c t u r e development a s s o c i a t e d with unload-

ing of the c o m p r e s s e d r o c k can be grouped into the following four

general categories :

( 1 ) Radial tension c r a c k s emanating f r o m the cavity;

( 2 ) P e r i p h e r a l faults with planes that g e n e r a l l y p a r a l l e l the

c avi t y bound a r y ;

( 3 ) Bedding plane faults;

( 4 ) N e a r v e r t i c a l joints p r i m a r i l y in the vicinity of p r e s h o t

emplacement drifts .

F i g u r e 4 . 3 shows the projection of the t r a c e s of m a j o r f a u l t s ,

and joints a t the elevations of 674.8 and 675.7 m that w e r e r e v e a l e d

during mining exploration. F i g u r e 2.1 i s a r e f l e c t e d ceiling plan

of the i n t e r i o r of the cavity showing the t r a c e s of m a j o r r a d i a l c r a c k s .

These c r a c k s (type 1 ) o c c u r with a frequency of about one e v e r y 4

o r 5 m at the equator of the cavity and extend to a distance l a t e r a l l y

and above the cavity of about 38 m . T h e s e a r e the c r a c k s containing

-47-
injected m e l t ( s e e F i g . 4.3 in the region of the "buttonhook d r i f t ' '

and the v e r t i c a l section F i g . 2.2).

Also shown in t h e s e two f i g u r e s a r e the curved p e r i p h e r a l

faults. Below the shot point in d r i l l h o l e s B and C , the p e r i p h e r a l

faults (type 2) a r e i n f e r r e d f r o m the attitude of fault planes in the

c o r e r e l a t i v e to the orientation of bedding p l a n e s . In the vicinity of

the d r i l l alcove ( F i g . 4.3), this type of faulting g r a d e s into o v e r t h r u s t

0
faults t h a t f u r t h e r g r a d e into horizontal bedding-plane s l i p s along

clay s e a m s . F i g u r e s 4.6a and b shows examples of this kind of fault-

ing. . The throw o r differential motion between blocks was m e a s u r e d

to be 2.5 to 3.0 m a c r o s s the fault m a r k e d (I) i n F i g . 4.3. This was

the l a r g e s t fault observed; m o s t differential motions a r e on the o r d e r

of 0.5 m o r l e s s . . This p e r i p h e r a l type of faulting does not contain

m e l t injections and is probably f o r m e d a f t e r cavity growth when

unloading o r rebound adjustments to the s t r e s s e d rock a r e likely to

take p l a c e . Associated with these c u r v e d faults emanating f r o m the

region below the cavity i s a gentle upwarping of the s t r a t a in the

e q u a t o r i a l region. M a r k e r bed #94 which was located a few m e t e r s

below shot point became uplifted f r o m i t s p r e s h o t elevation out to a

distance of about 64 m. Beyond that point, the v e r t i c a l displacement

i s not m e a s u r a b l e . In the d r i l l alcove polyhalite m a r k e r bed #94 was

uplifted f r o m 0 . 3 to 0 . 6 m i n s t e a d of being d e p r e s s e d . This bed was

located below the working point elevation p r i o r to the explosion ( s e e

h

F i g . 2.1).

-48-
 (b)
F i g . 4.6 Typical faults produced by the explosion:

-49-
 The n e a r - v e r t i c a l joints a r e p r i m a r i l y a s s o c i a t e d with d e f o r -

mation in the r o c k n e a r the line-of-sight portion of the emplacement

drift. These joints f o r m two distinct s e t s that i n t e r s e c t e a c h o t h e r

in a c r i s s - c r o s s e d o r trellis pattern. At a distance of 60 m f r o m

the shot point, the joints i n t e r s e c t the line of the d r i f t a t an angle of

about 2 0 " . Close to the cavity edge this angle h a s i n c r e a s e d to 7 5 " .

F i g u r e 4.3 shows some of the m a j o r joints mapped and F i g . 4.7 i s

a s c h e m a t i c drawing i l l u s t r a t i n g the t r e l l i s p a t t e r n of the joints and

f r a c t u r e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the l i n e - o f - s i g h t d r i f t . If this idealized

5 IO
O U
METERS

\
>
REF. LINE PRE-SHOT EMPLACEMENT DRIFT

F i g . 4. 7 P l a n s c h e m a t i c of t r e l l i s f r a c t u r e p a t t e r n a s s o c i a t e d
with deformation along the line -of - sight e m p l a c e m e n t d r i f t .

-50-
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is c o r r e c t , i t indicates that the r o c k bounding the d r i f t

failed in s h e a r a s the c o m p r e s s i o n a l wave p a s s e d and subsequent

cavity growth d i s t o r t e d t h e s e weak zones.

4.4 DEFORMATION O F THE PRESHOT EMPLACEMENT DRIFT

In addition to the t r e l l i s p a t t e r n of f r a c t u r e s a s s o c i a t e d with

the d e f o r m a t i o n of the line -of- sight portion of the e m p l a c e m e n t d r i f t ,

the d r i f t w a s noticeably c o n s t r i c t e d by p l a s t i c deformation. Cross

section E - E ' ( F i g . 4.8) located i n plan on F i g . 4.3 shows the a p p r o x -

i m a t e s i z e of the postshot e m p l a c e m e n t d r i f t at 53.3 m f r o m the

working point c o m p a r e d to its p r e s h o t c r o s s section. At this d i s t a n c e ,

the d r i f t apparently squeezed n e a r l y shut p r i o r to venting and was

RADIOACTIVE MELT

ELEV. METERS
PR E- S HOT CROSS-S E CTI 0N
OF EMPLACEMENT DRIFT
'TRELLIS"FAU LTS

POS T- S HOT E X PLO RAT 0 RY DR I FT DRIFT PRE-SHOT ELEVATION/

METERS OF MARKER BEDS
0 1 2 3
.-
SCALE
ROCK UNIT N 0 . 9 0 - C L A Y
ROCK U N I T N0.94-POLYHALITE

F i g . 4.8 V e r t i c a l section E - E ' showing p a r t i a l c l o s u r e of p r e s h o t

e m p l a c e m e n t d r i f t ( s e e Fig. 4.3 f o r plan view).

-51-
then blown open to i t s final shape when venting o c c u r r e d ( s e e d i s -

cussion on Venting - Chapter 5).

The curved o r "buttonhook" portion of the emplacement d r i f t

s e a l e d effectively and was not involved in the cavity venting p r o c e s s .

The explored portion of this d r i f t was tangential to the shot point

I
r a t h e r than radial (as was the e m p l a ment d r i f t in the previous d i s -

c u s s i o n ) , and the n a t u r e of tunnel c l o s u r e was quite different. In the

line -of -sight d r i f t , ineffective c l o s u r e was accomplished by p l a s t i c

flow and slippage along the trellis f r a c t u r e s . In the "buttonhook"

portion of the d r i f t , the r a d i a l component of the outward moving,

c o m p r e s s i o n a l shock wave m e t the d r i f t at a right angle and virtually

s l a m m e d one wall into the o t h e r . More p r e c i s e l y , the c l o s u r e was

accomplished by the movement of a wedge-shaped block into the open

drift. The boun'daries of this m a j o r block a r e p a r t l y controlled by

c l a y s e a m s in the rock that appea.r to have l u b r i c a t e d the movement

of the m a j o r block. F i g u r e 4.9 shows two c r o s s sections i l l u s t r a t -

ing the detailed s t r u c t u r e of the deformation; t h e i r locations i n plan

view a r e m a r k e d i n F i g . 4.3.

In the vicinity of Sec n G - G I , r a d i a l c r a c k s following the

c o m p r e s s i o n a l shock wave opened up, allowing superheated m e l t to

e n t e r the d r i f t p r i o r to i t s c l o s u r e . H e r e , the m e l t w a s mixed and

t r a p p e d with the r o c k moving to s e a l off the d r i f t and i t f o r m e d the

matrix of a m e l t - r o c k b r e c c i a . As it was injected into the d r i f t ,

. .
the m e l t encountered lead b r i c k s and wood in a n i n s t r u m e n t alcove @
-52-
 > I-
.
(3 .
LL
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W
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W
z
E . .
Y
I I I I 1 ' E l I I I I
*
Y 2 ,
> a W In m
w b pc pc pc
W
8
W
pc
W
(3
'P b
pc
W
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In,
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J W (I) W W W W W
w w
-53-
 off the d r i f t . The l e a d m e l t e d and the wood burned mixing with L e

salt-melt breccia. Analyses of the m e l t b r e c c i a shown in F i g . 4.10a,

b , and c , indicate that l e a d combined with sulfur and chlorine f r o m

the m e l t to f o r m galena (PbS) and laurionite (Pb[OH12-Pb[C112)

( R e f e r e n c e 10). The laurionite was probably f o r m e d by the reaction

of w a t e r dissolved in the s a l t m e l t with P b C l 2' The sulfur n e c e s s a r y

to combine with the l e a d w a s probably r e l e a s e d by a reduction of

s u l f a t e s a s s o c i a t e d with the molten s a l t . Hydrocarbons f r o m the

burning wood c r e a t e d a reducing a t m o s p h e r e . An a l t e r n a t i v e expla-

nation of the f o r m a t i o n of the m e l t b r e c c i a i s that it w a s produced

locally in the d r i f t by e x t r e m e l y high p r e s s u r e s and t e m p e r a t u r e s

developed f r o m the dynamic conditions of c l o s u r e . The hypothesis

of m e l t injection f r o m the cavity (even though it is nonradioactive)

i s m o s t consistent with the relationships o b s e r v e d . Some of t h e s e

relationships a r e as follows:

1. Voids i n the s a m e region a r e coated with a m i x t u r e of

s o o t , l e a d , and fused s a l t ( s e e Section G - G ' of F i g . 4.9);

2. In the b r e c c i a , insulation w a s s t i l l on w i r e s and shock-

.*.
bands-'. w e r e not found i n r e c o v e r e d s t e e l s a m p l e s

t i m a t e l y mixed with the m e l t , indicating not n e a r l y

high enough p r e s s u r e s developed f o r melting;

.I.
-8.

Neumann bands a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c deformation f e a t u r e s i n s t e e l

c a u s e d by i n t e n s e shock o r i m p a c t loading,

-54-
@ Fig. 4.10 Intrusive m e l t b r e c c i a .

-55-

I
 3. The percentage of m e l t , l e a d , and carbon in the b r e c c i a

d e c r e a s e s f r o m that located in the vicinity of c r o s s section G - G '

until absent f r o m the b r e c c i a in the vicinity of c r o s s section F-F'.

Most of the m a t r i x of the b r e c c i a i s clay at that location.

4. As shown i n F i g . 4.2, the p r e s h o t s i z e of the d r i f t was

l a r g e where the alcove is located c o m p a r e d to the r e s t of the d r i f t .

This portion of the d r i f t i s a l s o n e a r e s t the shot point and thus a

logical place f o r c r a c k s to open to m e l t injection f r o m the growing

cavity. If the m e l t was injected f r o m the cavity into the c r a c k s

i t would have' had to follow i m m e d i a t e l y behind the c o m p r e s s i o n a l

shock wave to get to the d r i f t p r i o r to c l o s u r e . This would have

o c c u r r e d v e r y e a r l y in the dynamic cavity growth p e r i o d ; while the

cavity was small and the thickness of rock m e l t e d by the shock waves

was r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e ( s e e F i g . 6 . l a ) . Under these conditions poor

mixing of the thick m e l t zone with the vaporized f i s s i o n products

would be likely and then explain the nonradioactive m e l t found in

the d r i f t .

-56-,
 CHAPTER 5

VENTING

5.1 THE VENTING PROCESS

Before developing a g e n e r a l i z e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the venting

p r o c e s s e s a few pertinent f a c t s and comments should be made:

1. As shown i n F i g . 1.2, the neutron pipe was an open pipe

that extended f r o m the line-of-sight portion of the e m p l a c e m e n t d r i f t

to the working point, thus introducing an inherent weakness i n that

region.

2. As shown i n F i g . 4.9, the s t r a t a a t the elevation of the

e m p l a c e m e n t d r i f t w e r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by s e v e r a l cldy s e a m s of

unusually low tensile s t r e n g t h . The clay is a l s o v e r y p l a s t i c , thus

introducing another weakness.

3. In Section 4.4, it was mentioned that the squeezing action

to c l o s e o f f the line-of-sight d r i f t w a s ineffective' compared to the

tight c l o s u r e of the d r i f t w h e r e i t s w a l l s w e r e o r i e n t e d tangentially,

and not r a d i a l l y , to the shot point. I

4. %Theblock motion a s s o c i a t e d with the c l o s u r e of the "button-

hook" portion of the d r i f t m u s t r e s u l t i n the development of a boundary

weak zone in the vicinity of the neutron pipe sincelsouth of t h i s pipe

( F i g . 1.2) t h e r e is no d r i f t and r a d i a l r o c k movement .would be l e s s .

5. As sho.wn in Figs. 4.3 and 4.8, radioactive m e l t was injected

f r o m the p a r t l y closed e m p l a c e m e n t d r i f t a s a s h e e t into a p a r t e d c l a y

- 57-

1
 seam. H e r e the m e l t quenched and w a s not vesiculated indicating

that i t solidified under high p r e s s u r e and, t h e r e f o r e , before the

p r e s s u r e d r o p that r e s u l t e d f r o m venting.

6. Venting o c c u r r e d within 1 minute a f t e r the explosion (Section

1.4).
, / .
_.
. Between about 100 m s e c and one minute follow.ing the explosion,

m e l t and g a s e s w e r e able to p e n e t r a t e f r o m the cavity into the c l o s e d

but apparently p e r m e a b l e line -of - sight portion of the emplacement

drift. This zone was e s p e c i a l l y weak f o r r e a s o n s 1 through 4, l i s t e d

above.

The c o m p r e s s i o n a l wave produced by the explosion was r e f l e c t e d

at the ground s u r f a c e and r e t u r n e d to the cavity region as a r a r e f a c -

tion wave at about 320 m s e c . The intensity of t h i s wave m a y have

been g r e a t enough to put the r o c k into tension and c a u s e parting of

the clay s e a m ( 5 above). The p e r m e a b i l i t y i n t h i s region would then

be m o m e n t a r i l y i n c r e a s e d so that m e l t could be injected f r o m the

cavity into the parting and probably then into the m o r e p e r m e a b l e o r

open d r i f t beyond. When this o c c u r r e d t h e r e was no l o n g e r much

r e s i s t a n c e to the cavity p r e s s u r e and dynamic venting o c c u r r e d .

Melt, r o c k , neutron pipe, vent l i n e , and m o s t of what w a s in the

d r i f t w e r e blown down the d r i f t , Much d e b r i s piled up a t the cement

domino ( F i g . 1.2). Radioactive m e l t was encountered as far as the

c o n c r e t e block stemming ( F i g . 1.2). This s t e m m i n g effectively

t h r o t t l e d the dynamic venting and converted it to a leak. The d r i f t

- 58-
f r o m the stemming into the cavity was probably n e a r the overburden

p r e s s u r e of 1,200 p s i . F r o m the p o r o u s plug to the b l a s t d o o r , the

p r e s s u r e built up about 55 p s i - sufficient to b r e a k one of two r u p t u r e

d i s k s in the b l a s t door. F r o m t h e r e , the blow-out continued up the

shaft, through a f i l t e r and out nto the open. The c o n c r e t e block

stemming p e r f o r m e d a s i t was designed, to hold overburden p r e s s u r e ,

but i t was not g a s - t i g h t , P a r t i c u l a t e radioactivity and violent venting

w e r e contained underground while s t e a m and gaseous f i s s i o n p r o d u c t s

escaped.

As was pointed out by E . T e l l e r ( R e f e r e n c e l l ) , the knowledge

of how to control venting could be v e r y i m p o r t a n t in r e c o v e r i n g

gaseous redioelements f r o m a specially designed n u c l e a r device. By

a c c i d e n t , Gnome venting contributed g r e a t l y to t h i s knowledge.

5 . 2 THE VENT PATH ENVIRONMENT

Following is a p i c t o r i a l t r i p down t h e vent p a t h f r o m the s h a f t

station down the e m p l a c e m e n t d r i f t and into the cavity:

R e - e n t r y down the shaft 6 days following the explosion r e v e a l e d

v e r y l i t t l e damage. Hairline c r a c k s w e r e o b s e r v e d in s e v e r a l p l a c e s

in the c o n c r e t e lining of the shaft between the s u r f a c e and the top of

salt. In g e n e r a l , t h e s e c r a c k s c o r r e l a t e with the location of bedding

planes between differing r o c k s t r a t a . S e v e r a l below a depth of 146 m

w e r e seeping w a t e r . O t h e r s developed at joints i n the cement. In

the s a l t , t h e r e i s an indication of slight parting a t s e v e r a l p l a c e s .

-59-
T h e s e w e r e invariably a s s o c i a t e d with the bedding plane boundaries

of c l a y s e a m s and s t r i n g e r s of polyhalite and anhydrite - planes of

e s s e n t i a l l y no tensile s t r e n g t h . In g e n e r a l , v e r y l i t t l e rock spalled

3
f r o m the shaft walls. At a depth of 326.1 to 327.4 m , about 2.5 m

of m a t e r i a l spalled f r o m a v e r y f r i a b l e s i l t s t o n e . The cage was

lowered to within a few m e t e r s of the bottom station o r d r i f t level

w h e r e the displacement of a m e t a l safety railing stopped i t . F i g . 5.1

shows the descent f r o m the cage to the d r i f t l e v e l and damage at the

bottom station. Note the s a g of the ceiling where spa11 o c c u r r e d to

a clay l a y e r located 1 m above. Spa11 is the m a j o r damage i n t h i s

region and m o s t likely would not have o c c u r r e d i f that clay s e a m

had been i m m e d i a t e l y above the d r i f t , A 4.6-m-deep s u m p a t the

bottom of the shaft was full of w a t e r and the d r i f t f l o o r had up to 25

c m of standing w a t e r . Most of the w a t e r condensed f r o m vented

s t e a m ; h o w e v e r , s o m e a l s o seeped f r o m the above-mentioned c r a c k s .

The salt exposed in t h e s e underground workings was c o l o r e d due to

the high radiation fields developed a s a r e s u l t of venting.

F i g u r e 5. l b shows the "I" b e a m wall'buttressing the c o n c r e t e

block s t e m m i n g through which leakage o c c u r r e d . It was d e t e r m i n e d

that leakage was r e s t r i c t e d to t h i s region by p r e s s u r i z i n g the Gnome

cavity with air and surveying the vent path leakage.

F i g u r e s 5 . l c and d show a c o m p a r i s o n of the p r e s h o t and p o s t -

shot condition of a portion of the d r i f t between the c o n c r e t e block

s t e m m i n g and the b l a s t d o o r , a distance about 270 m f r o m the shot

-60 -
 (c) (4
F i g . 5.1 Deformation of e m p l a c e m e n t d r i f t n e a r s h a f t .

-61-
point. Again, m o s t of the damage r e s u l t e d f r o m s p a l l of the back

to the clay s e a m .

F i g u r e 5.2a shows the d r i f t on the side of the c o n c r e t e block

s t e m m i n g that experienced dynamic venting. H e r e , in addition to

s p a l l , t h e r e i s evidence that m a t e r i a l had been t r a n s p o r t e d down

the d r i f t and had been subject to high p r e s s u r e .

F i g u r e 5.2b shows the collapsed neutron pipe in this region.

Radioactive m e l t was a l s o found that was e j e c t e d f r o m the cavity.

Radiation field l e v e l s w e r e 1 to 3 R / h r ( g a m m a radiation) s i x months

following the explosion and the l e v e l s v a r i e d g r e a t l y , but g e n e r a l l y

d e c r e a s e d toward the cavity. Readings w e r e g e n e r a l l y between 1

R / h r and 100 m R / h r i n the d r i f t .

Figure 5 . 2 ~
shows the d r i f t i n the vicinity of c r o s s c u t 1

( F i g . 1.2) approximately 105 m f r o m the shot point. Note the c u r v e d

d i s t o r t i o n of the back and the bent b a r s and s t r a p s . Also, considerable

s c o u r of the w a l l s was o b s e r v e d testifying to the violent movement of

d e b r i s down the d r i f t .

F i g u r e 5.2d shows the boundary of a s h e a r zone that was encoun-

t e r e d while excavating c r o s s c u t 2 ( F i g . 1.2). In this zone s h e a r i n g

in a horizontal direction o c c u r r e d along v e r t i c a l planes striking

.
p a r a l l e l to the e m p l a c e m e n t d r i f t . It extends f r o m the right r i b of

the d r i f t into the wall r o c k about 3 m and i s a s s o c i a t e d with the

f a i l u r e of a d r i l l alcove excavated on the right r i b of the e m p l a c e m e n t

drift. The d r i l l alcove was a d e p a r t u r e f r o m the line-of-sight d r i f t ,

-62-
 Fig. 5.2 Deformation of e m p l a c e m e n t d r i f t between shaft and
cavity.

-63-
in that the walls w e r e no longer line-of-sight to the shot point in the

alcove. This apparently was a significant p e r t u r b a t i o n on the s t r e s s

distribution a s s o c i a t e d with the c o m p r e s s i o n a l shock wave causing

the r o c k beyond the alcove and adjacent to the emplacement d r i f t

to fail in s h e a r .

F i g u r e 5.3a shows the d r i f t at a distance of about 41 m f r o m

the shot point n e a r the end of the postshot location of the line-of-

sight portion of the e m p l a c e m e n t d r i f t . H e r e the s a l t i s p o c k - m a r k e d

with many l a r g e etch p i t s caused’by s t e a m e r o s i o n . The smooth

d a r k patch in the c e n t e r of the p i c t u r e is a pond of w a t e r t h a t con-

densed f r o m the vented s t e a m and the white c r u s t is r e - c r y s t a l l i z e d

salt left by evaporation of b r i n e . t

F i g u r e 5.3b i s a p i c t u r e of a small portion of the breakthrough

region between the cavity and the line-of-sight d r i f t . I t is possible

to c r a w l f r o m the cavity through to the d r i f t .

Figure 5 . 3 ~
i s a view f r o m inside the Gnome cavity looking

toward the p o r t a l to the vent path at the cavity wall.

F i g u r e 5.4 i s a view of the cavity i n t e r i o r ; the a r r o w points

to a m a n f o r s c a l e . The s t a l a c t i t e s r e s u l t e d f r o m the evaporation

of b r i n e introduced during r e - e n t r y drilling.

Q
-64-
Fig. 5 . 3 V e n t path.

-65-
 ..

Fig. 5 . 4 View of interior of the Gnome cavity. N o t e size of man.

I L 8
 1% 1
*$

CHAPTER 6

AN INTERPRETATION O F THE EXPLOSSON DYNAMICS

The d e s c r i p t i o n of the environment c r e a t e d by the Gnome event

and the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of p r o c e s s e s leading to the o b s e r v e d r e s u l t s

have been r a t h e r a r b i t r a r i l y c o m p a r t m e n t a l i z e d f o r the p u r p o s e s of

p r e s e n t i n g the data. Actually, the p e r i o d of cavity growth is about

100 m s e c , the accumulation of the m e l t and rubble a t the b a s e of the

cavity was completed a f t e r a few m i n u t e s , and venting was complete

in about 24 h o u r s . Thus, the environment d e s c r i b e d r e s u l t e d f r o m

v e r y dynamic conditions and the o b s e r v e d effects a r e g r e a t l y i n t e r -

related. In o r d e r to convey s o m e feeling f o r the development of the

environment o b s e r v e d , a sequence of s c h e m a t i c i l l u s t r a t i o n s have

been p r e p a r e d r e - c o n s t r u c t i n g the growth of the cavity as a function

of t i m e ( F i g . 6.1). The i l l u s t r a t i o n s a r e , of c o u r s e , idealized;

guidance f o r the t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e of the cavity g a s was

obtained f r o m calculations m a d e by F r e d Seidl and A r t u r o Maimoni

of L R L . These a r e o r d e r -of-magnitude approximations.

F i g u r e 6 . l a shows the cavity at about 3 msec and F i g . 6 . l b

1
a t about 30 i n s e c . When the n u c l e a r device explodes, it c r e a t e s an

expanding p l a s m a of e x t r e m e l y high t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e on

the o r d e r of a few million d e g r e e s Celsius and s e v e r a l million b a r s ,

The p l a s m a expands and s l a m s into the confining r o c k , cr.eating a

s u p e r s o n i c c o m p r e s s i o n a l shock wave intense enough to vaporize

-67-
 LEGEND - F i g . 6.

1 Working Point - center of the n u c l e a r explosive device.

2 Vaporized and ionized r o c k and device m a t e r i a l .
3 Rock fused by s u p e r s o n i c c o m p r e s s i o n a l shock wave.
4 Location of r o c k s t r a t a .
5 Outgoing c o m p r e s s i o n a l shock wave.
6 Radial c r a c k i n g and m e l t injection.
7 Rarefaction wave returning f r o m ground s u r f a c e .
8 Zone of r o c k t h a t b r e a k s up and "blows off" cavity s u r f a c e .
,9 Rock f r o m 8 m i x e s with m e l t 3 and begins to accumulate
a "puddle" a t cavity base.
10 Return of r a r e f a c t i o n wave 7 l e a d s to slight cavity growth
and uplift of ceiling.
11 F r a c t u r e s a s s o c i a t e d with uplift of cavity ceiling.
12 Extension of r a d i a l f r a c t u r e s and f u r t h e r m e l t injection.
13 Bedding plane p a r t i n g s in r o c k s t r a t a .
14 P r o b a b l e t i m e of venting f r o m cavity into e m p l a c e m e n t
drift.
15 Melt and r o c k b r e c c i a - "puddle. I'

16 Rubble f r o m ceiling c o l l a p s e .

Figure A B C D E F
Time - 3 msec - 25 m s e c - 300 m s e c - 1 sec - 1 min - 5 min
Cavity
Temperature
CC)
- 100,000 - 20,000 -4,000 - 2,000 - 1,000 500

Cavity
Pressure
(bars)
- 400,000 -300 -80 -40 -20 -5

-68-
 cc
I
A
d
d
-69-
 r o c k f o r s o m e distance and then m e l t it f o r a f u r t h e r distance (about

7 m in the c a s e of Gnome). The shock wave m o v e s out, c o m p r e s s i n g

the r o c k and d e c r e a s i n g i n intensity with distance. It soon b e c o m e s

a wave moving a t the sonic velocity of the r o c k . The growth of the

cavity follows behind the c o m p r e s s i o n a l wave and expands because

of the driving f o r c e of the g a s until the i n t e r n a l p r e s s u r e is balanced

by the r e s i s t i n g overburden p r e s s u r e . At about 100 m s e c the expan-

sion of the cavity i s complete and t h e c o m p r e s s i o n a l shock wave h a s

t r a v e l l e d a distance of about 475 m horizontally and about 300 m

v e r t i c a l l y (Reference 6 ) . In the c a s e of Gnome, it a p p e a r s that the

f o r c e r e s i s t i n g cavity growth i n the d i r e c t i o n p a r a l l e l to the bedding

planes in the r o c k was l e s s than in the d i r e c t i o n n o r m a l to t h e s e

p l a n e s ; this led to the development of the bulge i n the e q u a t o r i a l

region of the cavity. During this t i m e p e r i o d , r a d i a l tensional c r a c k s

opened up p e r m i t t i n g the injection of m e l t and possibly s o m e g a s f r o m

the cavity. G e n e r a l l y , the injected m e l t contains little o r no r a d i o -

activity because of poor mixing with the vaporized f i s s i o n p r o d u c t s .

As the expanding cavity c o m e s to r e s t , the lining of fused

r o c k flows and r a i n s under the influence of g r a ty. This b r i n g s the

m e l t into intimate contact with the condensing radioactive vapor and

-
t r a p s much of the f i s s i o n d e b r i s . N e a r the end of cavity growth
j

( F i g . 6 . l c ) , "blow-off" of the cavity wall r o c k o c c u r s resulting in

r a t h e r intimate mixing of c o o l e r r o c k and rapidly dropping t e m p e r -

a t u r e s inside the cavity. Since molten s a l t is about as fluid a s w a t e r ,

I -70-
i t fills m o s t of the p o r e s p a c e s in the lower h e m i s p h e r e t h a t developed

as the wall rock b r e a k s up and is quenched w h e r e in contact with the

c o o l e r rock. The r a i n of r o c k and m e l t c r e a t e s a l'puddle" a t the

b a s e of the cavity where the nongaseous f i s s i o n p r o d u c t s a r e t r a p p e d

( F i g . 6 , l d and e ) .

While the puddle i s forming another i m p o r t a n t event o c c u r s -

the a r r i v a l of the r a r e f a c t i o n wave f r o m the ground s u r f a c e . This

wave tends to put the r o c k into tension, o r at l e a s t d e c o m p r e s s i o n ,

and p r o v i d e s one m e c h a n i s m f o r relief of the c o m p r e s s e d and

s t r e s s e d r o c k and a l s o slight f u r t h e r expansion of the cavity i f i t s

p r e s s u r e then exceeds the r e s i s t i n g p r e s s u r e of the confining r o c k

(Fig. 6.ld). While the r a r e f a c t i o n wave t r a v e l s f r o m the ground

s u r f a c e back to the cavity region, the upper few hundred f e e t of

rock s p a l l s , and at Gnome the free-flight p e r i o d f o r the ground s u r -

face l a s t e d f r o m 157 m s e c to a l i t t l e o v e r 1 second following the

explosion ( R e f e r e n c e 6 ) . This allowed t i m e f o r the r a r e f a c t i o n wave

to r e t u r n to the cayity and localized uplift to develop in the r o c k

overlying the cavity, while the overburden weight d e c r e a s e d because

of spa11 of the upper r o c k l a y e r s . Also at t h i s t i m e , c o m p r e s s e d

r o c k surrounding the cavity was unloaded and adjustments w e r e

made - most notably the upward a r c h i n g of the r o c k surrounding

the cavity. A m o s t probable t i m e f o r venting would be at this t i m e ,

when the r a r e f a c t i o n wave a r r i v e s , tending to p a r t the rock s t r a t a

and provide an e s c a p e path f r o m the cavity to the open d r i f t . The

-71 -
r a r e f a c t i o n wave would a l s o shake the cavity which might d i s r u p t

i t s stability and initiate some roof collapse.

F i g u r e 6 . l e shows the cavity a f t e r venting. Melt and rubble

a r e still accumulating in the b a s e of the cavity. The uplifted r o c k

s a g s o r p a r t l y d r o p s back toward the cavity, leaving partings along

the bedding planes between r o c k s t r a t a , and the ceiling of the cavity

collapses .

In F i g . 6 . l f , the "smoke is c l e a r i n g , 'I and the envisioned

p i c t u r e i s v e r y similar to that o b s e r v e d on r e - e n t r y exploration.

-72-
 REFERENCES

1. Hydrologic and Geologic Studies, P r o j e c t Gnome R e p o r t

0

P N E - l 3 0 F , U . S. Geologic S u r v e y , S e p t e m b e r 25, 1962.

2. Hoy, R. B. and R. M. F o o s e , "Earth Deformation f r o m a

N u c l e a r Detonation i n Salt, I t P N E - 109P, Stanford R e s e a r c h

Institute, M a r c h , 1962. I

3. Randolph, P. and G. Higgins, "Various P a p e r s Giving Some

E a r l y Gnome R e s u l t s , It L a w r e n c e Radiation L a b o r a t o r y ( L i v e r m o r e ,

California) Rept. UCID-4423, J a n u a r y 19, 1962.

4. Higgins, G. H . , D. E. Rawson, and W . Z . Wade,"Chemical

Reactions Induced by Underground N u c l e a r Explosions, I' Lawrence

Radiation L a b o r a t o r y ( L i v e r m o r e , California) Rept. UCRL-5882 Rev. ,

196 1.
5. Nathans, M. W . , "Isotope P r o g r a m , I' P N E - 1 0 2 F ( t o be

published).

6. W e a r t , W . D. , " P a r t i c l e Motion N e a r a N u c l e a r Detonation

i n Halite, P N E - l 0 8 P , 1961.

7, Holmes and N a r v e r , Field Drawing #F-01371, D e c e m b e r 27,

1961.

8. G a r d , L. M . , "Lithologic Log of the Recover-Hole C o r e ,

P r o j e c t G n o m e , " U. S. Geol. Surv. T e c h . L e t t e r , Gnome 1,

N o v e m b e r , 1961.

-73-
 REFERENCES (Continued)

9. S t e r r e t t , T . S. , "Summary of Drilling Data f o r USGS Hole 6

and 7 , P r o j e c t Gnome, 'I U . S. Geol. Surv. Tech. L e t t e r , Gnome 14,

S e p t e m b e r , 1962.

10. G a r d , L. M. , "Some Geologic E l f e c t s of the Gnome Nuclear

E x p l o s i o n , " U . S. Geol. Surv. Tech. L e t t e r , Gnome 15, O c t o b e r ,

1962.

11. Teller, E . , "Plowshare, Nuclear News, 'Vol. 6 , No, 3 ,

M a r c h , 1963.

-74-
 APPENDIX A

DESCRIPTION O F ROCK STRATA SURROUNDING

THE GNOME EVENT

The r o c k units d e s c r i b e d below indicate the v a r i a b i l i t y of s t r a t a

in the vicinity of the Gnome event, and F i g s . 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 4.4, 4.8,

and 4.9 a r e m a p s showing the relations of c e r t a i n of t h e s e units to

o t h e r f e a t u r e s produced by the explosion. The d e s c r i p t i o n s a r e

condensed f r o m the USGS Lithologic Log of the AEC R e c o v e r y Hole

( T e c h . L e t t e r : Gnome-1). The unit n u m b e r s w e r e d e r i v e d by a s s i g n -

ing n u m b e r 1 to the first unit d e s c r i b e d in t h i s log, at a depth of

304.8 m , and then continuing consecutively through the last unit

d e s c r i b e d , No. 135, which ends at 396.2 m. In the listing below,

units which a r e r e f e r r e d to i n t h i s r e p o r t a r e grouped together f o r

p u r p o s e s of simplicity and c l a r i t y .

P r e s h o t depth
Unit Nos . - (m) De s c ription

14 - 17 311.7 - 314.9 C l e a r halite r o c k with m i n o r c l a y

and polyhalite

18 - 20 314.9 - 316.1 Halite r o c k , clayey at top, 4070

polyhalite in middle

21 - 26 316.1 - 317.3 C l e a r halite r o c k with considerable

polyhalite and r e d c l a y n e a r bottom

27 317.3 - 317.7 Polyhalite r o c k

28 317.7 - 320.3 Orange halite r o c k with m i n o r poly-

halite

-7 5-
 P r e shot depth
Unit N o s . (m) Description

29 - 31 320.3 - 322.4 Halite r o c k , with s e v e r a l clay l a y e r s

32 - 34 322.4 - 323.9 Orange h a l i t e r o c k with thin polyhalite

layer

35 - 37 323.9 - 325.4 Claystone and clayey halite r o c k

38 325.4 - 328.4 Orange halite r o c k with m i n o r poly-

halite and s i l t

39 328.4 - 328.9 Clayey halite r o c k

40 - 41 328.9 - 331.1 Reddish halite r o c k with m i n o r clay

and polyhalite

42 331.1 - 332.9 Polyhalite r o c k , with halite and clay

layers

43 332.9 - 336.5 Halite r o c k with m i n o r polyhalite

44 336.5 - 337.2 Clayey halite r o c k

45 - 51 337.2 - 339.5 Halite r o c k with m i n o r s i l t and poly-

halite

52 - 60 339.5 - 343.1 Polyhalite , h a l i t e , anhydrite and

clay l a y e r s

61 343.1 - 344.3 Silty halite r o c k

62 - 64 344.3 - 345.9 Halite r o c k with c l a y and polyhalite

65 345.9 - 350.8 Halite r o c k with m a n y thin l a y e r s of

anhydrite

66 - 77 350.8 - 352.4 Halite r o c k with c l a y and polyhalite

laye r s

78 - 80 \ 352.4 - 357.2 Halite r o c k with considerable poly-

halite and c l a y

81 357.2 - 357.7 Polyhalite r o c k ( M a r k e r Bed # 1 2 0 )

82 - 93 357.7 - 361.9 Halite rock with clay and polyhalite

-76-
 P r e s h o t depth
Unit N o s . (m) De s c ription

94 361.9 - 362.3 Polyhalite r o c k ( M a r k e r Bed #121)

. 95 - 98 362.3 - 366.1 Orange h a l i t e r o c k with m i n o r poly-

halite and clay

99 - 104 366.1 - 366.9 Halite, polyhalite and c l a y l a y e r s

105 366.9 - 369.6 Orange h a l i t e r o c k with m i n o r poly-

h a l i t e and c l a y

106 - 107 369.6 - 370.9 Halite rock with m i n o r polyhalite

-
108 370.9 - 374.7 P i n k i s h - g r a y h a l i t e r o c k with 3070
clay

109 - 110 374.7 - 376.4 Clayey h a l i t e rock

111 - 114 376.4 - 381.6 Union anhydrite b o r d e r e d on top and

bottom by polyhalite

115 - 120 381.6 - 385.5 Clayey h a l i t e r o c k with g r a y c l a y

seams

121 - 123 385.5 - 389.2 Orange halite r o c k with m i n o r poly-

halite

124 - 126 389.2 - 390.8 Claystone and halite rock

127 - 133 390.8 - 393.8 G r a y t o orange halite r o c k with 1-270

polyhalite and 5- 1070 clay

-77 -
 APPENDIX B

APPROXIMATE PRESHOT CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

O F THE ROCK FUSED AND VAPORIZED B Y

THE GNOME EVENT

The following p e r c e n t a g e s r e p r e s e n t average v a l u e s obtained

f r o m chemical a n a l y s e s of p r e s h o t d r i l l - h o l e c o r e s a m p l e s weighted

to r e p r e s e n t the zone of f u s e d and vaporized r o c k . Composite s a m p l e s

w e r e analyzed r e p r e s e n t i n g a s p h e r e of r o c k surrounding the explosion

c e n t e r of 8.5 m r a d i u s .

Si 0.18570 K 1.4370

c1 55.470 Fe 0.0470

Ca 1.4070 Al 0.07 1%

Mg 0.6570 Na 35.070

6.3870 C 0.09470
s04

H2°
- 1.570

-78-
 APPENDIX C

ASSUMPTIONS INHERENT IN THE TREATMENT

O F THE PERMANENT DISPLACEMENT DATA

The equation u s e d to analyze the p e r m a n e n t displacement d a t a

i s : Rc = (R:-R:)1/3 . This equation i s b a s e d on the relationship:

where :

R = Radius of t h e o r e t i c a l cavity void,

C

R = P o s t s h o t r a d i a l distance of point p f r o m working

f
point, and

R. = P r e s h o t r a d i a l distance of point p f r o m working

1
point.

It a s s u m e s that the displacement of m a t e r i a l i s r a d i a l f r o m the work-

ing point and that n e i t h e r density changes n o r faulting o c c u r i n the

rock as it yields to the f o r c e of the expanding cavity. These a s s u m p -

tions a r e not t r u e , however. Faulting was o b s e r v e d , and probably

s o m e p e r m a n e n t compaction of the r o c k , e s p e c i a l l y the c l a y u n i t s ,

did o c c u r . T h u s , cavity r a d i i calculated by m e a n s of the foregoing

equation a r e only approximations.

-79-
 .

,,PPENDIX D

CAVITY VOID, RUBBLE, AND MELT VOLUME

CALCULATIONS

D.l EXISTING CAVITY VOID VOLUME

The a v e r a g e p l a n i m e t e r e d a r e a of t h r e e v e r t i c a l sections of
2
the existing cavity void is 795 m . Assuming this void to be roughly

h e m i s p h e r i c a l , the following relationship e x i s t s :

n 2 2
-R = 795m or R = 22.6 m ,
2

w h e r e R is the r a d i u s of the h e m i s p h e r e . The volume of the e x i s t -

ing cavity is t h e r e f o r e :

~ ( 2 2 . 63) = 24,180 m 3
3

D.2 TOTAL VOLUME O F RUBBLE, MELT AND INTEYSTITIAL

VOID IN THE LOWER HEMISPHERE O F THE CAVITY

D.2.1 Volume of Rubble and I n t e r s t i t i a l Void Above the

"Approximate Upper Boundary of Melt" ( F i g . 2.2). The a v e r a g e

height and r a d i u s of t h i s zone a r e 5.2 m and 22.9 m respectively.

Assuming a cylindrical s h a p e , its volume i s

2 3
~ ( 2 2 . 9 ) (5.2) = 8,560 m

D.2.2 Volume of Melt, Rubble, and I n t e r s t i t i a l Void Below

the "Approximate Upper Boundary of Melt. I' This zone is approx-

i m a t e l y a s p h e r i c a l segment with an a v e r a g e height of 12.2 m and

-80 -
 a v e r a g e r a d i u s at the upper m e l t boundary of 18.3 m. I t s volume

c a n be e x p r e s s e d a s follows, using the f o r m u l a f o r volume of a

sphe r i c a1 s e gme n t .

2 3
V =
rr
12.2 [3(18.3) + (12.2)23 = 7,360 m

Total volume of cavity rubble, melt, and i n t e r s t i t i a l void is

3
t h e r e f o r e the s u m of A and B o r 15,920 m .

D.3 VOLUME AND MASS O F MELT

The a v e r a g e p e r c e n t a g e of m e l t encountered by the underground

d r i l l holes is 2770. Using this p e r c e n t a g e to r e p r e s e n t the m e l t content

of the s p h e r i c a l s e g m e n t in D.2.2, the r e s u l t i n g m e l t volume is 1,980

3
m . The a v e r a g e bulk density of this m e l t i s 1.6 g/cc. Therefore,

its m a s s is:
3 6
( 1 , 6 0 o k g / m )(1,980 m3) = 3.2 x 10 kg

D.4 TOTAL VOID VOLUME CREATED B Y THE DETONATION

D.4.1 Void Volume R e p r e s e n t e d by the P o r o s i t y of the Melt,

The p o r o s i t y of the m e l t i s approximately 27% (bulk density = 1.6,

n a t u r a l s t a t e density = 2 . 2 ) a n d ' t h e total volume of the m e l t is 1,980

3
m . T h e r e f o r e i t s v e s i c u l a r void volume i s :
3 3
(0.27)(1,980 m ) = 540 m

D.4.2 Void Volume Representing the I n t e r s t i t i a l P o r e Space

i n the Rubble. Assuming a p o r o s i t y of 2870 f o r the rubble (excluding

n

the m e l t which fills up a l a r g e amount of that s p a c e ) the total void

-81-
volume of the rubble pile i s :
3 3
(0.28)(15,920 m ) = 4,460 m

A p o r o s i t y of 28% w a s chosen b e c a u s e the H a r d h a t event i n granite

produced a rubble-filled chimney with this p o r o s i t y . Subtracting

the volume of the m e l t (1,980 m3), the resulting volume of rubble

3
p o r e s p a c e i s 2,480 m .
Total void volume c r e a t e d by the detonation i s t h e r e f o r e the

s u m of the following volumes:

Cavity 24,180 m 3
3
Melt p o r e volume^ 540 m
Rubble p o r e volume 2,480 m5
-

27,200 m5

D.5 TOTAL VOLUME AND MASS O F RUBBLE

The volume of the r u b b l e , obtained by subtracting the p o r e

3
volurne of the rubble (2,480 m ) and m e l t , including p o r e s p a c e , 9

3
( 1,980 m ) f r o m the total volume of the rubble pile ( 15,920 m3) i s
3
11,460 m .
Assuming a n a t u r a l s t a t e bulk density of 2 . 2 g / c c , the rubble

mass is: 6
3
(2200 k g / m )(11,460 m3) = 25.2 X 10 kg

-82-
 APPENDIX E

RUBBLE DISTRIBUTION

The total volume of rubble, exclusive of i n t e r s t i t i a l void, is

3 3
roughly 11,460 m , Of this volume, approximately 5,300 m is

intimately a s s o c i a t e d with the m e l t in the l o w e r h e m i s p h e r e of the

3
cavity. The remaining 6,160 m blankets this region and contains

v e r y little m e l t .

The a v e r a g e t h e o r e t i c a l cavity radius of the lower h e m i s p h e r e ,

defined by p e r m a n e n t r o c k d i s p l a c e m e n t s , i s approximately 16.2 m ,

and that defined by the extent of m e l t i s 17.4 m. The difference of

1.2 m in these r a d i i m a y r e p r e s e n t the thickness of the s h e l l of r o c k

"blown off" the cavity walls a t e a r l y t i m e s . Assuming t h i s thickness

to be roughly uniform around the cavity and assuming a cavity r a d i u s

p r i o r to "blow-off" of 18.7 m (the r a d i u s of a s p h e r e of approximately

3
27,200 m v o l u m e ) , the volume of the s h e l l of blown-off r o c k is
3
5,600 m . Since this volume i s v e r y c l o s e to that of the rubble

a s s o c i a t e d with m e l t , it i s suggested that the bulk of the rubble i n

this region was blown off the cavity walls.

The average r a d i u s of the upper h e m i s p h e r e of the cavity is

approximately 22.9 m. A m a x i m u m e a r l y - t i m e cavity r a d i u s of

18.7 m in this region is a s s u m e d . The 4.2-m difference i n t h e s e

r a d i i r e p r e s e n t s the thickness of both collapsed and blown-off rock.

Assuming a thickness of 1..2 m was blown off ( a s d e t e r m i n e d p r e v i o u s l y ) ,

a 3-m-thick s h e l l of r o c k collapsed f r o m the roof of the cavity. Cavity

-83-
p r o f i l e s suggest this s h e l l extended to an elevation of approximately

682 m o r 7.9 m above the working point. The volume of this shell of

collapsed r o c k can be approximated by the difference in volume of

s p h e r i c a l s e g m e n t s with r e s p e c t i v e heights of 13.7 m (21.6 l e s s 7.9

m) and 10.8 m (18.7 l e s s 7.9 m ) , and b a s a l r a d i i of 25 m ( s c a l e d

f r o m F i g s . 2.1 and 2.2) and 22.1 m. This r e s u l t s in a collapsed

r o c k volume of 5,850 m3, which c o m p a r e s favorably with the volume

of r o c k overlying the m e l t zone.

-84-
 TECHNICAL REPORTS SCHEDULED F O R ISSUANCE
BY AGENCIES PARTICIPATING I N P R O J E C T GNOME

AEC REPORTS

AGENCY REPORT NO. SUBJECT OR T I T L E

LRL PNE-101 P o w e r Studies

LRL 102 Isotopes P r o g r a m

ORNL 103 Design of Sequenced Gas Sampling Apparatus

LRL 104 Close-In Shock Studies

LRL 105 Stress M e a s u r e m e n t s with P i e z o e l e c t r i c C r y s t a l s

LRL 106 P o s t - Shot T e m p e r a t u r e and Radiation Studies

LRL 107 Geologic Studies of t h e Tunnel and Shaft

sc 108 P a r t i c l e Motion n e a r a N u c l e a r Detonation i n Halite

SRI 109 E a r t h Deformation f r o m a N u c l e a r Detonation i n

Salt

USC&GS 110 S e i s m i c M e a s u r e m e n t s f r o m a Nuclear Detonation

i n Halite

SRI 111 I n t e r m e d i a t e - Range E a r t h Motion M e a s u r e m e n t s

LRL 112 An Investigation of P o s s i b l e C h e m i c a l Reactions

and P h a s e T r a n s i t i o n s Caused by a N u c l e a r Explosive
Shock Wave

LRL 11-3 Resonance Neutron Activation M e a s u r e m e n t s

LASL 114 S y m m e t r y of F i s s i o n i n U235 at Individual Resonances

EG&G 115 Timing and F i r i n g

WES 116 D e s i g n , T e s t and F i e l d Pumping of Grout M i x t u r e s

USWB 126 P r e l i m i n a r y Report of Weather and Surface Radia-

tion P r e d i c t i o n Activities f o r P r o j e c t Gnome;
F i n a l Analysis of Weather and Radiation Data

H&N, INC 127 P r e - S h o t and Post-Shot S t r u c t u r e Survey

AGENCY REPORT NO. SUBJECT OR T I T L E

R F B , INC P N E - 128 S u m m a r y of P r e d i c t i o n s and C o m p a r i s o n with

Observed Effects of Gnome on Public Safety

sc 129 Monitoring Vibrations at the US B o r a x and

Chemical Company P o t a s h Refinery

USGS 130 Hydrologic and Geologic Studies

FAA 131 F e d e r a l Aviation Agency A i r s p a c e C l o s u r e

USPHS 132 Off-Site Radiological Safety Report

R E E Co 133 On-Site Radiological Safety Report

USBM 134 P r e and Post-Shot Mine Examination

 DOD REPORTS

AGENCY SUBJECT OR T I T L E
EG&G Technical Photography of S u r f a c e Motion
STL Shock S p e c t r u m M e a s u r e m e n t s - Reed Gage
sc Microbarographic M e a s u r e m e n t s
USGS Study of E l e c t r i c and Magnetic Effects
sc, E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c Waves f r o m Underground
Detonations
EG&G Subsurface E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c Waves

SGC E a r t h C u r r e n t s f r o m Underground Detonations

ERDL Reflectance Stitdies of Vegetation Damage
SFU Visual and Photographic On-Site Inspection
SFU S e i s m i c Noise Monitoring
ERDL Soil Density Studies
TI Geochemical and Radiation Surveys
USGS Solid State Changes i n Rock
EG&G Radon Studies
C&GS I n t e r m e d i a t e Range S e i s m i c M e a s u r e m e n t s
GeoTech Long Range S e i s m i c M e a s u r e m e n t s
USGS Aeromagnetic and A e r o r a d i o m e t r i c Surveys
ARA On-Site Resistivity and Self Potential M e a s u r e m e n t s

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 3
ABBREVIATIONS F O R TECHNICAL AGENCIES

ARA Allied R e s e a r c h A s s o c i a t e s I n c . , Boston b

EG&G E d g e r t o n , G e r m e s h a u s e n , and G r i e r , Inc. ,

Boston, Las V e g a s , and Santa B a r b a r a

ERDL USA C of E E n g i n e e r R e s e a r c h and Develop-

ment L a b o r a t o r i e s , Ft. Belvoir

GeoTech The Geotechnical C o r p o r a t i o n , Garland

LASL Los Alamos Scientific L a b o r a t o r i e s , Los

Alamos

LRL L a w r e n c e Radiation L a b o r a t o r y , L i v e r m o r e

sc Sandi a Corporation, Albuque rque

SGC Space-General C o r p o r a t i o n , Glendale

SRI Stanford R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e , Menlo P a r k

STL Space Technology L a b o r a t o r i e s , Inc. ,

Redondo Beach

TI T e x a s I n s t r u m e n t s , Inc. , Dallas

USC&GS Coast and Geodetic S u r v e y , Washington, D. C.

and Las Vegas

USGS Geological Survey, Denver

WES USA C of E Waterways E x p e r i m e n t Station,

J a c k s on

FAA F e d e r a l Aviation Agency, Salt Lake City

H&N, Inc. Holmes and N a r v e r , Inc. , Los Angeles

R F B , Inc. R. F.' B e e r s , I n c . , Alexandria

REECo ' Reynolds E l e c t r i c a l and Enginekring CO., Las Vegas

USBM U. S. B u r e a u of Mines, Washington, D. C.

USPHS U. S. Public Health S e r v i c e , L a s Vegas

USWB U. S. Weather Bureau, Las Vegas

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Shell Development Co.
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ATTN. Dr. Aaron J. Serif1 1 P. 0. Box 267

M e r c u r y , Nevada
University of C a l i f o r m a
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*‘ ’ , I .
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I
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