HISTORY OF BALLROOM DANCING

Date: Fri, 27 May 94 14:14:55 PDT

From: Josiah Way <way@scf.usc.edu>
Subject: [Josiah Way <way@scf.usc.edu>: Ballroom Research Paper]

SOURCES INTO THE FUNDAMENTALS OF BALLROOM DANCE

-Collected by Josiah Way

Foreword: The purpose of this thesis is not to make any claim to truths
about the origins and characteristics of the different ballroom dances
and the ballroom dances themselves, but rather to explore what *some*
people have written about the origins being. Whether the events are
actual or fictional, I hope that the one achievement of this inquiry is
to unfold the popular myths behind what is now characterized as the
"style" of some said dance. There are a lot of missing pieces, as well,
I do not claim to have any original thoughts or ideas; this is completely
of sources examined, and the results posted. Prior to anything, I make
this disclaimer: I understand that there are different and contrasting
views, and may not even necessarily be the views I hold myself, but
should be understood that the views expressed are views held by some
persons at some given time. Now, please enjoy.

There is an appointed time for everything.

And there is a time for every event under heaven-...
A time to weep, and a time to laugh;
A time to mourn, and a time to dance....
-Ecclesiastes 3

Part I: History of Ballroom Dance (from _Academic American Encyclopedia_)

A: Historical Cause and Effect

Social Dancing, which is simply group dancing for pleasure or

recreation, has probably existed in some form since the beginning of
human society. Most group dances were originally ceremonial rites
grouped around three basic aspects of human existence: food supply,
sexual impulse, and relationships with the spirit world. For primitive
people, dancing was a formal expression of religion or superstition.
When dance abandoned its primitive, pantomimic forms, when it ceased to
be specifically about crops, war, wooing, initiation, or religion, it
became pure social interaction, with no aim or purpose but the
participants' employment.
As the conditions of human existence change, so do social dances.
Although they serve no concrete purpose, propitiate no gods, and
celebrate no military victories, they are related to the fundamental
concerns of modern life just as intimately as their ritualistic ancestors
were to primitive life. Unlike art, social dance is not consciously
formed, but its development is far from random of accidental. Unfailing,
the dances of an epoch faithfully reflect the spirit and structure of
that of technology, and its social customs and predominant ideologies.
Establishing historical cause and effect is often difficult;
similarly, social dance has not only mirrored cultural patterns, thereby
to some extent maintaining them, but it has also on occasion altered them
radically, revolutionizing the prevailing trends of thought and manners
rather than reinforcing them.
Various changes in social dance through the ages clearly
demonstrate its interdependency with the world around it. During the
14th century, for example, when social dance and folk dance were
virtually indistinguishable, popular ring dances moved inside English
upper-class homes as part of the evening entertainment. As long as the
hearth occupied the center of the room, the dances retained their
circular, and egalitarian, form. With the introduction of the chimney
about 1368, however, the hearth could be moved to a side wall, which
cleared the floor of obstacles and allowed processional dances--then
favored in the royal courts where rank determined the order of
procession--to replace the ring formations.

Throughout the Renaissance and the 16th century, social dance

became more firmly ensconced in the courts, whose members systematically
dressed up and formalized the lusty folk dances to suit their elaborate
codes of manners and attire. Styles emanated particularly for France,
where the royal court dictated etiquette and moral behavior for all
European gentry. The 17th century Minuet was nothing but manners, the
final flourish of aristocratic elegance before national and then
industrial revolutions returned social to the masses.

When fine demarcations of rank and title vanished, square

formations like the Cotillion and Quadrille, with partners constantly
changing, filled the ballrooms. The Waltz--whose dizzying speed was
derived as much from the newer, more polished surface of dance floors and
the abandonment of hobnailed shoes as it was from the public's
enthusiasm--also became popular. The embracing, closed hold of the Waltz
successfully defied the polite convention of the period.

Advancing technology and two world wars so continually

restructured life in the 20th century that social dance has been changing
almost constantly, quickly altering with the values and practices
surrounding it. The syncopated rhythms of American Ragtime music
inspired the Foxtrot and Shimmy. After the 19th Amendment gave women the
vote in 1920, they became "emancipated": the flapper was born, as well
as the Charleston. The Jitterbug burst from the Swing improvisations of
the 1930's and 40's. Long playing phonograph records appeared in 1949;
thus, in the 1950's, the teenagers born during the postwar "baby boom"
could launch the Rock 'n' Roll phenomenon in both music and dance. By
then, the once-shocking Waltz position and the sexual attitudes it
represented were passe. Because everyone performed the steps
individually, men no longer always "led" women, and couples were not
essential. The emergence of Disco dance styles in the 1970's and later
popular dance forms continued this trend, although some of the more
formal dances required a partner.

In a world that prides itself on the speed of its

transformations, new forms are inevitable. Social dance no doubt will
continue to evolve as society does.

B: Process of History

Coupled Dance, as a dance form, emerged in the Europe of the 15th

century in a variety of vigorous styles in innovative adoptions and
refinements of folk dance developed by the dancing masters of the time.
These new dances, gay and lively in character, developed first as a
social dance diversion among the aristocracy of France and Italy, the
expanded developmentally to every royal court on the continent to become,
in the later centuries, part of the social life of the emerging middle
class as well.

The forms of social dance in Europe developed in three phases,

each characterized by different designs in rhythm, space, and floor
patterns. The nature of these dances reflected the related elements of
the respected time periods-- the elaborate and bulky fashions in clothes,
the spacious floor areas of courts and palaces, and the elegance of the
successive periods.

Each period can be characterized by its most popular dance: the

age of the Galliard (1500-1650), when that dance, bold and dashing in
expanded movement, consisted entirely of leg thrusts and leaps and
demanded the utmost vigor of the dancers; the age of the Minuet
(1650-1750), when the energetic, expanded, and leaping movements were
transformed to close movement in formal, measured, small steps; the age
of the Waltz (1700-1900), when that dance with its gliding turns, brought
a new joy and intimacy to social dance and an enraptured all of Europe.

There were, of course, other, even opposite, dance styles in each

period. The courtly Pavane and stately Saraband were rivals of the
Galliard; the Contredanse and Quadrille competed effectively with the
Minuet; the Polka and the Mazurka challenged the supremacy of the Waltz.

By the end of the 19th century, however, these social dance steps
had become repetitious and no longer reflected the quickened pace of the
emerging contemporary world. In this vacuum a social dance explosion
occured--the American introduction of the Two-step in 1891. Social dance
from then on, as a product of the 20th century, belongs to the United
States. The Two-step was followed by the Cakewalk of 1893, in turn
followed by Ragtime music. Vernon and Irene Castle, in the decade from
1910 to 1920, enchanted both Europe and America with their famous
exhibitions of the Tango (derived from Argentine folk dance), the
Brazilian Maxixe, the Cakewalk and the Foxtrot. The black influence in
Jazz dominated in the 1920's with the Shimmy and the Charleston, a form
of the Jitterbug, of which another latter version was the Lindy Hop. The
1930's incorporated Latin- American rhythms with the Rumba, Conga, and
Samba. World War II interrupted dance evolution in the 1940's, but the
1950's brought the Merengue and Cha Cha. The mid-1950's saw the dramatic
emergence of Rock 'n' Roll, which utterly changed popular music. The
1950's closed with people Jitterbugging to Rock, but with the 1960's came
the Bossa Nova and Discotheque dancing, the latter producing dozens of
individualized, free-moving dances, such as the Twist. Disco dancing of
the 1970's returned to couples together executing often complex,
choreographed moves. Break Dancing--street dancing that combined
acrobatic and martial arts movements--achieved popularity in the 1980's,
and the Lambada became a craze in 1990.

The role of composers of popular dance music in this development

cannot be overestimated, not can the many other elements the popularized
American social dance throughout the world during the first half of the
20th century. Major influences were Vaudville, musical comedy, films and
the popularity of such stars as Fred Astaire and Gene Kelly. Further
reinforcement came from the accompanying technology, such as the mass
impact of dance music on radio, records, and tape, and, more recently,
the dance images on television.

Social dance today is international and reflects the

democratization of dance more clearly than any other contemporary dance
form.

Part II: The Ballroom Dances (close chronological order)

Church authorities- "in many areas, the Waltz was banned from public
ballrooms for many years-" because it was "the first dance to use closed
dance position for any extended period of time." (5:24)

The Waltz, of course, did survive this scrutiny, but was forced
to split into two distinct styles, the Waltz know to the French and
English ballrooms and the Viennese Waltz, 1812, know to the strong-mined
Germans who refused to give into the criticism of the church (14). In
the first style, it was kept slow, with the knowledge that "the gentleman
wait until the dance had begun before encircling the lady's waist" that
it would be immoral to ever have the gentleman "put his hand on that
portion of her anatomy." It was said that "should he lack gloves, the
least he could do was to hold a handkerchief in his hand." The Waltz was
to be performed solely for the demonstration of elegance and not
pleasure. The Viennese style Waltz, on the other hand, "made an immoral
name for itself" because the youth refused to give up its mobility and
freedom, thus offering the suffer the churches' consequences of dancing a
dance of "more speed,... gliding and turning around the room while
throwing head and body from one side to the other" (3:127).

Even though the Waltz caused so much trouble with the church, it
did bring about one change that exuberated the course of concert music,
that of the increased need for increased tempo and more joyous moods in
the concert halls. "Perhaps Chopin is the best known composer of
brilliant Waltz music, although today when we hear his melodies in the
ballroom as distinct from the concert hall, they are distorted for
'contemporary' purposes almost beyond recognition." Other composers for
the new Viennese style also arose; "Brahms and Schumann composed Waltzes
which are typically German in style and character." But probably the
most famous and influential Waltz composer of that era was Johann
Strauss. Percy Scholes wrote "...it seems as likely that such a Waltz as
the 'Blue Danube,' by Johann Strauss the younger, the 'Waltz King' will
last for ever as that Beethoven's Fifth Symphony will do." (7:131-2)

B: Polka

The Polka had originated in Bohemia and formalized by the French.

"There is a romantic story of its origins, whereby a Czech servant girl,
a certain Anna Chadimova, was moved on Sunday to a dance in a way not
seen before. The steps and the tune were noted down by musical observers
who just happened to be on the scene, and thus a new dance supposedly was
born." From that point, "its rhythms and steps took a firm hold on the
audience, and Paris ballrooms promptly went Polka-mad, to which fever
England soon succumbed." (3:142-143)

The name "Polka" came from the Czech word meaning "half," because
of the number of half steps used in the dance (14:143). The Polka is "a
bright, lively dance step in uneven rhythm... with the addition of a hop
so that it becomes hop, step, close, step. The hop comes on the pick- up
beat" (9:35). Thus the Polka, traditionally in a 2/4 meter possesses a
hop, quick, quick, slow pattern with the count of hop, 1 and 2, hop, 1
and 2. Though is may seem to be an awkward pattern of motion, in
actuality, it adds to the joyousness and celebratory mood of the dance.

Since the introduction of the Polka in the 19th century, the

Polka has entered the ballroom scene as mainly a Folk dance done in
celebration rather than in exact and standardized basic "correct" and
incorrect" movements. Though the Polka does contain its distinct basic
steps, the mood of the Polka is that which makes it the dance it is.
"Every ballroom was like a whirlpool; dancing more resembled the driving
home from Derby than anything else; the collisions rivalled in frequency
and severity, those of the iron railways before the infants had learned
how to behave themselves" (2:156). Though this is not the kind of
behavior that was normally tolerated by the social elite, it was said
that "the masses who now favored the public halls whizzed and twirled
about the floor in outbursts of robustness which matched the vulgar but
vital energy" brought out by the Waltz. "The Polka came just at the
right moment to harness this energy and to direct it into a less
uncontrolled and unseemly direction." (7:134)

C: Tango

The Tango began as two different dances. The first, with it's
home in Spain, was "an exhibition dance performed by a solo dancer who
directs the sharp accents of heel rhythms, snapping fingers, and flowing
arm movements into a blend of both classical and Gypsy Iberian dance."
The contrast to this is the well known ballroom style performed today.
This style began in Argentina as "El Baile con Corte meaning 'the dance
with a stop'" and later changed to "tango" or the "touch dance." It was
performed as a taunting dance of the males upon the females. (5:48)

Originally the Tango was danced as a courtship dance of the

"gauchos, sailors, and Italian immigrants, all competing for the
'favours' of the half-Indian women habituees of the waterfront cafes." It
was a dominating dance of the working men who had been away for long
periods of time; it "was now a sensuous, flamboyant and highly exotic
dance, as yet known only in the lowest haunts of Buenos Aires and
completely taboo in polite Argentine society." But, like most "unpopular
dances" as it gained popularity among the dancers it would slowly "become
slightly more respectable" though for the Tango, this popularity was
mostly due to the new orchestra sound that was too good to remain in
small bars. (14:191-3)

Though the Argentineans tried so hard to suppress this dance, a

number of recognized dancers discovered it and in time toned it into and
acceptable ballroom version. The first moderation came prior to World
War I by Vernon and Irene Castle. Though they did not radically change
the domination or style of it, they toned it down to hold what was know
as "Tango tease." This where is was made standard to the slow, slow,
quick, quick, slow pattern that exuberated the motion of the quick stop
and dramaticism. The most widely known was the new French version
transformed by Valentino. Valentino returned to emotion to the Tango
"where the steps were more 'exotic'" and expressed the original emotion
of the gauchos of Argentina. With this, Valentino returned the extreme
closeness of the male to the female and the stubbornness to comply of the
female to the Tango, which were what had been disapproved of from the
beginning. (3:171-175).

D: Foxtrot
The Foxtrot known as the first truly American ballroom dance, was
named after the creator, Mr. Harry Fox, after he sformed into grotesque
holds with exaggerated body and arm movements." These "animal dances"
contained "such descriptive names as the Turkey Trot, Grizzly Bear,
Kangaroo Hop, Bunny Hug, and Harlem Glide." (5:35)

Dance teachers then answered the call for this syncopated dance
and want to rid themselves of the "animal dances" and went to work on
modifying the Foxtrot for the ballrooms. The result was "one of the most
standard and popular dances wherever dancing is performed." And even
though music has changed so much since the 1910's and 20's, "becoming
smother and more flowing," it has always been accepted, though it has
often taken on the title of "the slow dance" by the youth. (5:35)
The original Foxtrot was characterized by English dance teacher
Victor Silvester as to "walk four slow steps (2 bars), then take a run of
seven quick steps, bringing the right foot to the back of the left on the
eighth beat" (3:168). Because the quick steps would rapidly de-energize
the dancers, the Foxtrot had to be modified down to an even and
systematic dance for the masses.
Unfortunately since the Foxtrot had to be modified so many times
it, in the end, was turned into four different styles. The first, and
most standardized and known, brought about by Vernon and Irene Castle
became four walking steps with one step on each beat. The formation was
then noted by the popular "Box" of Step, Touch, Side, Together. The
second, known as the dance walk is a slower version of the first with two
slow walking steps for each measure of music. The third form that was
helped to be standardized by Arthur Murray, along with the fourth form,
is the "Magic Step." "The Magic step represents broken rhythm as it takes
a measure and a half of music... (and) it is an uneven rhythm pattern,
slow, slow, quick, quick." The last, as just as popular, is the
"Westchester" style, characterized by a slow, quick, quick walking in cut
time that takes two measures to complete one "Box." (9:359-60) But no
matter how it has been changed or how it is performed, what remains is
that it has been the standard American dance, and thus transformed and
defined the style of all American-style of ballroom dances to follow.

E: Swing

"The 1930's were years of financial depression and hardship, yet

they were also years which ballroom dance reached one of its highest
peaks of popularity and finesse in the United States." From this period
of World War I and the Great Depression also came the New Orleans and
Chicago- style Jazz of Benny Goodman, who "is the band leader credited
with developing the rhythm eventually known as Swing." (5:67) And along
with this new, vibrant style of music, came a dance to compliment the
upbeat feel of it: Swing.
Named after Charles Lindbergh's solo flight across the Atlantic
Ocean in 1927, the "Lindbergh Hop," later the "Lindy Hop," "Lindy,"
"Shag," "Jitterbug," and others, the Swing is noted for its acrobatic
movements that complement the "exuberant" and "bounding" new rhythmic
music. This brought about its wide popularity among the GIs of the World
War II era. (5:68)
Though there are three different types of Swing, Single Lindy,
Double Lindy, and Triple Lindy, the basic steps for them all is just
that, basic. The Single Lindy is a Slow Side Step, Slow Side Step, Quick
Rock Step; the Double Lindy is six Quick Steps with a Side Together, Side
Together, Rock Step; the Triple Lindy is a Side Together Side for two
beats, Side Together Side, for two beats, and Rock Step.
The acrobatics come as variations to these basic movements. The
most notable variations in the Swing are Collegiate (hands joined),
Semiopen Basic, Turn, Swing Out Break, Continuous Underarm Turns, Brush
Off (flirtation pass), Tuck Spin, Wrap, Dish Rag, Overhead Swing, Swivel
Step, Out and Close, Wrap-Unwrap Spin, and other variations and
combinations to these added steps. These can all be done to the music
but since "the rhythm pattern is generally the same over and over but the
changes of position and direction and the constant subtle smooth roll to
offbeat rhythm generates a fabulous excitement for both dancer and
observer." (9:335-8)
For classifying swing to the other ballroom dances, Arthur Murray
wrote that "swing is the general, all- inclusive term that is applied to
syncopated Foxtrot dancing. Formally called, Jitterbug, Lindy Hop, and
various other names in different sections of the country, Swing is the
newer title" (204).

F: Rumba

"In the thirties, an entirely new rhythm and dance from Cuba was
becoming known- the so-called Rumba. The true Rumba is of Afro-Cuban
origin, deriving from the days of Negro slavery... and is an exotic dance
with violent and sinuous movements of hip, shoulder and torso." This
form of the Rumba was of course not accepted by the social elite of the
United States ballroom instructors, and had to be reformed for the dance
scene of the 30's and 40's. Thus, the Rumba split into "the 'son' which
is a slower and more refined version of the Rumba... that lacks the wild
freedom of the true Rumba and may be accompanied by a romantic and
sentimental melody." It was said that "the Rumba flaunts, the son
insinuates." In 1946, this style of the son, played at a faster tempo
was that which was finally accepted by the ballroom dancing profession.
(14:99,102)
The "subtle, continuous, rolling motion" of the Rumba contains
three main characteristics that distinguish it from other dances: [1]
the action is in the feet and the knees; [2] there is a delay shift of
weight; and [3] the upper body is upright and quiet, with a focus on
one's partner (9:387). These work together in a spot dance form to
"tease" your partner into exotic and rhythmic taunting and flirting,
creating the excitement of a relatively slow and simple dance step. This
taunting is formulated by and "side to side" motion of the hips and an
"opposition hip shift- the hips are shifting in the direction opposite to
the step-" causing an exaggeration in the normal movement of the hips in
a sensual and seductive manner (16:41).
The basic step of the Rumba is placed into two distinct forms,
the Bolero and the Rumba Box. Either form is standardized by a Forward
step- Back step on the 2nd and 3rd counts, and a hold on the 1st (though
some American styles have begun on the 1 rather than the 2). The 4 count
is, typically, the only one which distinguishes the two styles. The
Bolero is performed on in a side to side motion causing a more stationary
dance with some traveling, while the Rumba Box is performed in a Fox
trot-like box step, but can be traveled somewhat about the floor.
(5:59-63)

G: Quickstep

The Quickstep, or "joy" (12:41) dance of ballroom dancing, is

noted as a quick Foxtrot. As the Imperial Society of Teachers of
Dancing, 1924, continued to standardize the ballroom style dance, it was
thought that the "proper" Foxtrot had been made slower and slower, and
some dance had to fill "the need for a dance that could be performed at a
fair speed but with smooth 'walking' movements" (3:193-4). This dance
was the Quickstep.
Because the "red-hot baby" dances of the twenties were being
tamed and placed out of fashion in order to accommodate dances of "sweet
music," the sedateness of ballroom dancing had to be "rescued" by some
dance (14:97- 8). The standard four dances of the time, Waltz, Foxtrot,
Tango, and Quickstep, became more and more unpopular as the "excitement"
had been taken from them. Studies showed that the approval rate of the
Foxtrot, Waltz, and Tango had fallen drastically due to this lack of
ability of free movement that was prominent in the Swing. (14:149-50)
The Quickstep, then, became the free-flowing dance that the youth
had been looking for. It was said to be so elated due to its quicker
tempo that dance halls had to resort to using "No Jive" signs that
disallowed Swing and Quickstep dances at the same time. Thus, the
Quickstep found its way to the large ballrooms, and an equivalent wide
popularity and to be considered a "recognized" dance of the elite ISTD.
(14:102)
The Quickstep is characterized by a Slow-Slow-Quick- Quick-Slow
rhythm performed to relatively fast 48-52 bars/min. music that brings out
all of the "frills" it has. It's main aspect is the quick, short steps
with a distinct rise and fall motion in the walk. Alex Moore tells that
"the dancer who masters the fundamentals of the Quickstep will have
command of a dance that can never grow stale, a dance that is
unquestionably the most attractive expression of rhythm the world has
ever known." (12:41-42)

H: Paso Doble
The Paso Doble finds its roots in the Spanish style music of the
1930's that "had inspired such dances as the Maxixe and... the Tango." It
came from the Spanish Bolero as a One-step. (3:196-7) Most popularly
known is that the Paso Doble is the "man's" dance, portraying the story
of the matador with (the female being) his cape, where the matador is to
"wield" his cape according to the "anger and intensity" of of the roaring
boar. And thus for the accompanying music, "as strong as the matador's
concentration."
Though originally known as dance of the common people- as with
most dances- it later split into two distinct styles which brought about
its worldwide popularity. The first, the original, remained in
Latin-America and gave way to the rise of the Rumba; while the second,
found its way to France prior to the war, where it "gained great
popularity in England for demonstrations, competitions, professional
examinations, and amateur medal tests." (10:77) The first distinction
has been questioned by many sources, however.
The main features of the Paso Doble include the "precision of
footwork and elegant deportment as seen in all Spanish dancing,... the
hold... higher than the normal ballroom hold,... a light hip contact,...
(and) the Torero, (the male portrayal of) fighting the bull and handling
his cloak." (10:77)

I: Samba

"The Samba comes from Brazil. It differs from other

Latin-American dances in that it is lively and vigorous and the feet are
constantly leaving the floor. It is literally a bouncing step" (16:43).
The Black Brazilians were often know for their "imaginative" songs and
dances, and "as the paraders moved along the streets with jaunty,
body-swinging, rhythmic movements, a leader would occasionally shout
'Semba' (Americans later changed to "Samba")." At this point, the
participants were to "perform a series of freely improvised dances." The
ballroomers then toned these wild dances down to a closed position, but
kept the bounciness and exuberance to form the style known and accepted
today. (5:77)
It was expected that the Samba had begun by the drunken bar
hoppers imitating an equally drunken friend, who was "gyrating" to the
folk music. This soon after was cleaned up to become a standard for
social functions, and even today remains just as popular. Beverly
Yerrington claimed the story as such: "some people claim that at the big
carnival in Rio de Janeiro there happened to be a group of street dancers
who had been unduly influenced by the spirits of alcohol, and were
performing a bouncy and gay version of the batuque. Those watching like
it so much that within hours it spread to many street dancers at the
carnival."
"The basic step pattern is similar to the Waltz balance, but the
feeling and the quality of the movement are quite different. The
movement of (the) Samba uses the whole body,... the upper body tilts
forward as the feet go backward" (16:43). It is characterized by three
distinct step motions: [1] step forward on the left, body sways
backward; [2] step right foot besides left; and [3] step left foot in
place (8:213).

J: Mambo

The Mambo is credited to a Cuban bandleader named Perez Prado

who, in 1943, mixed the strong American Jazz influence with the
predominant Cuban rhythm, creating a "particular" dance with a "jagged
rhythm: there was a beat in every bar on which the dancer took no step,
but rested" (3:199-200). The word "Mambo," though, has a discrepancy as
to its actual meaning; one source says it is of "Nanigo dialect spoken in
Cuba, and has no 'real' meaning" (3:199) while another source says it was
"freely borrowed from African voodoo religion, in which the cult
priestesses are honored with this name" (5:86).
But whatever the Mambo's meaning or who gets credit for it, one
thing remains important: the Mambo was caused by the clash of the
"American jazz beat with the Cuban Rumba rhythm" (5:86). Even though the
Mambo did not gain widespread approval until the 50's, this "new-style
'jazzed- up' Cuban Mambo music" (14:107) revived ballroom style dancing
to the youth that were leaning toward the new Jive sounds of the day.
The Mambo allowed for syncopated movements to an upbeat Jazz sound and a
then warn-out Rumba sound (14:108).
Beyond this new found excitement for the Cuban rhythm, the Mambo
had gained just as "jazzed-up" movements to follow it. "As in the
Rumba,... the movement is initiated in the hips,... but it is not quite
so subtle as Rumba" (16:38). It also uses the same rhythm as the Rumba,
however there is a hold on the first beat of each bar. This hold was
taught to be dressed up with kicks and body movements, thus creating a
very "sinuous" and popular dance.
The basic steps for the Mambo are similar to that of the Rumba
and Cha Cha. It follows a Quick, Quick, Slow rhythmic pattern with the
slow covering the beats 4 and carrying over to 1. The steps are Forward
Left, Back Right, Close Left to Right, then Back Right, Forward Left,
Close Right to Left for the next four counts.

K: Cha Cha

The Cha Cha is defined as the "Cuban dance that evolved from the
Mambo... (rising) to great popularity in the mid 1950's." The major
difference was that "the pause found in the Mambo was changed to a rapid
triple step." (1) This triple step, when performed, sounds off a "cha
cha cha" sound from the stepping on the 3-and-4 beats. This motion was
said to have been enjoyable because "(to the elders) it could be
performed with the Rumba figures substituted for the sexy wiggles favored
by the young,... (while the youth) enjoyed it because it was another of
those dances that allowed for individual display" (3:200-1).
This triple-Mambo, "involving five movements to one bar of music,
became the basis of the 'cha-cha'." It had originally reached England
and taught "to a count of 'one, two, cha cha cha' and indeed many of the
commercial recordings stress this beat." This style though, was notably
different from the "essential beat" and rhythm of the Cuban bands and was
changed to contain "the count of 'one, two, three, cha cha.'" Though
this became widely accepted and "being correct,... the other version...
is still taught and is a competition style." (14:107-8)
"The rhythm is an uneven beat pattern of the slow, slow, quick,
quick, slow and will be counted 2, 3, 4, and, 1, with the 4-and-1 being
the familiar Cha Cha Cha triple" (9:379). "You will see few people
beginning to step on count two- habit dictates beginning on count one
(16:36). Even though the rhythm has remained constant, the American
ballrooms have moved the Cha Cha Cha beats to the 3-and-4 counts to match
the music emphasis and to make it easier and more standard for the
ballroom regulars (3:201).

L: Jive

The Jive came about by taking over and taming the Jitterbug
dancing of the 40's as the change from live bands to jukebox dancing hit
the dance halls and soda parlors in the 1950's. This milder form of
Swing/ Jitterbug/ Lindy dancing, with its loss of acrobatics that had
been acquired through the years gave the youth of the "Rock and Roll
50's" their own version of the ballroom dances (14:102), since the
"traditional" dances were being performed by the then elders of society
who had started the dances (3:201-203).
The Jive has three basic forms, the single, double, and triple,
however it is the triple which has stuck and given the Jive the
exuberance of the 50's as defined by performers like Bill Haley and his
most famous "Rock Around the Clock." Though the "passive" television
influence insured that ballroom dancing had to be tamed for the life-
reducing "twelve-inch space," the basic steps remained relatively the
same. (3:203-4)
Though the Jive has undergone many name and style changes, and as
"the new dances come and go,... the Jive stays,... because it has
definite basic steps." The basic steps of the Jive are defined by (for
male) Step Right, Step Left, Step Right (moving 2-3"), Step Left (moving
2-3"), and a Small Right Side Step. The count for this Fallaway style,
is 1, 2, 3, and, 4. As an alternative, the last three steps (known as
the "Jive chasses'") can be done on the left foot also, thus giving a
count of 1,2,3 and 4, 3 and 4. (10:108- 109)

Part III: Timeline of Dance (from Let's Dance, by Peter Buckman)

Prehistoric:
Carol Ferandole Fertility Dances
Line Dances Medicine Dances Round Dances
War Dances

Classical Antiquity:
Bacchic Dances Dionysia Hora
Kalamatianos Morris Dance Sousta

Middle Ages:
Basse Danse Branle Estampie
Danse Macabre European Folk Furlana
May Dances Saint Vitus's Sword Dances

15th Century:
Canaries Hey Hornpipe
Moresque Sellenger's

16th Century:
Allemande Bergamasca Bourree
Chaconne Cinq Pas Counrty Dance
Courante Galliard Measure
Pavane Saraband Sir Roger
Trescone La Volta

17th Century:
Contredanse Flamenco Gavotte
Jig Passacaglia Rigaudon

18th Century:
Appalachian Mtn.Contras Carmagnole
Cotillion Minuet Passepied

1800-1850:
Bolero Ecossaise Galop
Lancers Langaus Mazurka
Polka Polonaise Quadrille
Schottische Tsamikos Waltz

1850-1900:
Barn Dance Batuque Cakewalk
Cancan Habanera Milonga
Redowa Round Dance Square Dance
Two-step Varsovienne

1900-1910:
Boston Bunny Hug Buzzard Lope
Camel Walk Crab Eagle Rock
Fanny Bump Fish Tail Funky Butt
Grind Grizzly Bear Horse Trot
Itch Kangaroo Dip Maxina
Maxixe Mooche One-step
Slow Drag Squat Tango
Turkey Trot Veleta

1910-1920:
Foxtrot Lindy Hop

1920-1930:
Black Bottom Charleston Quickstep
Rumba Shimmy Varsity Drag

1930-1940:
Beguine Big Apple Boomps-a-Daisy
Conga Danzon Guajira
Hokey-Pokey Jitterbug Knees Up
Lambeth Walk Palais Glide
Paso Doble Samba

1940-1950:
Jitterbug

1950-1960:
Blue Beat Bop Cha Cha
Chicken Clam Fish
Fly Jive Madison
Mambo Mashed Potato Merengue
Stroll Twist

1960-1970:
Boogaloo Bossa Nova Bug
Bug Filly Dog Frug
Funky Broadway Hitchhike Hully-Gully
Jerk Monkey Pachanga
Pony Shake Skate
Slop Swim Watusi

1970-1980:
Hustle Ride-a-Bike

Part IV: Time Signature Table (from _Let's Dance_, by Peter Buckman)

2/2:
Charleston Pavane

2/4:
Basse Danse Bergamasca Black Bottom
Branle Cha Cha Galop
Habanera Hornpipe Los Matlanchines
Maxixe Merengue Moresque
Morris Dance Paso Doble Polka
Reel Rigaudon Rumba
Samba Schottische Shimmy
Tango Trescone

3/2:
Tordion

3/4:
Allemande Basse Danse Bolero
Bourree Chaconne Courante
Fandango Galliard Jig
Jota Mazurka Minuet
Passepied Polka-Mazurka Polonaise
Redowa Saltarello Saraband
Seguidillas La Volta Waltz

4/4:
Barn Dance Cha Cha Foxtrot
Gavotte Hornpipe Mambo
Morris Dance Piva Quadernaria
Rigaudon Rock Dances Rumba
Running Set Strathspey Tango

6/4:
Slow Courante

6/8:
Fandango Farandole Furlana
Jig Tarantella Two-step

9/9:
Jig

19/9:
Jig

Part V: Atlas of Dance (from _Let's Dance_, Peter Buckman)

Africa:
Lundu

Argentina:
Milonga Tango
Austria:
Landler Lagaus

Brazil:
Batuque Samba Maxixe

Caribbean:
Berguine Blue Beat Cha Cha
Conga Guajira Habanera
Merengue Mambo Pachanga
Rumba Tango

Czechoslovakia/ Bohemia:
Polka Redowa

England:
Blue Beat Country Dance Furry Dance
Jig Hornpipe Novelty Dances
Lancers Sequence Dances Measure
Morris Dance Quickstep Veleta

France:
Basse Danse Bolero Bourree
Branle Cancan Camagnole
Cotillion Courante Ecossaise
Estampie Galliard Galop
Gavotte Hey Minuet
Nizzarda Passepied Quadrille
Rigaudon

Germany:
Allemande Frohntanz Reigen
Schottische Schuhplattler Schwalmer
Schwarzwalder Siebensprung Waltz
Weller

Greece:
Dionysia Kalamatianos Sousta
Tsamikos

Ireland:
Fading

Israel:
Hora Hava Nagila

Italy:
Bassa Danza Bergamasca Furlana
Monferrina Pavane Piva
Quadernaria Saltarello Tarantella
Trescone La Volta

Mexico:
Los Huapango El Farabe Los Matlanchines
Los Moros Los Negritos Los Apaches
Los Sembradoras Los Inditos

North America:
"Animal" Dances Appalachian Mtn.Barn Dance
Big Apple Black Bottom Bop
Bossa Nova Boston Cakewalk
Charleston Contra Foxtrot
Hustle Jitterbug Jive
Jazz Dance Madison Square Dance
Rock Dance One-step Two-step
Twist

Poland:
Mazurka Polonaise Varsovienne

Scotland:
Highland Fling Reels Strathspeys

Spain:
Canaries Chaconne Fandango
Flamenco Jota Moresque
Passacaglia Paso Doble Saraband
Los Seises

Part VI: Glossary of Terms

*Terms are a collection of the general glossary inserts from
all of the sources on the bibliography.

2/4- Time Signature with two beats per measure and a quarter note having
one beat.
3/4- Time Signature with three beats per measure and a quarter note
having one beat.
4/4- Time Signature with four beats per measure and a quarter note
having one beat.
Accented Beat- The beat in music which has more emphasis than the
others, usually to 1st beat of the measure.
Active Couple- The couple that is dancing with another.
Allemande- Couple join with arms bent and turn around each other using
the centrifugal force as balance.
American Smooth- See Smooth Dances.
Animal Dances- American and African-American Dances of the 20's that
mimic the actions of different animals.
Back Cross Position- Couple stand side by side with arms interlocked
behind them.
Back-Track- Moving opposite to the Line of Dance.
Back Step- Travelling Backwards by Walking, usually in Smooth Dances.
Balance Step- Shifting of weight from one foot to another.
Ballet- Modern Dance done to the "feel" of the music.
Band- Musicians performing the Music to be danced to.
Banjo Position- Closed dance position where the right sides of both
partners are touching.
Basic Figure- The "Basic" principal steps to a particular dance.
Beat- Part of the music that which the dance is based upon, as
distinguished from the melody. The steps are then performed to
the related number of beats in the measure, thus setting the
rhythm of the dance and distinguishing it from other dances.
Big Band Music- Music of the teens and 20's of the Jazz influence in
which Foxtrot and Swing dances are performed.
Box Step- Dance figure characterized by the stepping in a square like
pattern. The Foxtrot and Waltz use this shape for their Basic
Figures.
Break- Couple releases hands.
Butterfly Position- Couple facing with arms out and to the side grasping
each other by the hand.
Cakewalk- Prancing dance of the Blacks originally done for a cake.
Challenge Position (The Chase)- Partners stand face to face without
touching each other. They can then either dance in syncopation or
on their own. Most frequently used in Rock and Roll dances and
Latin Dances.
Change of Weight- Transfer of the standing foot (one with weight on it)
to the free foot.
Chasse- Sliding steps used to maneuver around dance floor.
Clockwise- Direction on the dance floor (opposite direction of Line of
Dance). Used to describe the direction of a turn.
Clog- Rhythm that is set by the sound of the dancers' feet. For
example, a Cha Cha is characterized by the "Cha Cha Cha" sound of
the dancers stepping to three quick beats simultaneously.
Closed Position- Partners facing with the man's right hand on the lady's
back, man's left and lady's right interlocked, and lady's left on
the man's shoulder.
Conversation Position- See Open Position.
Corner- Lady on the man's left side.
Costume- The Dress for Dancing, whether Formal for Social Dancing or the
dress of people in "Ritual" Dances.
Cotillion- Formal dance of the English that resembled the Quadrille.
Counterclockwise- Motion on the dance floor opposing the direction of
dance.
Counterstep- Opposite step to balance the previous.
Couple Dances- Dances that are usually performed in Closed Position in
which only the couple interacts with each other.
Cross-Back Hold- Partners side by side joined by same hands behind the
movements of the same kind, usually to one beat.
Dovetail- Position of the feet for Social Dancing forming a 45-90 degree
angle between the feet.
Downbeat- The accented beat of the music. Also characterized by the
downward motion of the orchestra leader's baton on the first beat
of a measure.
Draw Step- Free foot brought together with the standing foot with
usually a change of weight.
Elbow Step- Hook at elbows and turn once around.
Escort- Proper way to bring partner on and take partner from the dance
floor, with the lady slipping her left arm through the man's
right.
Eye Contact- Proper position in Social Dancing with a partner In-place
Dances and as much as possible in Smooth Dances.
Fan- Partners release one arm and stand side by side usually to allow
the lady to "show off" to the audience.
Feet Together- Drawing of the Free Foot to the Standing Foot with or
without a change of weight.
Figure- Corelation of a number of steps to form a pattern.
Folk Dance- Dance of the people that as a "Ritual" Dance.
Follow Through- Bring of the free foot past the standing foot, with of
without a touch, in order to keep an erect, non-stradling,
position.
Following- Response to the lead.
Forward Step- Walking Step, usually in Smooth Dances.
Free Foot- Foot without the weight on it.
Full Turn- Turn 360 degrees.
Goose Step- Extending of the free leg.
Grapevine- Count 1: step to left; Count 2: step right behind the left;
Count 3: step left; Count 4: right in front of left.
Half Turn- Turn 180 degrees.
Heel Lead- Step with the heel of the foot being place before the toe.
Hesitation Step- Remaining in the same place for a number of counts.
Home Position- Original position of partners, usually in Square Dances.
Hop- Jump on one foot and landing on same foot.
In Place- Remaining in the same place, but usually with a shift of
weight from one foot to the other.
International Dance- Form of Dance used in Competition that has not been
"Americanized" as in the American Smooth Dances, and with strict
rules for performance.
Jazz Music- Musical form of America that placed much influence on the
Swing Dances.
Jive- Milder version of the Jitterbug from the 50's.
Jump- Leaving the floor from both feet and landing on both feet with no
weight on just one or change of weight to one.
Leading- Term usually referring to the male in reference to the
maneuvering of the couple about the dance floor with the use of
increasing and decreasing of pressure upon the females' hand and
back.
Leap- Jump from one foot and landing on the other.
Line of Dance- Counterclockwise direction in which smooth dances are
lead about the dance floor.
Magic Step- Basic Walking Step of the Foxtrot.
Measure- Beats that make up one hook or number of counts in the music.
Melody- Hook of the music which makes it an original song.
Meter- Structure of music according to the rhythm, in reference to the
number of beats per measure.
Open Position- Partners side by side facing the same direction keeping
the same hand position as in Closed Position.
Phrase- A sequence of notes (for music) or steps (for dance) that form a
common hook within it.
Pivot- A turn made in place.
Position- Place in which each partner stands or the series of steps to
be taken.
Promenade Position- Partners stand side by side with hands joined in
front of them.
Push Step- Forcing of the feet to give a "push" away. Also used in a
sliding manner with the partners pushing on the others hand keep
them in balance.
Quarter Turn- Turn of 90 degrees.
Ragtime- Music of the late 19th century that brought about the Jazz
movement.
Rest- Stop in the music for an undetermined amount of time.
Rhythm- "Feel" of the music including the Style and Accented Beats.
Rock Step- Quick shift of weight to one foot then a quick shift back.
Roll- Turn completely around.
Round Dance- Dance performed to specific movements like "The Chicken
Dance" and Square dances.
Separated Position- Partners dance apart from each other. Common in
Rock and Roll Dances.
Shimmy- A shaking of the upper torso.
Shoulder-Waist Position- Man's hands on the lady's waist, and the lady's
on the man's shoulders.
Single- One step per beat.
Slide- Sideward step and close.
Smooth Dances- Foxtrot, Waltz, Tango. Dances that move about the dance
floor.
Social Dance- Folk and Ritual Dances that are formed to be "proper" for
dancing.
Spin- Turning of usually the female with the man's lead the show off her
and her partner.
Spot Dance- Dances which are generally stationary to one spot on the
dance floor as compared to the Smooth dances which move
throughout the dance floor. Like the Swing and Cha Cha.
Square Step- See Box Step and Basic Figure.
Standing Foot- See Supporting Foot.
Step- Movement and transfer or weight from one foot to another. Also
termed for the Basic Step.
Step-Hop- Step with one foot and hop on that same foot without a change
of weight.
Style- The characteristics that are common to a particular dance. For
example the 3/4 Box Step is a specific style to the Waltz.
Supporting Foot- Foot on which the weight lies on.
Syncopation- Moving of the normal accent of the music to another place
for the purpose of exaggerating that particular beat or movement.
Tag- Ending on an added phrase at the end of song.
Tap- Touch.
Tempo- Speed that the music is being played at.
Time Signature- Musical notation expressing the number of beats per
measure over the length of the note that gets one beat.
Toe Lead- Step with the Toe placed before the heel.
Together- Feet Together.
Touch- Bringing together of the feet without a transfer of weight from
one to the other.
Triple- Three steps or "Side-Close-Side" done to one or two counts.
Twinkle Step- Pivot to the side from Closed Position which enters the
couple into Promenade Position. Done in the Foxtrot, Waltz and
Tango.
Two-Step (Triple Step)- Step where three weight changes are done within
two beats of music (Step-Close-Step). Commonly done in dances
like the Triple Swing.
Upbeat- Accented Beat.
Variation- Change in the basic configuration of a dance sequence.
Varsouvian- Couple stand side by side with man's right arm over lady's
shoulder and right arm in front of him.
Walking Step- Step to each beat in a forward manner usually in line of
dance to maneuver around dance floor.
Window- Arm position in Open Position forming a "window" which the
partners can view each other through.
Wrap Position- Couple stands side by side with the man's arms wrapped
around the lady.