Cells

Muscle cells

There are three types of muscle cells: skeletal, cardiac and smooth.

Skeletal muscle cells

Skeletal muscle is a form of striated muscle tissue existing under control of the somatic
nervous system. It is one of three major muscle types, the others being cardiac and smooth
muscle. As its name suggests, most skeletal muscle is attached to bones by bundles of
collagen fibers known as tendons.

Skeletal muscle is made up of individual components known as muscle fibers. These fibers
are formed from the fusion of developmental myoblasts (a type of embryonic progenitor cell
that gives rise to a muscle cell). The myofibers (muscle fiber) are long, cylindrical,
multinucleated cells composed of actin and myosin myofibrils repeated as a sarcomere, the
basic functional unit of the cell and responsible for skeletal muscle's striated appearance and
forming the basic machinery necessary for muscle contraction. The term muscle refers to
multiple bundles of muscle fibers held together by connective tissue.

Human Skeletal Muscle Cells (SkMC) are isolated from different skeletal muscles (e.g.
Musculus Pectoralis Major)

New skeletal muscle cells originate from quiescent myoblasts, also called satellite cells,
which are located in the muscle fibers between the basal lamina and the sarcolemma.
Quiescent myoblasts are activated by stimuli such as muscle damage. After activation, they
start to proliferate and fuse with damaged muscle fibers or with one another forming new
myotubes.
 Smooth muscle cells

Smooth muscle cells, which form non-striated muscles, are structurally and functionally
different from skeletal and cardiac muscle cells. They are located in the walls of blood
vessels and hollow organs like the bladder, the uterus, and the gastrointestinal tract and are
responsible for involuntary movements like peristaltic contractions, which propel food along
the gastrointestinal tract.

PromoCell smooth muscle cells are available from the aorta, the coronary artery, the
pulmonary artery, the umbilical artery, the trachea, the bronchi, the bladder, and the uterus.
 1. cardiac muscle cell
2. nuclei
3. intercalated disks

Cardiac muscle cells

A type of muscle found only in the walls of the heart, and specifically in the myocardium (the
middle and thickest layer of the heart wall); it is under control of the autonomic nervous
system.

Cardiac muscle is like skeletal muscle in that it is striated and multinucleate, and like smooth
muscle in that the nuclei are centrally located and many cells are required to span the length of
the muscle. It differs from both skeletal muscle and smooth muscle in that its cells branch and
are joined to one another via intercalated disks. Intercalated disks allow communication
between the cells such that there is a sequential contraction of the cells from the bottom of the
ventricle to the top. This makes possible the maximal ejection of blood from the ventricle during
contraction and occurs without nervous innervations to each cell or group of cells.

Cardiac muscle also differs from the other two muscle types in that contraction can occur even
without an initial nervous input. The cells that produce the stimulation for contraction without
nervous input are called the pacemaker cells.
 Heart muscle cells
Cardiac muscle is a type of involuntary striated muscle found in the walls and histological
foundation of the heart, specifically the myocardium. Cardiac muscle is one of three major
types of muscle, the others being skeletal and smooth muscle. The cells that comprise cardiac
muscle, called myocardiocyteal muscle cells, are mononuclear, like smooth muscle cells.

Coordinated contractions of cardiac muscle cells in the heart propel blood out of the atria and
ventricles to the blood vessels of the left/body/systemic and right/lungs/pulmonary
circulatory systems. This complex of actions makes up the systole of the heart.

Cardiac muscle cells, like all tissues in the body, rely on an ample blood supply to deliver
oxygen and nutrients and to remove waste products such as carbon dioxide. The coronary
arteries fulfill this function.
 Red blood cells
Red blood cells are the most common cell in blood. They carry oxygen around the body,
from the heart to the extremities. All of the bodies tissues are dependent upon oxygen
from red blood cells – if the flow is cut off, the tissue dies. The scientific name for a red
blood cell is “erythrocyte,” meaning “hollow red cell.”

Red blood cells get their red color from hemoglobin, which makes up about 97% of the
dry weight of red blood cells, and around 35% of the total weight, including water.
Hemoglobin is a metalloprotein, meaning it is a protein that includes iron as one of its
constituent atoms. In the context of oxygen distribution, hemoglobin contains multiple
chemical “slots” for storing oxygen. This oxygen is obtained from the heart, where red
blood cells are replenished with oxygen from the lungs.
 Nerve cells
All neurons have a cell body and one or more fibres. These fibres vary in length from
microscopic to over 1 metre. There are two different kinds of nerve fibres: fibres
that carry information towards the cell body, called dendrites, and fibres that carry
information away from it, called axons. Nerves are tight bundles of nerve fibres.
Your neurons can be divided into three types:
Sensory neurons, which pass information about stimuli such as light, heat or
chemicals from both inside and outside your body to your central nervous system
Motor neurons, which pass instructions from your central nervous system to other
parts of your body, such as muscles or glands
Association neurons, which connect your sensory and motor neurons
Electrical and chemical signals
Your neurons carry messages in the form of electrical signals called nerve impulses.
To create a nerve impulse, your neurons have to be excited. Stimuli such as light,
sound or pressure all excite your neurons, but in most cases, chemicals released by
other neurons will trigger a nerve impulse.
Although you have millions of neurons that are densely packed within your nervous
system, they never actually touch. So when a nerve impulse reaches the end of one
neuron, a neurotransmitter chemical is released. It diffuses from this neuron across
a junction and excites the next neuron.
Protecting cells
Over half of all the nerve cells in your nervous system do not transmit any impulses.
These supporting nerve cells are located between and around your neurons to
insulate, protect and nourish them.
 Epithelial cells

Epithelium is a tissue composed of cells that line the cavities and surfaces of structures
throughout the body. Many glands are also formed from epithelial tissue. It lies on top of
connective tissue, and the two layers are separated by a membrane. In humans,
epithelium is classified as a primary body tissue, the other ones being connective tissue,
muscle tissue and nervous tissue.

Functions of epithelial cells include secretion, selective absorption, protection,

transcellular transport and detection of sensation. As a result, they commonly present
extensive apical-basolateral polarity (e.g. different membrane proteins expressed) and
specialization.

Epithelial tissue can be structurally divided into two groups depending on the number of
layers of which it is composed. Epithelial tissue that is only one cell thick is known as simple
epithelium. If it is two or more cells thick, it is known as stratified epithelium.
However, when taller simple epithelial cells (see columnar, below) are viewed in cross
section with several nuclei appearing at different heights, they can be confused with
stratified epithelia. This kind of epithelium is therefore described as "pseudostratified"
epithelium.

Regardless of the type, any epithelium is separated from the underlying tissue by a thin
layer of connective tissue known as the basement membrane. The basement membrane
provides structural support for the epithelium and also binds it to neighboring
structures.

Simple epithelium

Simple epithelium is one cell thick; that is, every cell is in contact with the underlying
basement membrane. Simple epithelium can be subdivided further according to the
shape and function of its cells.

Type Description

Squamous cells have the appearance of thin, flat plates. They fit closely
together in tissues; providing a smooth, low-friction surface over which
fluids can move easily. The shape of the nucleus usually corresponds to
the cell form and helps to identify the type of epithelium. Squamous cells
tend to have horizontally flattened, elliptical (oval or shaped like an egg)
Squamous nuclei because of the thin flattened form of the cell. Classically,
squamous epithelia are found lining surfaces utilizing simple passive
diffusion such as the alveolar epithelium in the lungs. Specialized
squamous epithelia also form the lining of cavities such as the blood
vessels (endothelium) and pericardium (mesothelium) and the major
cavities found within the body.

As their name implies, cuboidal cells are roughly cuboidal in shape,

appearing square in cross section. Each cell has a spherical nucleus in
the centre. Cuboidal epithelium is commonly found in secretive or
Cuboidal absorptive tissue: for example the (secretive) exocrine gland the
pancreas and the (absorptive) lining of the kidney tubules as well as in
the ducts of the glands. They also constitute the germinal epithelium
that covers the female ovary.

Columnar epithelial cells are elongated and column-shaped. Their nuclei

are elongated and are usually located near the base of the cells.
Columnar epithelium forms the lining of the stomach and intestines.
Columnar Some columnar cells are specialized for sensory reception such as in the
nose, ears and the taste buds of the tongue. Goblet cells (unicellular
glands) are found between the columnar epithelial cells of the
duodenum. They secrete mucus, which acts as a lubricant.

Pseudo stratified These are simple columnar epithelial cells whose nuclei appear at
 different heights, giving the misleading (hence "pseudo") impression
that the epithelium is stratified when the cells are viewed in cross
section. Pseudostratified epithelium can also possess fine hair-like
extensions of their apical (luminal) membrane called cilia. In this case,
the epithelium is described as "ciliated" pseudostratified epithelium.
Cilia are capable of energy dependent pulsatile beating in a certain
direction through interaction of cytoskeletal microtubules and
connecting structural proteins and enzymes. The wafting effect
produced causes mucus secreted locally by the goblet cells (to lubricate
and to trap pathogens and particles) to flow in that direction (typically
out of the body). Ciliated epithelium is found in the airways (nose,
bronchi), but is also found in the uterus and Fallopian tubes of females,
where the cilia propel the ovum to the uterus.

Stratified epithelium

Stratified epithelium differs from simple epithelium in that it is multilayered. It is

therefore found where body linings have to withstand mechanical or chemical insult
such that layers can be abraded and lost without exposing subepithelial layers. Cells
flatten as the layers become more apical, though in their most basal layers the cells can
be squamous, cuboidal or columnar.

Stratified epithelia (of columnar, cuboidal or squamous type) can have the following
specializations:

Specialization Description

In this case, the most apical layers (exterior) of cells are dead and
lose their nucleus and cytoplasm, instead contain a tough, resistant
protein called keratin. This specialization makes the epithelium
Keratinized
waterproof, so is found in the mammalian skin. The lining of the
esophagus is an example of a non-keratinized or "moist" stratified
epithelium.

Transitional epithelium, like pseudostratified epithelium, is almost a

class of its own; it is found in tissues that stretch and it can appear to
be stratified cuboidal when the tissue is not stretched or stratified
Transitional
squamous when the organ is distended and the tissue stretches. It is
sometimes called the urothelium since it is almost exclusively found
in the bladder, ureters and urethral.