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In order to take maximum advantage of this property, material layers are usually
arranged in order of descending load bearing capacity with the highest load bearing
capacity material (and most expensive) on the top and the lowest load bearing
capacity material (and least expensive) on the bottom. This section describes the
typical flexible pavement structure consisting of:
• Surface course. This is the top layer and the layer that comes in contact with
traffic. It may be composed of one or several different HMA sublayers.
• Base course. This is the layer directly below the HMA layer and generally
consists of aggregate (either stabilized or unstabilized).
• Subbase course. This is the layer (or layers) under the base layer. A subbase
is not always needed.
After describing these basic elements, this section then discusses subsurface drainage
and perpetual pavements.
A typical flexible pavement structure (see Figure 2.3) consists of the surface course
and the underlying base and subbase courses. Each of these layers contributes to
structural support and drainage. The surface course (typically an HMA layer) is the
stiffest (as measured by resilient modulus) and contributes the most to pavement
strength. The underlying layers are less stiff but are still important to pavement
strength as well as drainage and frost protection. A typical structural design results in
a series of layers that gradually decrease in material quality with depth.
As seen in Figure 2.4, a flexible pavement structure can vary greatly in thickness. The
signs on top of the pictured cores indicate the State Route (SR) and the Mile Post
(MP) where the core was taken. The scale at the right edge of the photo is in inches.
Figure 2.4: Various Flexible Pavement Cores from Washington State
The surface course is the layer in contact with traffic loads and normally contains the
highest quality materials. It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness,
noise control, rut and shoving resistance and drainage. In addition, it serves to
prevent the entrance of excessive quantities of surface water into the underlying base,
subbase and subgrade (NAPA, 2001). This top structural layer of material is
sometimes subdivided into two layers (NAPA, 2001):
1. Wearing Course. This is the layer in direct contact with traffic loads. It is
meant to take the brunt of traffic wear and can be removed and replaced as it
becomes worn. A properly designed (and funded) preservation program
should be able to identify pavement surface distress while it is still confined to
the wearing course. This way, the wearing course can be rehabilitated before
distress propagates into the underlying intermediate/binder course.
2. Intermediate/Binder Course. This layer provides the bulk of the HMA
structure. It's chief purpose is to distribute load.
The base course is immediately beneath the surface course. It provides additional
load distribution and contributes to drainage and frost resistance. Base courses are
usually constructed out of:
1. Aggregate. Base courses are most typically constructed from durable
aggregates (see Figure 2.5) that will not be damaged by moisture or frost
action. Aggregates can be either stabilized or unstabilized.
2. HMA. In certain situations where high base stiffness is desired, base courses
can be constructed using a variety of HMA mixes. In relation to surface
course HMA mixes, base course mixes usually contain larger maximum
aggregate sizes, are more open graded and are subject to more lenient
specifications.
The subbase course is between the base course and the subgrade. It functions
primarily as structural support but it can also:
1. Minimize the intrusion of fines from the subgrade into the pavement structure.
2. Improve drainage.
3. Minimize frost action damage.
4. Provide a working platform for construction.
The subbase generally consists of lower quality materials than the base course but
better than the subgrade soils. A subbase course is not always needed or used. For
example, a pavement constructed over a high quality, stiff subgrade may not need the
additional features offered by a subbase course so it may be omitted from design.
However, a pavement constructed over a low quality soil such as a swelling clay may
require the additional load distribution characteristic that a subbase course can offer.
In this scenario the subbase course may consist of high quality fill used to replace
poor quality subgrade (over excavation).
2.2 Perpetual Pavements
"Perpetual Pavement" is a term used to describe a long-lasting structural design, construction and
maintenance concept. A perpetual pavement can last 50 years or more if properly maintained and
rehabilitated. As Michael Nunn pointed out in 1998, flexible pavements over a minimum strength are
not likely to exhibit structural damage even when subjected to very high traffic flows over long periods
of time. He noted that existing pavements over about 370 mm (14.5 inches) should be able to
withstand an almost infinite number of axle loads without structural deterioration due to either fatigue
cracking or rutting of the subgrade. Deterioration in these thick, strong pavements was observed to
initiate in the pavement surface as either top-down cracking or rutting. Further, Uhlmeyer et al. (2000)
found that most HMA pavements thicker than about 160 mm (6.3 inches) exhibit only surface-initiated
top-down cracking. Therefore, if surface-initiated cracking and rutting can be accounted for before
they impact the structural integrity of the pavement, the pavement life could be greatly increased.
Researchers have used this idea as well as pavement materials research to develop a
basic perpetual pavement structural concept. This concept uses a thick asphalt over a
strong foundation design with three HMA layers, each one tailored to resist specific
stresses (TRB, 2001):
1. HMA base layer. This is the bottom layer designed specifically to resist
fatigue cracking. Two approaches can be used to resist fatigue cracking in the
base layer. First, the total pavement thickness can be made great enough such
that the tensile strain at the bottom of the base layer is insignificant.
Alternatively, the HMA base layer could be made using an extra-flexible
HMA. This can be most easily accomplished by increasing the asphalt
content. Combinations of the previous two approaches also work.
2. Intermediate layer. This is the middle layer designed specifically to carry
most of the traffic load. Therefore it must be stable (able to resist rutting) as
well as durable. Stability can best be provided by using stone-on-stone
contact in the coarse aggregate and using a binder with the appropriate high-
temperature grading.
3. Wearing surface. This is the top layer designed specifically to resist surface-
initiated distresses such as top-down cracking and rutting. Other specific
distresses of concern would depend upon local experience.
In order to work, the above pavement structure must be built on a solid foundation.
Nunn (1998) notes that rutting on roads built on subgrade with a CBR greater than 5
percent originates almost solely in the HMA layers, which suggests that a subgrade
with a CBR greater than 5 percent (resilient modulus greater than about 7,000 psi (50
MPa)) should be considered adequate. As always, proper construction techniques are
essential to a perpetual pavement's performance. Figure 2.6 shows an example cross-
section of a perpetual pavement design to be used in California on I-710 (the Long
Beach Freeway) in Los Angeles County.
Figure 2.6: Example I-710 Long Beach Freeway Perpetual Pavement Design
(from Monismith and Long, 1999)
Finally, the most important point in this brief perpetual pavement discussion is that it
is possible to design and build HMA pavements with extremely long design lives. In
fact, some HMA pavements in service today are living examples of perpetual
pavements. For instance, two sections of Interstate 40 in downtown Oklahoma City
are now more than 33 years old (built in 1967) and are still in excellent condition.
These sections, which support 3 to 3.5 million ESALs per year, have been overlaid
but the base and intermediate courses have lasted since construction without any
additional work (APA, no date given).
This section is taken largely from the NAPA's HMA Pavement Mix Type Selection
Guide (2001). In addition to the general information presented here, the HMA
Pavement Mix Type Selection Guide provides specific information on minimum lift
thicknesses, mix selection criteria, mix materials as well as several informative
examples.
A dense-graded mix is a well-graded HMA mixture intended for general use. When
properly designed and constructed, a dense-graded mix is relatively impermeable.
Dense-graded mixes are generally referred to by their nominal maximum aggregate
size. They can further be classified as either fine-graded or coarse-graded. Fine-
graded mixes have more fine and sand sized particles than coarse-graded mixes (see
Table 2.1 for definitions of fine- and coarse-graded mixes).
Purpose: Dense-graded mixes are suitable for all pavement layers and for all
traffic conditions. They work well for structural, friction, leveling
and patching needs.
Table 2.1: Fine- and Course-Graded Definitions for Dense-Graded HMA (from
NAPA, 2001)
25.0 mm (1.0 inch) < 40 % passing the 4.75 mm (No. 4 Sieve) > 40 % passing the 4.75 mm (No. 4 Sieve)
19.0 mm (0.75 inches) < 35 % passing the 2.36 mm (No. 8 Sieve) > 35 % passing the 2.36 mm (No. 8 Sieve)
12.5 mm (0.5 inches) < 40 % passing the 2.36 mm (No. 8 Sieve) > 40 % passing the 2.36 mm (No. 8 Sieve)
9.5 mm (0.375 inches) < 45 % passing the 2.36 mm (No. 8 Sieve) > 45 % passing the 2.36 mm (No. 8 Sieve)
Stone matrix asphalt (SMA) is a gap-graded HMA (see Figure 2.7) that is designed to
maximize deformation (rutting) resistance and durability by using a structural basis of
stone-on-stone contact (see Figures 2.8, through 2.12). Because the aggregates are all
in contact, rut resistance relies on aggregate properties rather than asphalt binder
properties. Since aggregates do not deform as much as asphalt binder under load, this
stone-on-stone contact greatly reduces rutting. SMA is generally more expensive than
a typical dense-graded HMA (about 20 - 25 percent) because it requires more durable
aggregates, higher asphalt content and, typically, a modified asphalt binder and
fibers. In the right situations it should be cost-effective because of its increased rut
resistance and improved durability. SMA, originally developed in Europe to resist
rutting and studded tire wear, has been used in the U.S. since about 1990 (NAPA,
1999).
Purpose: Improved rut resistance and durability. Therefore, SMA is almost
exclusively used for surface courses on high volume interstates and
U.S. roads.
Other Because SMA mixes have a high asphalt binder content (on the order
Info: of 6 percent), as the mix sits in the HMA storage silos, transport
trucks, and after it is placed, the asphalt binder has a tendency to
drain off the aggregate and down to the bottom - a phenomenon
known as "mix draindown". Mix draindown is usually combated by
adding cellulose or mineral fibers to keep the asphalt binder in place.
Cellulose fibers are typically shredded newspapers and magazines,
while mineral fibers are spun from molten rock. A laboratory test is
run during mix design to ensure the mix is not subject to excessive
draindown.
Figure 2.11: Dense-Graded HMA (left) Figure 2.12: SMA Pavement Surface
vs. SMA (right). Notice the SMA has a
better-defined large aggregate skeleton
(from NAPA, 2001)
Purpose: OGFC and PEM - Used as for surface courses only. They reduce tire
splash/spray in wet weather and typically result in smoother surfaces
than dense-graded HMA. Their high air voids trap road noise and
thus reduce tire-road noise by up to 50-percent (10 dBA) (NAPA,
1995).
Other Both OGFC and PEM are more expensive per ton than dense-graded
Info: HMA, but the unit weight of the mix when in-place is lower, which
partially offsets the higher per-ton cost. The open gradation creates
pores in the mix, which are essential to the mix's proper function.
Therefore anything that tends to clog these pores, such as low-speed
traffic, excessive dirt on the roadway or deicing sand, should be
avoided.
Figure 2.13: Core from a Pavement Using Figure 2.14: Asphalt Treated Permeable Base
PEM as the Wearing Course (from NAPA,
2001)
Based on the previous information, there are some general rules for HMA mix type
use, which are summarized in Table 2.2. Notice that, as discussed, dense-graded
HMA is generally appropriate for all uses, SMA and OGFC (and PEM) are typically
used as surface courses on high volume roads and ATPB is usually used for base
courses on high volume roads. Keep in mind that Table 2.2 is just a summary of
general guidance and that there are, as always, case specific exceptions.
Table 2.2: General Appropriateness of Mix Types For Each HMA Layer (NAPA,
2001)
Surface
Intermediat
e
Base
Note: Before deciding to use ATPB, the
= Appropriate Pavement Research Center's research
results should be carefully considered.
= Moderately
Appropriate
= Not
empty
Appropriate
Most of this process is taken directly from the NAPA HMA Pavement Mix Type
Selection Guide (2001).
Hot recycling is so named because RAP is used as an aggregate in HMA (hot mix
asphalt). In hot recycling, old HMA pavement is removed, broken down into
aggregate-sized chunks (see Figure 2.16) and then incorporated into new HMA as an
aggregate. There are two basic methods for accomplishing this: conventional
recycled hot mix (RHM) and hot in-place recycling.
Recycled hot mix (RHM) is the most common way of using RAP. Basically, new
HMA is produced at a batch or drum plant to which a predetermined percentage of
RAP is added. RAP addition is typically 10 to 30 percent by weight although
additions as high as 80 percent by weight have been done and additions as high as 90
to 100 percent by weight are feasible (FHWA, 2001c). There is ample evidence that
HMA which incorporates RAP performs as well as HMA without RAP. Figure 2.17
shows two dense-graded HMA cores, one with RAP and one without.
Other Info: When heated, RAP may give off gaseous hydrocarbons. To
minimize these emissions, HMA plants generally heat RAP
indirectly (usually it is added after the aggregate is heated
and thus heats up through contact with the already-hot
aggregate).
Table 2.3: Superpave Asphalt Binder Selection Guidelines for RAP Mixtures (from
AASHTO, 2001)
Hot in-place recycling (HIPR) is a less common form of hot asphalt recycling. There
are three basic HIPR construction processes in use, all of which involve a specialized
plant in a continuous train operation (FHWA, 2001c):
• Heater scarification (Figure 2.18). This method uses a plant that heats the
pavement surface (typically using propane radiant heaters), scarifies the
pavement surface using a bank of nonrotating teeth, adds a rejuvenating agent
to improve the recycled asphalt binder viscosity, then mixes and levels the
recycled mix using a standard auger system. The recycled asphalt pavement is
then compacted using conventional compaction equipment. Heater
scarification is limited in its ability to repair severely rutted pavements, which
are more easily rehabilitated with a conventional HMA overlay.
Figure 2.18: Heater Scarification Train Showing 2 Preheaters, the Heater/Scarifier,
the Paver and Rollers.
Mix Design: Not well-defined, but as a minimum cores are usually taken
from the existing pavement to determine the proper amount
of rejuvenating agent to add.
Other Info: HIPR is only applicable to specific situations. First, air void
content of the existing asphalt binder must be high enough to
accept the necessary amount of asphalt binder rejuvenator.
Second, HIPR can only adequately address shallow surface
distress problems (less than 50 mm (2 inches)). Third,
pavements with delaminations (subsequent layers not
binding together) in the top 50 mm (2 inches) should not be
considered for HIPR projects. Finally, pavements that have
been rutted, heavily patched, or chip-sealed are not good
candidates for HIPR projects (FHWA, 2001c).
Cold recycling is so named because RAP is used as an aggregate in cold mix asphalt.
In cold recycling, old HMA pavement is removed, broken down into aggregate-sized
chunks and then combined with an emulsified or foamed asphalt. This mix is then
typically used as a stabilized base course for reconstructed pavements. There are two
basic cold recycling methods: cold plant mix recycling and cold in-place recycling
(CIR).
Cold plant mix recycling, the less common of the two cold recycling methods,
involves mixing RAP with an asphalt emulsion or foamed asphalt at a central or
mobile plant facility. A rejuvenating agent can be added to improve the recycled
asphalt binder viscosity and new aggregate can also be added to improve overall
performance. The resulting cold mix is then typically used as a stabilized base
course.
Mix Design: No generally accepted mix design method, but the Asphalt
Institute recommends and most agencies use a variation of
the Marshall mix design method (FHWA, 2001b).
Cold in-place recycling (CIR) is the processing and treatment with bituminous and/or
chemical additives of existing HMA pavements without heating to produce a restored
pavement layer (AASHTO, 1998). It involves the same process of cold plant mix
recycling except that it is done in-place by a train of equipment. The typical CIR
process involves seven basic steps (AASHTO, 1998):
Mix Design: No generally accepted mix design method, but most methods
are based on the Marshall or Hveem methods and equipment
(AASHTO, 1996).
Other Info: CIR is best suited for cracked pavements with structurally
sound, well drained bases and subgrades. CIR is generally
not appropriate for repairing pavement failures caused by:
Mix Design: No generally accepted mix design method, but the Asphalt
Institute recommends and most agencies use a variation of
the Marshall mix design method (FHWA, 2001b).
Other Info: FDR is generally suitable for lower volume roads that may
only require a simple surface treatment over the resulting
stabilized base course, or at most a thin HMA wearing
course. However, FDR has been used on major highways
including interstates (Better Roads, 2001).
This section describes the typical rigid pavement structure consisting of:
• Surface course. This is the top layer, which consists of the PCC slab.
• Base course. This is the layer directly below the PCC layer and generally
consists of aggregate or stabilized subgrade.
• Subbase course. This is the layer (or layers) under the base layer. A subbase
is not always needed and therefore may often be omitted.
A typical rigid pavement structure (see Figure 2.20) consists of the surface course and
the underlying base and subbase courses (if used). The surface course (made of PCC)
is the stiffest (as measured by resilient modulus) and provides the majority of
strength. The underlying layers are orders of magnitude less stiff but still make
important contributions to pavement strength as well as drainage and frost protection.
The surface course is the layer in contact with traffic loads and is made of PCC. It
provides characteristics such as friction (see Figure 2.21), smoothness, noise control
and drainage. In addition, it serves as a waterproofing layer to the underlying base,
subbase and subgrade. The surface course can vary in thickness but is usually
between 150 mm (6 inches) (for light loading) and 300 mm (12 inches) (for heavy
loads and high traffic). Figure 2.22 shows a 300 mm (12 inch) surface course.
1. Minimize the intrusion of fines from the subgrade into the pavement structure.
2. Improve drainage.
3. Minimize frost action damage.
4. Provide a working platform for construction.
The subbase generally consists of lower quality materials than the base course but
better than the subgrade soils. Appropriate materials are aggregate and high quality
structural fill. A subbase course is not always needed or used.
5.2 Joints
Joints are purposefully placed discontinuities in a rigid pavement surface course. The
most common types of pavement joints, defined by their function, are (AASHTO,
1993): contraction, expansion, isolation and construction.
A contraction joint is a sawed, formed, or tooled groove in a concrete slab that creates
a weakened vertical plane. It regulates the location of the cracking caused by
dimensional changes in the slab. Unregulated cracks can grow and result in an
unacceptably rough surface as well as water infiltration into the base, subbase and
subgrade, which can enable other types of pavement distress. Contraction joints are
the most common type of joint in concrete pavements, thus the generic term "joint"
generally refers to a contraction joint.
Contraction joints are chiefly defined by their spacing and their method of load
transfer. They are generally between 1/4 - 1/3 the depth of the slab and typically
spaced every 3.1 - 15 m (12 - 50 ft.) with thinner slabs having shorter spacing (see
Figure 2.25). Some states use a semi-random joint spacing pattern to minimize their
resonant effect on vehicles. These patterns typically use a repeating sequence of joint
spacing (for example: 2.7 m (9 ft.) then 3.0 m (10 ft.) then 4.3 m (14 ft.) then 4.0 m
(13 ft.)). Transverse contraction joints can be cut at right angles to the direction of
traffic flow or at an angle (called a "skewed joint", see Figure 2.27). Skewed joints
are cut at obtuse angles to the direction of traffic flow to help with load transfer. If
the joint is properly skewed, the left wheel of each axle will cross onto the leave slab
first and only one wheel will cross the joint at a time, which results in lower load
transfer stresses (see Figure 2.28).
Figure 2.25: Rigid Pavement Showing Figure 2.26: Missing Contraction Joint
Contraction Joints (The middle lane contraction joint was
not sawed resulting in a transverse slab
crack. The outer lanes have proper
contraction joints and therefore, no
cracking)
An isolation joint (see Figure 2.29) is used to lessen compressive stresses that
develop at T- and unsymmetrical intersections, ramps, bridges, building
foundations, drainage inlets, manholes, and anywhere differential movement
between the pavement and a structure (or another existing pavement) may take
place (ACPA, 2001). They are typically filled with a joint filler material to prevent
water and dirt infiltration.
Figure 2.29: Roofing Paper Used for an Isolation Joint
A construction joint (see Figure 2.30) is a joint between slabs that results when
concrete is placed at different times. This type of joint can be further broken down
into transverse and longitudinal construction joints (see Figure 2.31). Longitudinal
construction joints also allow slab warping without appreciable separation or cracking
of the slabs.
"Load transfer" is a term used to describe the transfer (or distribution) load across
discontinuities such as joints or cracks (AASHTO, 1993). When a wheel load is
applied at a joint or crack, both the loaded slab and adjacent unloaded slab deflect.
The amount the unloaded slab deflects is directly related to joint performance. If a
joint is performing perfectly, both the loaded and unloaded slabs deflect equally.
Load transfer efficiency is defined by the following equation:
where ∆ =
approach slab deflection
: a
∆ =
leave slab deflection
l
This efficiency depends on several factors, including temperature (which affects joint
opening), joint spacing, number and magnitude of load applications, foundation
support, aggregate particle angularity, and the presence of mechanical load transfer
devices. Figure 2.32 illustrates the extremes in load transfer
efficiency. Most performance problems with concrete pavement are a result of
poorly performing joints (ACPA, 2001). Poor load transfer creates high slab
stresses, which contribute heavily to distresses such as faulting, pumping and
corner breaks. Thus, adequate load transfer is vital to rigid pavement
performance. Load transfer across transverse joints/cracks is generally
accomplished using one of three basic methods: aggregate interlock, dowel bars,
and reinforcing steel.
Figure 2.32: Load Transfer Efficiency Across a PCC Surface Course Joint
Aggregate interlock is the mechanical locking which forms between the fractured
surfaces along the crack below the joint saw cut (see Figure 2.33) (ACPA, 2001).
Some low-volume and secondary road systems rely entirely on aggregate
interlock to provide load transfer although it is generally not adequate to provide
long-term load transfer for high traffic (and especially truck) volumes. Generally,
aggregate interlock is ineffective in cracks wider than about 0.9 mm (0.035
inches) (FHWA, 1990). Often, dowel bars are used to provide the majority of
load transfer.
Figure 2.33: Aggregate Interlock
Dowel bars are short steel bars Figure 2.34: Typical Dowel Bar Location
that provide a mechanical connection
between slabs without restricting
horizontal joint movement. They on Transverse Joints
increase load transfer efficiency by
allowing the leave slab to assume
some of the load before the load is
actually over it. This reduces joint deflection and stress in the approach and
leave slabs.
Reinforcing steel can also be used to provide load transfer. When reinforcing steel is
used, transverse contraction joints are often omitted (as in CRCP). Therefore, since
there are no joints, the PCC cracks on its own and the reinforcing steel provides load
transfer across these cracks. Unlike dowel bars, reinforcing steel is bonded to the
PCC on either side of the crack in order to hold the crack tightly together.
Tie bars are either deformed steel bars or connectors used to hold the faces of abutting
slabs in contact (AASHTO, 1993). Although they may provide some minimal
amount of load transfer, they are not designed to act as load transfer devices and
should not be used as such (AASHTO, 1993). Tie bars are typically used at
longitudinal joints (see Figure 2.37) or between an edge joint and a curb or shoulder.
Typically, tie bars are about 12.5 mm (0.5 inches) in diameter and between 0.6 and
1.0 m (24 and 40 inches long).
Figure 2.37: Tie Bars Along a Longitudinal Joint