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NANOTECHNOLOGY IN TISSUE ENGINEERING

Mr.Nagarajan, V.Amutha

Nanotechnology is an emerging field that could potentially make a major impact


to human health. Nanomaterials promise to revolutionize medicine and are increasingly
used in drug delivery or tissue engineering applications. The tissue engineered products
that are on the market are all relatively simple. Using Nano technology, more complex
products could be developed. Nanotechnology is being used to alter the surface structure
of both tissue engineering scaffolds and implants, primarily to improve cell adhesion.
Nanostructuring can be carried out, for example, by using a scanning probe microscope
(SPM) to ‘scratch’ the material surface. The alternative to altering the actual surface
structure is creating and structuring particular surface coatings on implants. This can be
done to improve their biocompatibility or to improve the interaction between the implant
and surrounding tissues. It may be possible to extend the lifetime of an implant, and make
it more comfortable for the individual.

NANOSTRUCTURING / NANOCOATING :

Biomimicry, or biomimetics, is the process of utilising the way nature


successfully produces something to create a manmade material. For example,
nanopatterned polymer scaffolds, mimicking the natural way minerals are arranged, are
being used to make teeth and bone implants.
Nanopatterning involves depositing molecules on a surface. Various techniques
can be used - e.g. nanolithography where a beam can be used to deposit ions, or
microcontact printing, where ‘ink’ is transferred onto a surface using a mould – to alter
the scaffold surface . Nanopatterning can also be used to place cells in particular
locations on the scaffold. In doing so, this could create channels to help nutrient exchange
within the new tissue.
One of the main properties required of a scaffold is a large surface area. . By
altering the scaffold surface on a nanoscale level (i.e. by making nanoscale grooves), the
surface area can be vastly increased. Cell adhesion is then increased, leading to a greater
amount of growth. Similarly, cell attachment is important in order to create a better bond
between an implant and the surrounding tissue. The direction of cell growth can also be
affected by nanostructuring, which can aid cell migration. It was shown that
nanostructuring the metal surfaces of implants allows better cell attachment - greater than
90% attachment, compared to approximately 50% on regular surfaces. Typically, metal
implants have relatively smooth surfaces, unlike the natural bone surface, and often the
body reacts to the implants adversely, impeding their function. The surface of bone tissue
is naturally uneven, with bumps approximately 100nm wide – when this was copied on to
metal surfaces, not only did cell attachment improve, but bone regrowth was also
stimulated. The results so far are from experiments conducted in Petri dishes – the group
are continuing trials.

Nanotechnology, researchers have developed self-assembling nanotubes as a


nanopatterned coating for titanium implants. DNA chemistry is used to form rosette-
shaped rings, which then combine to form tubes only 3.5 nanometres wide. When
titanium was coated with the nanotubes, similar results were seen as with nanostructuring
the metal surface - cell adhesion was increased by approximately onethird. Further
research has also shown that by aligning the nanotubes in the same direction, cell
adhesion can again be doubled (compared with non-aligned nanotubes), so that 80% of
cells are adhered. A team at the Center of Advanced European Studies and Research in
Bonn, Germany, have used multiwalled carbon nanotubes to create ‘honeycomb-like
matrices’ which could be used as tissue engineering scaffolds. Initial results using mouse
cells to seed the scaffold have been promising, with no cytotoxic side effects seen. The
advantage of using nanotubes over other methods is that signalling molecules or amino
acids sequences can be attached to the nanotubes. By using sequences specific to a
certain tissue type, depending on the implant/scaffold location, cell attachment could be
increased even further. Either using nanotubes alone, or by combining them with typical
scaffold materials could result in improved, more biocompatible scaffolds in the future.
Hydroxyapatite (HA) is used as a scaffold material, but can also be utilized as a thin
coating on metal alloy implants, to mimic natural tissue and promote bonding with the
surrounding tissue Nanostructured HA has been found to give better results than
standard HA coatings, and several companies and research groups are now using this
form.
As ceramics, rather than metals, are often used in some implants due to their
greater resistance to wear, nanocomposite ceramics are being investigated, The material
developed is composed of zirconia nanoparticles and alumina, and has, on a laboratory
scale, been found to give greater resistance to cracking than either material did alone.
Initial results from the project are promising, though various aspects of the production
process still need refining. The technique could be used to produce ceramic implants that
last more than 30 years. Silicon is another material used for both scaffolds and implants.
UK company pSiMedica has developed BioSilicon, a nanostructured porous silicon.
BioSilicon is both biocompatible and biodegradable, which are particularly desirable
qualities for scaffold materials. Research is being done by pSiMedica into creating forms
of BioSilicon with optimised surface structures for use as a scaffold. BioSilicon could
also be used for implants as it has a high tensile strength, and the company claims that the
degradation product (silicic acid) has a role in encouraging bone growth.

TITANIUM COATING WITH PROTEIN NANOCLUSTERS STRENGTHENS


IMPLANT ATTACHMENT

Researchers have developed an improved coating technique that could strengthen


the connection between titanium joint-replacement implants and a patient’s own bone.
The stronger connection -- created by manipulating signals the body's own cells use to
encourage growth -- could allow the implants to last longer.

Implants coated with "flower bouquet" clusters of an engineered protein that


mimics the body's own cell-adhesion material fibronectin made 50 percent more contact
with the surrounding bone than implants coated with protein pairs or individual strands.
The cluster-coated implants were fixed in place more than twice as securely as plugs
made from bare titanium -- which is how joints are currently attached.

Researchers believe the biologically-inspired material improves bone growth


around the implant and strengthens the attachment and integration of the implant to the
bone. This work also shows for the first time that biomaterials presenting biological
sequences clustered together at the nanoscale enhance cell adhesion signals. These
enhanced signals result in higher levels of bone cell differentiation in human stem cells
and promote better integration of biomaterial implants into bone.

By clustering the engineered fibronectin pieces together, we were able to create


an amplified signal for attracting integrins, receptors that attached to the fibronectin and
directed and enhanced bone formation around the implant.

Total knee and hip replacements typically last about 15 years until the
components wear down or loosen. For many younger patients, this means a second
surgery to replace the first artificial joint. With approximately 40 percent of the 712,000
total hip and knee replacements in the United States in 2004 performed on younger
patients 45-64 years old, improving the lifetime of the titanium joints and creating a
better connection with the bone becomes extremely important.

Researchers coated clinical-grade titanium with a high density of polymer strands -- akin
to the bristles on a toothbrush. And modified the polymer to create three or five self-
assembled tethered clusters of the engineered fibronectin, which contained the arginine-
glycine-aspartic acid (RGD) sequence to which integrins binds.

To evaluate the in vivo performance of the coated titanium in bone healing, the
researchers drilled two-millimeter circular holes into a rat's tibia bone and pressed tiny
clinical-grade titanium cylinders into the holes. The research team tested coatings that
included individual strands, pairs, three-strand clusters and five-strand clusters of the
engineered fibronectin protein.

To investigate the function of these surfaces in promoting bone growth, we


quantified osseointegration, or the growth of bone around the implant and strength of the
attachment of the implant to the bone.

Analysis of the bone-implant interface four weeks later revealed a 50 percent


enhancement in the amount of contact between the bone and implants coated with three-
or five-strand tethered clusters compared to implants coated with single strands. The
experiments also revealed a 75 percent increase in the contact of the three- and five-
strand clusters compared to the current clinical standard for replacement-joint implants,
which is uncoated titanium.

The researchers also tested the fixation of the implants by measuring the amount
of force required to pull the implants out of the bone. Implants coated with three- and
five-strand tethered clusters of the engineered fibronectin fragment displayed 250 percent
higher mechanical fixation over the individual strand and pairs coatings and a 400
percent improvement compared to the unmodified polymer coating. The three- and five-
cluster coatings also exhibited a twofold enhancement in pullout strength compared to
uncoated titanium.

TITANIZED SYNTHETICS
Using nanotechnology, we shall develop synthetic materials with a titanium
coating for implants. While titanium has excellent biocompatibility, and is often used for
orthopaedic implants, its use was otherwise limited by its rigidity. Titanized synthetics
have a layer of titanium only 30nm thick – making it not only biocompatible, but also
flexible. The titanium and synthetic material are covalently bonded, so are difficult to
separate, and therefore problems such as tearing or the material degrading are not seen,
which would mean less risk of repeat surgeries being required. The first product to be
made of titanized synthetics was a mesh implant for use in hernia surgery, called
TiMESH Use of TiMESH reduces scarring and post-operative pain, in comparison with
regular plastic meshes, due to the biocompatibility of titanium. Between 2002 and early
2004 more than 70,000 European patients received the TiMESH implant . The product
has also been approved for use in Australia, America, and Canada, with the first
American patients receiving the implant at the beginning of 2004. The company has also
developed titanized suture material (TiGOOD), and breast implants with a titanized
silicone shell (TiBREEZE). Both products have been approved for use in Europe. The
technology could potentially be used in conjunction with other metals and synthetic
material.
ENGINEERED HUMAN CORNEAS
The ‘Cornea Engineering’ project has brought the aim of reconstructing a human
cornea in vitro. Using nanotechnology, the group aims to use recombinant human ECM
to construct a scaffold for the growth of corneal cell types. The project has several aims,
including developing a hemi-cornea (for use in grafting and an alternative to animal
testing), and a complete cornea. This could potentially overcome the shortage of corneas
available for transplant (due to lack of donors and corrective laser surgery making
corneas unusable), and also the risks of transmitting disease from donor to recipient. It
would also cut the number of animals used in testing the toxicity of chemicals in the eye.
The group plan on using human stem cells from the patient. In order to successfully
create a complete cornea however, the group have still to find a stem cell that can be used
for the endothelial cells of the cornea.

NANOTECHNOLOGY FOR DRUG DELIVERY


Controlled drug-delivery strategies have made a dramatic impact in medicine. In
general, controlled-release polymer systems deliver drugs in the optimum dosage for long
periods, thus increasing the efficacy of the drug, maximizing patient compliance and
enhancing the ability to use highly toxic, poorly soluble or relatively unstable drugs.
Nanoscale materials can be used as drug delivery vehicles to develop highly selective and
effective therapeutic and diagnostic modalities. There are a number of advantages with
nanoparticles in comparison to microparticles. For example, nanoscale particles can
travel through the blood stream without sedimentation or blockage of the icrovasculature.
Small nanoparticles can circulate in the body and penetrate tissues such as tumors. In
addition, nanoparticles can be taken up by the cells through natural means such as
endocytosis. Nanoparticles have already been used to deliver drugs to target sites for
cancer therapeutics or deliver imaging agents for cancer diagnostics. These vehicles can
be engineered to recognize biophysical characteristics that are unique to the target cells
and therefore minimize drug loss and toxicity associated with delivery to non-desired
tissues. In general, targeted nanoparticles comprise the drug, the encapsulating material
and the surface coating. The encapsulating material could be made from biodegradable
polymers, dendrimers (treelike acromolecules with branching tendrils that reach out from
a central core) or liposomes (spherical lipid bilayers). Controlled release of drugs (such as
small molecules, DNA, RNA or proteins) from the encapsulating material is achieved by
the release of capsulated drugs through surface or bulk erosion, diffusion, or triggered by
the external environment, such as changes in pH, light, temperature or by the presence of
analytes such as glucose. Controlled-release biodegradable nanoparticles can be made
from a wide variety of polymers including poly (lactic acid) (PLA), poly (glycolic acid)
(PGA), poly (lactic co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) and polyanhydride. PGA, PLA and their
co-polymer PLGA are common biocompatible polymers that are used for making
nanoparticles. Since PGA is more susceptible to hydrolysis than PLA, by changing the
ratio of these two components, PLGA polymers can be synthesized with various
degradation rates. Current research into novel nano materials is aimed at improving the
properties of the materials such as biocompabitility, degradation rate and control over the
size and homogeneity of the resulting nano particles. In order to control the targeted drug
delivery of intravenously delivered nanoparticles, nanoparticle interactions with other
cells, such as macrophages must be controlled. Various approaches have been developed
to control these interactions, ranging from changing the size of the particle to changing
nanoparticle surface properties.
To remove nonspecific protein adhesion and decrease uptake by macrophages,
nanoparticles can be functionalized using protein replant materials, such as poly (ethylene
glycol) (PEG) and polysaccharides. Nonadhesive surface coatings increase the circulation
time of the nanoparticles and reduce toxic effects associated with non-targeted delivery .
More recently, novel approaches aimed at conjugating small molecules

■ Figure 1. Schematic diagram of examples of bottom-up (a) and topdown (b)


nanotechnology approaches for controlled drug delivery: (a) shows an illustration of
a controlled-release nanoparticle cut in half. The nanoparticle may contain drugs
and will be coated with PEG molecules and targeting molecules to regulate its
interactions with the surroundings inside the body; (b) shows a microfabricated
drugdelivery device containing reservoirs that contain drugs. As the cap for each
reservoir is removed, the drug will be released.

on nanoparticles using high-throughput methods have yielded nanoparticle libraries that


could be subsequently analyzed for their targeted properties. Also, noncovalent
approaches have been used to surface modify nanoparticles. For example, the layer-by-
layer deposition of ionic polymers have been used to change surface properties of
nanoparticles, such as quantum dots . Layer-by-layer methods alter the surface charge of
nanoparticles, which has been shown to regulate nanoparticle biodistribution. For
example, increasing the charge of cationic pegylated liposomes decreases their
accumulation in the spleen and blood, while increasing their uptake by the liver and
tumor vessels. To eliminate the need for surface modification schemes, amphiphilic
polymers may be synthesized by covalently linking biodegradable polymers to PEG prior
to formation of nanoparticles. For example, nanoparticles can be synthesized from
amphiphilic copolymers composed of lipophilic (i.e., PLGA or PLA) and hydrophilic
(i.e., PEG) polymers. Upon formation of these nanoparticles, PEG migrates to the surface
in the presence of an aqueous solution forming pegylated nanoparticles. To target
nanoparticles to the desired tissues, a number of methods have been developed. These
include physical means such as controlling the size, charge and hydrophobicity of the
particles. In addition, targeting molecules, such as antibodies and peptides, that recognize
specific cell surface proteins and receptors, can be conjugated to the nanoparticle surface
to specifically target specific cell types.
Antibodies and peptides have been successfully used to target nanoparticles to a
number of desired cell types and provide powerful means of directing controlled-release
nanoparticles to specific sites in the body. Potential disadvantages of antibody- and PEG
peptide-based targeting include their batch-to-batch variation and their potential
immunogenecity. Aptamers, a class of DNA- or RNA-based ligands, may overcome
some of the limitations associated with antibody- and peptide-based drug delivery.
Aptamers have been conjugated to nanoparticles to generate nanoparticles that can target
prostate cancer cells. Current research in targeting the delivery of nanoparticles involves
validating the in vivo efficacy of the various targeting approaches and developing
methods of enhancing the targeting of the particles without side effects.
Future generations of nanoparticles promise to not only deliver drugs to the
desired sites within the body, but to do so in a temporally regulated manner. For example,
nanoparticles have recently been generated that can be used to sequentially deliver drugs
to cancer cells so that each drug is delivered at the proper time to induce cell death as
well as to prevent angiogenesis. It is envisioned that the development of “smart”
nanoparticles could be a powerful means of further enhancing the functionality of these
nanoparticles. In addition to polymeric nanoparticles, other types of nanomaterials have
also been used for medical applications. For example, quantum dots, nanoparticles with
novel electroluminescent properties and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast
agents have been used to image cancer cells. Also, carbon nanotubes, nanowires and
nanoshells have also been used for various therapeutic and diagnostic applications. Each
of these materials provides unique physical, chemical and biological properties that are
based on the nanoscale size and structure of the materials. For example, quantum dots are
more stable than chemical fluorphores, have tighter emission wavelengths and can be
engineered to emit at specific wavelengths by changing its size. Thus, the targeted
delivery of these materials could potentially lead to significant medical breakthroughs.
Top-down nanofabrication and micro fabrication approaches based on integrated circuit
processing may be used to fabricate controlled-release drug delivery devices. Using
photolithographic and integrated circuit processing methods, silicon-based microchips
have been fabricated that can release single or multiple chemicals on demand using
electrical stimuli.
These engineered micro devices can be used to maintain biological activity of the
drugs and facilitate the local, accurate and controlled release of potentially complex drug-
release profiles. In addition to silicon-based devices, polymeric-based micro fabricated
devices have been made that can release drugs based on the degradation of polymeric
reservoir covers. Micro fabrication techniques have also been used to develop
transdermal drug delivery approaches based on microneedles.

■ Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the top-down (a) and bottom-up


(b)nanotechnology approaches for tissue engineering: (a) Nanofabrication
approaches can be used to generate 3D tissue engineering scaffolds
with controlled pore geometries, shapes and degradation properties;
(b) Nanotechnology can also be used to generate tissue engineering scaffolds from
the self-assembly of nanomaterials, such as amphiphilic peptides that generate
higher order structures such as nanofibers

These microfabricated needles, which are much smaller than hypodermic needles,
may be used to deliver drugs in a painless and efficient manner. By penetrating through
the outer 10–20 m of skin, microneedles can deliver drugs without activating sensory
nerves of the tissue, thus providing a painless method of delivering drugs. Although the
above examples have been performed using microscale resolution, the current state-of
the- art in top-down nanofabrication approaches can generate features that are less than
100 nm in resolution. Therefore, the fabrication of nanoscale devices using these
approaches is theoretically possible and may be advantageous for specific drug-delivery
applications in which miniaturized nanoscale devices are desired. Interestingly, bottom-
up and top-down approaches have merged to optimize drug-delivery vehicles. For
example, microfabricated approaches have been used to develop microfluidic devices that
mimic the body’s vasculature and can be used to test and optimize the interaction of
targeted nanoparticles with the cells that line the cancer blood vessels. By changing
parameters such as shear stress and geometry of the channel, as well as nanoparticle
properties such as size, and surface properties optimized nanoparticle formulations can be
obtained before performing costly animal and clinical experiments.

Tissue engineering combines biology, medicine, engineering and materials


science to develop tissues that restore, maintain or enhance tissue function. To
recapitulate proper function and organization of native tissues in tissue engineering
approaches, it is important to mimic tissue properties at the nanoscale. For example, in a.
body, the extracellular matrix (ECM) provides a natural web of tissue-specific and
organized nanofibers that support and maintain the cell microenvironment. In addition,
cells in the body reside in a unique environment that is regulated by cell-cell, cell-ECM
and cell-soluble factors presented in a spatially and temporally dependent manner. Thus,
engineering approaches and methods that aim to use tissue engineering principles must
have the same level of complexity. Nanotechnologies and microtechnologies can be
merged with biomaterials to generate scaffolds for tissue engineering that can maintain
and regulate cell behavior. Also, such technologies can be used to regulate in vitro
cellular microenvironment to direct stem cell differentiation.
Many tissue engineering approaches rely on the use of 3D biodegradable
scaffolds that place cells in close proximity to each other. Inside these scaffolds, cells
deposit their own matrix and as the scaffold degrades, they form a 3D tissue structure that
mimics the body’s natural tissues. Nanofabricated and microfabricated tissue engineering
scaffolds have the potential to direct cell fate as well as regulate processes such as
angiogenesis and cell migration. Both top-down and bottom-up technologies have been
used to incorporate nanoscale control for tissue engineering scaffolds. Top-down
approaches, such as soft lithography, have greatly enhanced our ability to generate
microscale and nanoscale features since they limit the use of expensive clean rooms.
These approaches have been used for fabricating tissue engineering scaffolds with control
over features such as pore geometry, size, distribution and spatial geometry. For example,
microfabricated approaches have been used to directly engineer the microvasculature
within tissue engineering scaffolds by micromolding biocompatible polymers such as
poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) and poly(glyceride sebacate) (PGS) . In this approach,
a network of microfluidic channels that mimic the tissue microvasculature are fabricated
from PLGA or PGS. By stacking multiple layers of these microfabricated plates, tissue
engineered scaffolds can be fabricated with nanoscale control. Other approaches, such
as the layer by layer deposition of cells and proteins using microfluidic channels,
microsyringe deposition of PLGA polymer, and photopolymerization within microfluidic
channels have been used to generate 3D structures with controlled geometries and
properties (Figure 2a). The miniaturization of these technologies can be performed to
generate scaffolds with sub-100 nm features, such as grooves, pores and surface patterns.
Bottom-up approaches based on molecular self-assembly of small building
blocks have also been used to generate tissue engineering scaffolds. Research into self
assembly of amphiphilic peptides has shown that they can self-assemble to form
hydrogels for tissue engineering. Self-assembled scaffolds can be easily functionalized by
incorporating peptide sequences that direct cell behavior directly into the buildup
molecule. For example, self-assembled gels were fabricated that directed neural stem cell
differentiation to neurons and repressed astrocyte differentiation without exogenous
growth factors. These gels were made from peptides that expressed isoleucine-
lysinevaline-alanine-valine (IKVAV, an amino acid sequence found in laminin) and self-
assembled to form nanofibers. Similar approaches have been used for other tissues such
as cartilage, bone and cardiac applications, and show great promise in tissue engineering.
Microfabrication and nanofabrication approaches have also been used to modify
surface properties with resolutions as small as 50 nm for controlling cell behavior. For
example, topographical features that were a few microns across were used to orient
cardiomyocytes and enhance their function. Studies have shown that nanopatterns can be
used as means of orienting cells and guiding cell migration. Although much work needs
to be done in understanding the biological mechanism associated with the effects of
surface topography on cell behavior, the ability to engineer these properties has been
useful for applications ranging from inducing the migration of an osteoblast on dental
implants to controlling neurite outgrowth.
In addition, microtopology and nanotopology can influence cell gene expression
and migration and thus can be incorporated into microfabricated tissue engineering
scaffolds. For example, topographically patterned PLGA surfaces have been shown to
induce alignment and elongation of smooth muscle cells and to enhance the adhesion of
several cell types such as endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells. Using
micropatterning and nanopatterning, cell shape has also been shown to influence cell
behavior. Changes in cell shape alter the cell cytoskeleton and influence cellfate
decisions such as apoptosis, proliferation and differentiation.
Controlling cellular microenvironment using nanopatterning and micropatterning
may be used for directing cell fate for tissue engineering applications. It is envisioned
that the incorporation of such patterning approaches can be used to direct cell behavior to
induce stem cell differentiation and generate desired cell types or regulate cell behavior
within 3D scaffolds.

CARBON NANOTECHNOLOGY:
Carbon nanotechnology is quickly changing our lives like no other time in
history. One day carbon nano-materials will enable us to live longer more productive
lives through tissue engineering. This will enable us to basically order parts, such as,
kidneys, stomachs, hearts, lungs, and even brains. When ever a body part wears out or
becomes cancerous it will be replaced by tissue that was engineered through carbon
nanotechnology. We will explore some of the amazing things that have already
transgressed concerning tissue engineering, what we can look forward to in the future, if
this is going against god, and when will it be going to far.
One amazing breakthrough announced recently was the engineering of spinal cord
receptor tissue. This is the tissue that is damaged when someone has a spinal cord injury.
It is the tissue that sends the messages from the brain down the spinal cord to give
instructions on movement. It is thought that through carbon nanotechnology this tissue
can be fined tuned and injected into a spinal cord victim’s area of injury. This tissue may
grow and link with the undamaged receptors thus completing the link. With the spinal
cord receptor tissue intact it will be able to transmit the messages from the brain for your
legs to walk. This is all being developed with carbon nano-materials and nanotechnology.

In the future, with carbon based nano-materials and carbon based nanotechnology,
will we have stronger, faster athletes? We be able to tissue engineer hearts and lung that
are bigger? Will this create a super race of humans? One with almost super human power
like being able to run faster and farther, jump higher, and hit a baseball farther than
anyone has ever done. Will athletes be tested for engineered parts, like they are now
being tested for steroids. One can only imagine, but with the use of carbon based
nanotechnology tissue engineering there may be no limits.

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

Building on an enzyme found in nature, researchers have created a nanoscale


coating for surgical equipment, hospital walls, and other surfaces which safely eradicates
methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), the bacteria responsible for
antibiotic resistant infections.

There is a system where the surface contains an enzyme that is safe to handle,
doesn’t appear to lead to resistance, doesn’t leach into the environment, and doesn’t clog
up with cell debris. The MRSA bacteria come in contact with the surface, and they’re
killed.”In tests, 100 percent of MRSA in solution were killed within 20 minutes of
contact with a surface painted with latex paint laced with the coating.

The new coating marries carbon nanotubes with lysostaphin, a naturally occurring
enzyme used by non-pathogenic strains of Staph bacteria to defend against
staphylococcus aureus, including MRSA. The resulting nanotube-enzyme “conjugate”
can be mixed with any number of surface finishes — in tests, it was mixed with ordinary
latex house paint.

Unlike other antimicrobial coatings, it is toxic only to MRSA, does not rely on
antibiotics, and does not leach chemicals into the environment or become clogged over
time. It can be washed repeatedly without losing effectiveness and has a dry storage shelf
life of up to six months.

CONCLUSIONS AND RESEARCH THAT WILL IMPACT FUTURE


DEVELOPMENTS
Tissue engineering, in general, is an area with a large number of techniques or
products still in the research stage. Given the importance of small-scale structures, and
cell-cell interaction, nanotechnology could make a significant contribution to the tissue
engineering field as techniques become better developed. Scaffolds could potentially be
used for gene transfer or seeded with genetically modified cells, to introduce genetically
modified cells to a patient suffering from a particular genetic condition. Conversely, gene
therapy could be used as an aid to tissue engineering, to stimulate tissue growth (for
example, by stimulating growth factors).
Tissue engineering does not necessarily eliminate the problem of compatibility
and rejection. If an individuals own cells are used then there shouldn’t be an issue, but
this method would be more expensive than one that would allow large-scale mass
production. While Europe tends to use autologous cells, the USA does not. 50,000 heart
transplant candidates die annually in the USA while waiting for transplants. Given that
the number of donors will never be enough to meet the demand, engineering new organs
seems the ‘easiest’ solution. In 1997 a human ear was grown on the back of a mouse,
using tissue engineering. In 2002 sections of rabbit penis were grown in a lab, implanted
into rabbits and successfully used to mate. But both of these examples were relatively
simple tissues and further progress in creating whole organs since has made little
progress beyond the laboratory stage. For complex organs such as the heart or liver a way
has to be found to recreate the multiple functions they carry out. One of the main
problems in constructing larger tissues is ensuring that all cells receive a sufficient supply
of nutrients. Though a vascular supply can be grown into a scaffold, there is the risk that
cells in the interior will die before it reaches them. However, some advances have been
made in animal trials, and, as mentioned previously, nanopatterning could be used to help
direct cells into forming vascular systems. But, unless there is some radical new
technique developed, it is likely that whole organ transplants are likely to remain
theoretical for a number of years at least.Worldwide, stem cells are currently of extreme
interest. Within the last year there have been reports of stem cells being used as
pacemakers, to repair retinas, to help cure spinal problems and to treat Parkinson’s. With
stem cells lies the possibility that unlimited numbers of any type of cell could be
produced for use in tissue engineering, but there are still problems with their use. How
they function is not yet fully understood, which makes controlling their differentiation
difficult. There are also difficulties in isolating stem cells. Embryonic stem cells have
more potential for producing a greater variety of cell types (while adult stem cells are
more restricted), but there are more ethical problems associated with the use of these.
There are currently various restrictions in using stem cells – particularly for commercial
ventures (compared with research and academic institutes).

Nanotechnology is an emerging field that is potentially changing the way we treat


diseases through drug delivery and tissue engineering. However, significant challenges
remain in pushing this field into clinically viable therapies. For drug delivery, the design
and testing of novel methods of controlling the interaction of nano- technology.

Other tissue engineering projects now being tested are growing and developing of
lung and heart tissue. One day you may be able to have a heart or lungs grown and stored
at a tissue farm. When you are in need of a transplant because of disease or a car accident
it will be ready for transplant. These tissue engineering farms will rely on carbon nano-
materials for the growth and development of transplants. Carbon nanotechnology will
become an established and growing field in years to come.

Our life expectancy will change drastically with the use of carbon nanotechnology
and tissue engineering. Some people think we may be able to live forever. If you believe
in God, as I do, is this going against him. I do not think so. All throughout the bible
people are said to live hundreds of years, a good example is Methuselah, who lived to be
969 years old. I also do not think it is us that is creating life, God is giving us
exceptionally smart scientists with a drive for knowledge. This knowledge, along with the
application of carbon nanotechnology will hopefully benefit all of mankind.

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