Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Introduction on background
Ethiopia is one of the countries with the lowest sanitation coverage, communities lack of
awareness concerning the linkages between sanitation and health, and the prevalence of
other pressing need, are amongst the main reasons that attributed to low coverage figure.
Sanitation and hygienic practices are the requirements for overall reductions in morbidity
and mortality rates, especially among children 50% of diarrhea reduction can be achieved
with the use of latrine, 15% with the use off clean water, 35% with proper sanitation and
32% with the practices of hand washing under five-child mortality rate in Ethiopia is
reported 117/1000 of which 20% of the death is caused by diarrhea.
The government set and exercise different programs and strategies by appropriate
intervention measures to over come sanitation problems. Among those. MDG and
PASDEP are the main and important issues for the sanitation sector.
At the United Nations millennium summit in September 2000 heads of state of 191
countries adopted the millennium declaration. The declaration was further elaborated and
eight millennium development goals/MDGS/ and 18 target were elected as a set of
quantifiable and time bound goals and target to dramatically improve the human
condition by 2015. Among these goals is the millennium development goal 7 ensure
environmental sustainability with three of its specific targets.
♦ Target 9 integrates the principles of sustainable development policies and
programs reverse lose of environmental resources.
♦ Target 10 cut in half by 2015 the proportions of people with out sustainable
access to safe drinking water
♦ Target 11 achieve significant improvement in the live of at least 100 million slum
dwellers by 2020
Since water and sanitation are inextricably linked to the eradication of poverty and to the
achievement of sustainable development. The millennium target itself as modified lates
during the world summit on sustainable development with the addition of specific
reference to basic sanitation.
With respect to sanitation PASDEP will see a major program to promote and support the
use of latrines including through the health extension coverage from 17.5% to 79.8% and
urban sanitation coverage from 50% to 89.4% of the population.
Inherent to other regions of Ethiopia the environmental sanitation conditions of Dire
Dawa is not satisfactory the over all sanitation coverage is 79% the problems of
environmental sanitation is cholera intestinal parasite, malaria etc--- lack of sanitation
facilities also packed by over crowding increasing population and unemployment. The
increase of slummy areas and street children in the town.
The integrated development plan /IDP/ preparation was launched in 1997 and officially
endorsed in 1998 during the IDP preparation time the sanitation sections plan were
prepared and integrated. However during that time PASDEP was not prepared and can’t
integrate with IDP.
The implementation of IDP elapsed two and a half year now a day the administration
decide to evaluate and review the plan in line with MDGS and PASDEP and finally to
develop the regional PASDEP document. Therefore the main analysis of environmental
issues to meet MDGS goals and PASDEP document under taken here.
2. Objective
The objectives of the analysis are
♦ The broad objective of the analysis is to put the regional IDP on the
MDGs and PASDEP planning path.
♦ To adjust the time frame of IDP in line with national PASDEP /2005/06-
2009/10)
3. Scope of analysis
The scope of analysis
♦ The analysis mainly focus on environmental issues including sanitation
♦ Assessing the regional environmental status current situation and
reviewing of MDGS and PASDEP documents in order to integrate and develop
the regional PASDEP.
4. Strategy of analysis
The strategy adopted include
♦ Expert discussion
♦ Consultation with responsible bodies, staffs key partners and stakeholders
♦ Review of available documents including
- Sanitation and hygiene issue paper
- Millennium development goal for water and sanitation
- Sanitation millennium development goal assessment
- Dire Dawa regional IDP /analysis doucment/
- Dire Dawa EPA study document and reports
- Dire Dawa sanitation and beatification study documents and
reports
- A plan for accelerated and sustained development to end
poverty/PASDEP/ document.
6.2 Climate
The study area has a warm dry climate, which is a characteristic of semi-desert climate.
The altitude in the administration varies from 950 ms to 2260m above mean sea level.
Both temperature and precipitation is the function of altitude. Only two meteorological
stations, Dire Dawa and Hurso, are found in the administration. There is other three
nearby meteorological stations (Alemeya, Dengego, and Kulubi) outside the
Administration boundary. The mean annual temperature of the Administration can be
approximated between 16 0c at Dengego and 27 0c at Hurso. Similarly, the smallest mean
annual rainfall also varies from 479mm at Hurso and 1009.2 mm at Kulubi. The
following mean annual rainfall and temperatures computed at Alemaya, Dengego and
kulubi are (813mm, 160c), (775mm, 160c), and (1009.2mm, 15.70c) respectively. The
mean annual temperature and precipitation is about 25.30c and 640mm respectively in the
capital of the Administration, Dire Dawa.
6.3 Physiographic and Drainage system
6.3.1 Physiographic
According WWDSE (2003) the regional physiographic setting of the study area is
categorized in to three major groups:
The Harar plateau,
The escarpment, and
The Afar Depression.
The southern limit of the studied area is located on the northern limit of the Harar
plateau.
The escarpment is composed of a series of tilted blocks most of which dip to the south
and bounded by step like faults. The topographic descent is steep where the primary
Harar plateau fringes were high (ancient basement swell) including the southern part of
Dire Dawa. Towards north, the blocks disappear beneath the young rift alluvium and
volcanic.
The Afar depression is generally flat, northward gently slopping terrain, characterized by
alluvial flats, lacustrine deposits, basaltic lava flows with numerous cinder cones, which
is a characteristic of the northern part of the DDPA area.
When we come to the study area, three distinct geomorphologies have been identified
earlier studies. These are:
The plateau marginal area, which demarcates the southern limit of the region,
has elevations in the range of 2,100-2,300 masl.
The area of the escarpment, stepped margin of the valley depression, extending
from the plateau to the southern limit of Dire Dawa city has elevations in the range of
2,100-1,200 masl.
The area of the valley depression situated in the vicinity of the city of Dire Dawa
extending to the north, west and eastern limit of the region. This valley depression lies at
a relatively lower elevations of 1,000-1,200 masl. Most of the settlement of the DDPA is
either nearby the foot of the escarpments or within the escarpment in valley depression
areas, where water and fertile soil are available.
6.3.2 Drainage
The study area, DDPA, is located within the Awash River Basin at the foot of Wabi
Shebelle-Awash Rivers' Basins’ divider escarpment. The whole drainage system in the
DDPA is intermittent streams carrying water only after heavy rain events. They are, thus,
dry wadis with sand beds. These wadis are erosive at the southern and southeastern
escarpment having capacity to erode and carry heavy sediment loads including rock
fragments and tree twigs that are discharged/deposited when they reach the flat plain of
the Dire Dawa graben. The Administration is drained by 10 water sheds as shown in the
Figure…below.
Figure 2. Watersheds draining the Administration
Dir e Da wa Ca t chment Ma p
Rivcatchgeo.shp
Main river
DD catchment.shp N
Aboley
Anchel
Cherecha-Kulfgosha
ayile
Dechato
Degna Jebis
Gob
Gobayile
Kelead
Lege Oda Gunufeta
Yebelo
Yebelo
Anchel
Jebis
Kelead
Degna
sha
lfgo
Aboley
-Ku
feta
Dechato
cha
Gunu
ere
Ch
Oda
Lege
5 0 5 10 Miles
6.4 Natural resources
6.4.1 Vegetation
Vegetation development in the study area is mainly governed by physiographic/altitude,
climate, etc besides other factors. Vegetation in the study area is scanty except along the
intermittent streams. The natural vegetation is largely scanty acacia trees and cactus. On
the patchy rock outcrop areas in the town and its surroundings there is very weak
vegetation development since there is no soil development.
The dominant vegetation covers of the region’s ecosystem consists of deciduous shrubs
mostly Acacia species often interspersed with less frequent evergreen shrubs and
succulents such as Euphorbia, Aloe, Caralluma, Opuntia, and Dracaena spp. on rocky out
crops [WBISPP, 2000`]. The low land and flood plains are dominantly covered by
species of Acacia, Azadirachta, Delonix, Ziziphus and Prosopis juliflora. The grass
species are widely distributed in patchy and Plateau land escapes. High mountain areas in
the southern part are covered by the remnants of dry evergreen montanae forest such as,
Juniperous procera, Cordia africana, Cupressus lusitanica and Olea europea.
6.4.2 Wildlife
Though there is little information available on the status of wildlife resources of the
region, the ecosystem is known to be habitat for various wildlife in relatively dense
shrubs and bushy low land areas of the region that includes many game animals such as
unique Antelopes [Beia, Dibatag and Gazelle], Mongoose, Warthogs, Anubis Baboons,
greater and lesser Kudu and predators like Lion, Cheetah, Fox, and Hyenas.
6.4.3 Mineral resources
As described below under the section environmental geology different mineral resources
have been reported from different areas of the Administration. The study is at its
rudimentary level with out detail exploration study. Lead, rare metals and associated
gemstones, construction and industrial minerals of different types are reported from
different sites. Construction and industrial minerals are found in the vicinity of the Dire
Dawa City in large volume. Limestone, sandstone, sand, travertine, basalt, gneiss, diorite,
etc. are found in and around the City.
6.4.4 Water resources
As described above there is no perennial river in the administration, and the intermittent
streams or wadis, which are not gauged so far. The surface runoff potential in the
Administration has been estimated for the entire watersheds as well as for project sites by
WWDSE (2003). Accordingly, the total surface water potential of all the watersheds is
estimated as 211.2 Mm3 per annum. It is important to note that in some of the
watersheds, particularly those on the eastern part of the Administration; most of the
runoff comes from parts of the watersheds, which lie outside the boundary of the Council
in the south.
The Administration is endowed with groundwater resources abstracted mainly from
upper sandstone and Hamanelei limestone aquifers that act as reservoir of the
groundwater of the Administration (major aquifer). The current utilization of this
resource is by far less than the estimated annual recharge. The abstractions from all type
of water schemes (deep and shallow boreholes including dug well, springs) are 18.85
Mm3/year (597.8 l/sec) while existing annual recharge estimated is 38.8 Mm3/year (1233
l/sec).
Concerning the quality of surface water resources there is no adequate data. The existing
water quality investigation conducted to assess/check the adequacy of the quality of the
surface runoff at the proposed irrigation sites by WWDSE (2003) at three locations
corresponding to the three proposed irrigation sites indicated the following results:
The water of Chirecha and Gerba Kenissa Rivers are "low salinity water" and can
be used for almost all crops and almost all kinds of soils, very little salinity may develop
through time, which may require slight leaching, but it is permissible under normal
irrigation practice except in soils of extremely low permeabilities.
The Jeldessa River water exhibited 265 µ s/cm, which is "Medium Salinity
Water” and can be used for irrigation, if a moderate amount of leaching occurs. Normal
salt tolerant plants can be grown without much salinity control.
Since the SAR values in all the river water samples from the three streams are
less than 10, then it can be used for irrigation on almost all soils and for almost all crops.
The groundwater quality of the Administration is very hard type of water represented by
Ca-HCO3 and Ca-Mg-HCO3 with hardness value exceeding 180 mg/l; however, this
water type is modified in and around the Dire Dawa city to Ca-Na-HCO3-Cl, Ca-HCO3-
SO4 in response to poor waste management practices.
6.4.5 Energy resources
There are no existing potential energy resources in the Administration in relation to
hydroelectric power development. There are also limited resources regarding biomass
fuel. No report has been made so far on the existence of fossil fuels in the
Administration. In spite of the potential to develop solar and wind energy in the area
very few attempts has been made regarding these alternative energy sources.
According to WWDSE (2003) from the total energy consumption in 2002 in Dire Dawa,
it is estimated to be about 2924 tera joules (TJ) of which 58 percent comes from biomass
fuels (50 percent woody biomass, 4 percent charcoal and 4 percent agricultural residue),
37 percent from petroleum fuels, and 5 percent from electricity. WWDSE contend that
energy consumption by sector is as follows: households (72 percent), commercial
services (6 percent), industry (8 percent), and transport (14 percent).
Table 2. Energy balance for the Dire Dawa Provincial Administration, TJ (2002) in
(WWDSE, 2003).
According WWDSE (2004) solar and wind energy resource potential exist for future
development. This study contends that annual mean solar energy is about 5.4kWh/m2-day
while annual mean wind speed is 5.5m/s (at 10 meter above ground). Potential solar
energy application areas in DDPAs’ include solar water heating in the City and solar
electricity for home systems and for rural social services (water supply, health centers
and schools). Wind energy may be employed for rural water supply projects (both for
pumping potable water for humans and livestock) and for small wind generators.
Months Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Sunshine
hours 8.6 8.1 7.9 7.6 8.3 7.7 7.1 7.6 7.4 8.0 9.0 9.3 8.0
% 75 69 66 62 67 61 57 62 61 68 78 81 67
Average daily radiation on horizontal surface (kWh/m2)
Total 5.2 5.3 5.5 5.5 5.7 5.3 5.1 5.4 5.3 5.3 5.4 5.3 1,965
Direct 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.2 3.4 3.1 2.9 3.2 3.1 3.3 3.5 3.5 1,202
Diffuse 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.1 2.0 1.9 1.8 763
Source: ENEC-CESEN, Technical Report 3, Solar energy resources, 1986.
5.0
Radiation - kWh/m2-day
8.0
Total 2.0
1.0
Direct
Sunshine hours
- 0.0
Jul
Sep
Mar
May
Nov
Jan
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
May
Nov
Oct
Dec
Mar
Apr
Sep
Jan
Jun
Feb
Aug
Jul
Due to a much faster growth rate for the industry sector the relative share of energy
consumption by sector will change where the household sectors’ share falls slightly from
72 percent to 69 percent while that for the industry sector rises from 5 percent to 12
percent.
Fuel shares will also change slightly where the contribution from biomass falls from 70
percent to 66 percent and that for electricity increases from 8 percent to 11 percent.
Petroleum fuel shares are expected to stay at the present 22 percent.
Table 5.-Dire Dawa Provisional Administration Energy Demand projections:
2000-2030, TJ
2000 2002 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 AAGR
Households 1,684.2 1,825.2 2,038.2 2,452.3 2,954.0 3,562.4 4,300.6 5,196.9 3.8%
Commercial services 154.1 168.5 190.1 232.5 284.4 347.8 425.4 520.3 4.1%
Industry 99.7 115.0 142.6 204.7 294.8 425.7 616.2 893.3 7.6%
Transport 399.5 420.3 451.6 513.0 588.0 679.7 791.8 928.9 2.9%
Social services and government 0.9 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.6 1.9 2.3 2.8 4.1%
TOTAL 2,338.4 2,529.8 2,823.5 3,403.7 4,122.7 5,017.5 6,136.3 7,542.2
Woody biomass 1,366.5 1,479.0 1,649.0 1,978.9 2,377.9 2,861.1 3,446.5 4,156.4 3.8%
Crop residue 16.8 17.6 18.8 21.0 23.4 26.1 29.2 32.6 2.2%
Charcoal 243.1 265.4 299.2 365.3 446.0 544.7 665.4 812.8 4.1%
Kerosene 68.2 74.5 84.1 102.9 125.8 153.9 188.3 230.3 4.1%
Gasoline 223.7 244.4 275.8 337.1 412.1 503.9 616.0 753.0 4.1%
Diesel 189.3 191.3 194.8 202.8 214.3 230.7 254.4 288.4 1.5%
Fuel oil 42.2 49.2 61.8 90.3 132.1 193.2 282.6 413.3 7.9%
Electricity 188.6 208.4 240.1 305.4 391.0 503.8 654.0 855.5 5.2%
Source: WWDSE (2004)
7. Environmental geology
7.1 Geological Setting and Tectonics
The geology of DDPA composed of all major three-rock types (metamorphic,
sedimentary and igneous). Based on existing geological maps, aerial photos and field
visits the WWDSE (2003) prepared geological map at 1: 50 000 scales. Thus, this work
is mainly based on this report.
7.1.1 Geological Setting
The geological setting of the DDPA consists of:
d) Quaternary Sediments.
The geology of the area is described based on their regional stratigraphic position, from the base (old) upwards (to youngest).
Source: - CSA results at country level voL. II analytical report June 1999
The national PASDEP document also states the national current status of toilet facilities
and waste disposal systems. It states that one of the indicators of the well being of house
holds incorporated in the welfare monitoring surveys is the availability and quality of
toilet facility. According to the survey results only about 28% of house holds have access
to pt latrine and the vast majorities (68%) do not have access to any kind of toilet
facilities. Among rural house holds more than 78% don’t have any toilet facilities and
20% have pt latrines. From a sanitation and health point of view, it is even more serious
to observe that almost a fifth of urban house holds do not have access to any kind of toilet
facility, and have to use open fields.
While this results are striking by inter national standards it is important to note that there
has been substantial improvement over the survey with the proportion having some form
of toilets with the proportion having some form of toilets raising from 13% eight years
ago to 31% today
9. INTERSECTORAL linkage
MDG goal a is described briefly below
Goal1 Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
Sanitation can provide work and income to both the urban and rural poor the
local service Providers could come out from the local poor like local latrine
builders working in improving sanitation is the health and environment of the
urban and the rural poor that improver by the provision of sanitation facilities.
Goal 2 Achieve universal primary education
Improvement in sanitation facilities particularly provision of separate toilet for
girl and of enrollment of girl students. Further school students would be one vital
means in the dissemination of information.
Goal 3 Promote gender equality and empower women
Access to basic agitation brings significant difference to the quality of poor
women’s life. They become health and more dignified and enjoy the benefits of
privacy with the use of latrine gender issues are a cross cutting topic in water and
sanitation services women in particular have major responsibility for water,
sanitation and family health nursing their kids, preparing and distributing food
women also play a major role in transferring health in formal networks. They are
also responsible to managing sanitation facilities at the house hold level but not
all sanitation and hygiene education do not recognize women’s vital role in this
regard to meet the MDG goal community promoters that do promotional work
house to house are proposed to be women.
Goal 4 Reduce child mortality
Provision of proper sanitation reduces one of the killing causes of children under
five
Goal 5 Improve maternal health
Basic sanitation is needed in health care facilities to ensure basic hygiene
practices following delivery.
Goal 6 Combat HIV/AIDS malaria and other diseases
Access to sanitation and hygiene reduces the opportunistic infection disease
including HIV/AIDS victims. Home based care can only be provided to
HIV/AIDS patient and the task of ensuring their dignity when there is access to
sanitation
Target 11 of Goal 7
Significant improvement to the lives of all slum dweller for sanitation the
target is “Achieve significant improvement in lives at least 100 million slum
dwellers by 2000” which has an indicator of “The proportion of people with
access to improve sanitation” This has now been taken to generally apply to
all peoples not solely slum dwellers.
11.2Constitution Measure
The constitution of the Federal Republic of Ethiopia provides the overriding principles
and legal provisions for all legislative frameworks in the country. The concept of
sustainable development and the environmental right off the people are ensured in the
constitution by the following articles that stipulate the rights of people in Ethiopia.
Article 43: The right to Development
1. The peoples of Ethiopia as whole, and each Nation, Nationality, and People in
Ethiopia in particular have the right to improved living standards and to
sustainable development.
2. Nationals have the right to participate in national development and, in particular,
to be consulted with respect policies and projects affecting their community.
3. All international agreement and relations concluded, established or conducted by
the state shall protect and ensure Ethiopia’s to sustainable development
4. the basic aim of development activities shall be to enhance the capacity of citizen
for development and to met their basic needs
Article 44: Environmental Rights
1. All persons have the right to live in a clean and healthy environment.
2. All persons who have been displaced or whose livelihoods have been adversely
affected as a result off State programs have the right to commensurate monetary
or alternative mean of compensation, including relocation with adequate State
assistance.
Article 92 also relates to environmental right and the duty to adopt enforcement
instruments. These constitutional provisions have served as the guiding principles for all
activates that are related to policy formulation, strategy development and the formulation
of legislative and institutional frame work for environmental protection.
11.3Policy Measures
The second stage was formulation of national policy and strategy on environmental
management and protection. The primary need in preparing national policy and strategy
document on environmental matters was aiming at determining the objectives and
strategies, which should be used in order to ensure the respect for environmental
imperatives, by taking is to account the prevailing economic, social and cultural
situations of the country.
In this context, with a view of further amplifying the constitutional provisions on
environmental protections, the Environmental Policy and the Conservation Strategy of
Ethiopia have been prepared. These policy and strategy documents recognized and
addressed environmental issues in a holistic manner, and were adopted as well as
approved on 2 April 1997.
To this end the law is prepared to facilitate the implementation of the environmental
rights and objectives ensured is the constitution and the maximization of their socio-
economic benefits by predicting and managing the environmental effects which a
proposed development activity or public instrument might entail prior to their
implementation.
This proclamation requires all licensing agencies have to ensure that EPA or the
respective regional Environmental Agency has authorized their implementation prior to
issuing any type of license for projects. The proclamation includes provisions on:
categories of EIA requirements, duties and responsibilities of the project proponent and
the competent agency, procedures on EIA report and its approval, conditions of offense
and the ensuing penalties and conditions of public participation in the EIA process.
In recognition of the major environmental problems that are increasingly affecting the
country, Ethiopia has joined the international community by signing, adopting and
largely ratifying the Rio-Conventions (and the related protocols, agreements, etc
formulated on their basis). The country has undertaken a number of measures to pursue
their subsequent implementation. While EPA is the focal point and coordinator of the
The overall policy goal of Ethiopia is to improve and enhance the health and quality of
life of all Ethiopians and to promote sustainable social and economic development
through the sound management and use of natural, human-made and cultural resources
and the environment as a whole so as to meet the needs of the present generation without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The major policy
frameworks on which other policies have been based and that have an overall bearing on
environment and development are discussed hereunder.
The strategy recognizes the importance of the environment and sustainable development
and treats it as crosscutting issue. It points out three priority areas for action including
strengthening and expanding on-going efforts to address land degradation, deforestation,
overgrazing, soil erosion, loss of soil structure and the disruption of the hydro-logical
cycle, giving special attention to highly degraded, drought prone and food insecure areas,
strengthening regulatory and institutional capacity, strengthening measures currently
under implementation to preserve, develop, manage and sustainable use biodiversity
resources.
In adopting the United Nations Millennium Declaration, Ethiopia agreed to take special
measures to address the challenges of poverty eradication and sustainable development in
the country. The country recognizes that the range of issues necessary to nurture its
environmental base and sustainable use of natural resources is vast and complex and that
a systematic combination of initiatives is necessary to translate into action a coherent
environment program. The capacity need assessment to achieve goal 7 of the MDG calls
for the development and adoption of a coherent action plan and strategies - to ensure
environmental sustainability while at the same time combating poverty and promoting
socio-economic development.
• Managing and combating drought as well as other associated slow on-set disasters
through efficient allocation, redistribution, transfer, storage and efficient use of water
resources.
• Conserving, protecting and enhancing water resources and the overall aquatic
environment on sustainable basis.
13.7 Economic Development Strategy for Ethiopia
This strategy is named and commonly known as the "Agriculture Development Led
Industrialization Strategy (ADLI)". This strategy is the guiding tool for the current
development of the country. The basic objectives of the strategy are:
Sustainable economic growth
Equity, including regional equity; and
Self reliance, meaning dependence on national resources and Independent
National Development.
The strategy is a "road map" for the development of the Agricultural, Industrial, Mining,
Science& Technology, Infrastructure and Tourism sectors.
13.8 Poverty Reduction Strategy
Poverty is deeply entrenched in Ethiopia. To meet both domestic goals and the
International commitment to reduce poverty by half in the medium term, the government
introduced the poverty reduction strategy in 1999-2001. Targets were set for poverty
oriented interventions and executing agencies were identified. The plan has served as a
vehicle for resources mobilization and allocation. The second generation of the plan
"Plan for Accelerated and Sustainable Development to End Poverty" (PASDEP) covers
the period from 2002 to 2007. The scope of this plan is broader than the first and
incorporates the well known "Millennium Goals" (MDGs). The regional states, including
DDPA are expected to address poverty issues in accordance with PASDEP.
13.9 Water Supply and Sanitation Policy
The overall objective of water supply and sanitation policy is as stipulated in the Federal
Democratic Republic of Ethiopia water resources management policy is to enhance the
well-being and productivity of the Ethiopian people through provision of adequate,
reliable and clean water supply and sanitation services and to foster its tangible
contribution to the economy by providing water supply services that meet the livestock,
industry and other water users demands.
• To ensure that improved environmental sanitation be placed highest on the federal
and regional agenda for achieving sustainable urban development;
• To promote the construction by individual families of their own houses and create
conducive conditions for communities and individual families to make improvements
to their immediate habitats as well as to provide human and domestic waste disposal
facilities;
• To recognise the importance of and help bring about behavioural change through
education and public awareness of environmental sanitation problems in trying to
achieve demand driven community led sustainable use and maintenance of sanitation
facilities;
• To bring about a sound partnership between the government and communities in the
development of an integrated sanitation delivery system, and to the supplementary
role of NGOs;
• To ensure that housing and sanitation technologies and regulatory standards are set at
a level and cost that are within reach of the users and flexible enough to be adaptable
to the very varied socio-economic, epidemiological, climatic and physical site
conditions which are found in urban areas.
• To give priority to waste collection services and to its safe disposal;
• On the one hand to recognise the importance of adequate water supply as an
important component in achieving a sustainable and healthy urban environment, and
on the other hand to recognise the minimisation of the need for water as and
important factor in the choice of sanitation technologies;
• To construct shared VIP latrines in the low income and very high density housing
areas of Addis Ababa and the older towns with frequent emptying by tankers
integrated with programmes on user education, health and hygiene, with follow up
maintenance and cleaning, all implemented as a component of a broader urban
environmental upgrading programme including storm water drainage;
• To ensure the construction of family latrines in lower density urban and peri-urban
areas as a conditionality of the house plot lease and to integrate this with health and
hygiene awareness programmes
• To create conducive conditions for families, housing groups and communities to
construct latrines and private entrepreneurs to undertake latrine emptying as well as
waste collection and disposal services.
• To undertake studies which identify suitable sanitary landfill sites in the major cites
and towns of Ethiopia.
• To establish safe limits for the location of sanitary landfill sites in the vicinity of
wells, bore holes and dams, and issue regulations to enforce them;
• Promote the formulation of a housing construction and urban development policy that
incorporates sanitation services.
• Promote the involvement of non-governmental organization, external support
agencies and the private sector in sustainable sanitation programs.
• Develop standards for different types and levels of sanitation systems including both
on site and off site, non-water dependent and water dependent systems.
• Promote research and development on low cost and suitable sanitation alternatives
and enhance users participation in the development of sanitation systems.
• Manage the import of wastewater treatment technologies and materials through
pertinent institutions.
• Build capacity in terms of engineering, design, construction, operation and
maintenance … etc. Of sanitation systems.
• Promote that sanitation services are based on participation driven and responsive
principles without compromising social equity.
13.11 Health Policy – Hygiene and Environmental Health Policy
The health policy was issued by the then Transitional Government of Ethiopia in
September 1993. The policy gives emphasis on the preventive aspect of health services.
The central themes of the National Health Policy (1993)are Awareness raising and
education on personal and Environmental Health care and Sanitation through
information, Education and Communication (IEC), Control of disease, and Promotion of
primary Health care through community participation.
ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH POLICY OBJECTIVES
To promote proper waste management system with regard to the collection,
transportation and disposal of any domestic, commercial, agricultural, industrial and
mining wastes including hazardous, liquid, solid, infectious and radioactive wastes.
• Establish community based hygiene education promotion.
• Advocate and promote the availability of excreta disposal facilities at household
level and develop a latrine culture.
o Ensure sound and effective waste management system, (collection, storage, transport
and disposal)
13.12 Regional Conservation Strategy of DDPA
Strategies for conservation of natural resources are instrumental to determine the extent
in which economic growth and social progress could be achieved on a sustainable basis.
Formulation of a strategy for conserving natural resources is, therefore, essential to
improve the living condition of a society.
With this regard, the DDAC has given due attention to develop a strategy for sustainable
management of the natural resources as they are the base for survival. The conservation
strategy of the Council was prepared in March 2001
In a strategy document the optimal interaction among, all natural, human, capital and
other relevant factors, are taken into consideration in order to attain development that
meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the needs of future
generations.
The overall strategy goal is to improve and enhance the health and quality of the life of
all people of Dire Dawa Administrative Council and to promote sustainable social and
economic development through the sound management and use of natural, human made
& cultural resources and the environment as a whole so as to meet the needs of the
present generation without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their
own needs.
The strategy seeks to:
a. Ensure that appropriate interventions to restore the present impaired regenerative and
productive capabilities of renewable natural resources, and ensure that essential
ecological process and life support systems are sustained, biological diversity is
preserved and renewable resources are used in such a way that their capacity to
regenerate and produce is maintained and where possible enhanced, so that the
satisfaction of future generation is not compromised;
b. Ensure that non-renewable resources are exploited in such a way that the benefits
are extended as far into the future as can be managed, and minimize the negative
impacts of their exploitation on the use and management of other natural
resources and the environment;
c. Identify and develop natural resources that are currently under utilized by finding
new technologies and/or intensifying existing uses;
d. Incorporate the full economic, social and environmental costs and benefits of
natural resources development into planning, implementation and accounting
processes by a comprehensive valuation of the environment and the services it
provides, and by considering the social and environmental costs and benefits
which cannot currently be measured in monetary terms;
f. Prevent the pollution of land, air and water in the most cost effective way so that
the cost of effective preventive interventions would not exceed the benefits;
g. Conserve, develop, sustainable manage and support Ethiopia’s rich and diverse
cultural heritage;
h. Ensure the empowerment and participation of the people and their organizations
at all levels in environmental management activities; and
Target
“To reduce by half between now and 2015 the proportion of people who lack access to
basic sanitation”
This means to raise the national sanitation coverage from 11.5% to 56% by 2015 by the
targeting over 43.8% of people. Rural coverage is raised from 3.9% to 58% and similarly
urban from 49.7% to 75%. The table blow shows national and regional sanitation
coverage and the additional number off people that will have access to sanitation
facilities by the end of the millennium.
National & regional millennium targets
Sanitation coverage No of people to be served by
Region Rural Urban 2015/in thousends
2005 2015 2005 2015 Rural Urban
National 3.9% 52.0% 49.7% 74.9% 37550 7292
Addis Ababa 0.0% 0.0% 80.0% 90.0% 0 1403
Afar 5.0% 52.5% 58.3% 79.2% 718 64
Amhara 2.9% 51.5% 21.8% 60.9% 10155 1365
Benshagul 23.3% 61.7% 59.0% 79.5% 295 43
Dire Dawa 1.0% 50.5% 71.3% 85.7% 59 166
Gambela 3.8% 51.9% 21% 61.0% 115 27
Harari 17.5% 58.8% 48.3% 74.2% 40 76
Oromia 3.8% 51.9% 40.1% 70.1% 13888 2297
SNNP 4.4% 52.2% 38.0% 68.0% 8248 848
Somali 6.8% 53.4% 48.1% 74.1% 2076 484
Tigray 12.0% 56.0% 60.0% 80.0% 1955 521
The coverage targets for both urban and rural sanitation assumed that the uptake in the
first few years of the intervention in any community is slow but the progress will come in
the latter years of the projects.
Calculated sanitation coverage for urban Ethiopia
Region 200 200 200 200 200 200 201 201 201 2013 2014 2015
0 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2
National 50% 50% 52% 55% 57% 59% 61% 64% 62% 70% 72% 75%
Addis Ababa 80% 80% 81% 82% 83% 84% 85% 86% 87% 88% 89% 90%
Afar 58% 58% 60% 62% 64% 66% 68% 70% 73% 75% 77% 79%
Amhara 22% 22% 26% 29% 33% 36% 40% 44% 48% 53% 57% 61%
Benshagul 59% 59% 61% 63% 65% 67% 69% 71% 73% 75% 77% 80%
Dire Dawa 71% 71% 73% 74% 75% 77% 78% 80% 81% 83% 84% 86%
Gambela 22% 22% 26% 29% 33% 36% 40% 44% 49% 53% 57% 61%
Harer 48% 49% 51% 53% 56% 58% 60% 63% 66% 69% 72% 74%
Oromia 40% 40% 43% 46% 49% 51% 54% 57% 61% 64% 67% 70%
SNNP 38% 38% 41% 44% 47% 50% 52% 56% 59% 63% 66% 69%
Somali 48% 48% 51% 53% 55% 58% 60% 63% 66% 69% 71% 74%
Tigray 60% 61% 62% 63% 65% 67% 69% 71% 73% 75% 77% 80%
Calculated sanitation coverage for rural Ethiopia
Region 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
National 4% 5% 7% 9% 11% 16% 21% 27% 33% 40% 47% 52%
Addis Ababa 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%
Afar 5% 6% 8% 10% 12% 17% 22% 27% 34% 40% 48% 53%
Amhara 3% 4% 6% 8% 10% 15% 20% 26% 32% 39% 47% 51%
Benshagul 23% 24% 26% 27% 29% 33% 37% 41% 46% 52% 58% 62%
Dire Dawa 1% 2% 4% 6% 8% 13% 18% 24% 31% 38% 46% 51%
Gambela 4% 5% 7% 9% 11% 15% 21% 27% 33% 40% 47% 52%
Harer 18% 18% 20% 22% 23% 28% 32% 37% 42% 48% 55% 59%
Oromia 4% 5% 7% 9% 11% 15% 21% 27% 33% 40% 47% 52%
SNNP 4% 5% 7% 9% 11% 16% 21% 27% 33% 40% 48% 52%
Somali 7% 8% 10% 12% 13% 18% 23% 29% 38% 41% 49% 53%
Tigray 12% 13% 15% 17% 18% 23% 28% 33% 39% 45% 52% 56%
The indicator is the proportion of urban and rural population with access to improved
sanitation facilities
2. Sewerage system.
This composes new sewer systems and sewage treatment plan + design and construction.
Both the technical and Economical feasibility of such a should be taken into account in
the provision of a sewerage system houses that can be connected to a sewer system to be
technically feasible these hoses that would be connected to a sewer system need to have
in house water supply connection this great enough velocity of flow.
3. Septic tank sludge(septage) collection, treatment and disposal
Intervention concerning this is the same for bath scenarios, this comprises provision of
vacuum truck services, treatment and environmentally safe disposal of septage for large
and medium size town vacuum trucks are used for the removal of the undigested sludge
for the septic tank or septage, and transportation of the same to the treatment site
4. Solid waste management
This comprises collection of solid waste in urban towns, transportation and disposal at a
sanitary landfill
5. Hygiene education and sanitation promotion
Although awareness for the need for sanitation facilities in urban Ethiopia is relatively
high. There is still a need to promote hygiene education and sanitation promotion in all
urban towns in general and in slum areas in particular the negative impacts due to lack of
sanitation facilities in slum area is evident. The intervention will include social marketing
using radio soap opera for hygiene improvement training of community promoters and
mobilization of sanitarians.
16.Dire Dawa town current sanitation condition
The over all sanitation condition of Dire Dawa town is not satisfactory it has a
converge of 79% generally the features of the sanitation conditions as follows.
16.1 Solid waste management
Over the past year efforts have been conducted to bring proper solid waste
management, but the attempts was not lead to the good result, because of shortage of
appropriate information and need assessment. Now a day. There will be some important
base line dates from 5 year strategic plan preparation and generation and composition
survey of sanitation and beatification agency to prepared good plan of action. /5/
The municipal solid waste of Dire Dawa town include, household wasters,
commercial establishments, (like shops and markets) and service institutions/like
educational, health care and utilities/ streets, hotels and other sectors it can also embody
ordinary wastes fro small and large industrial firms with in the populated areas as well
as construction and demolishing wastes. /5/
One of the problems facing in urban settlement is the skill to cope with increasing
quantity of wastes, in spite of the growing demand of the population. Thus all urbon
settlements are facing with serious health and environment complications, as the existing
sanitation conditions true out to be worst by unrestrained po0pulaion increase and
urbanization. /6/
Two consecutive national population census had been carried out in the year 1984
and 1994 and analytical reports had been issued by CSA. The report included urban and
rural sanitation condition for the whole country. Where the project towns of Dire Dawa
town included. /6/
In the census analysis distribution of housing units or household is made by
• Types of toilets facilities used
• Types of bathing units/facilities/ used
There fore as the information obtained from CSA the position regarding sanitation
facilities is the town presented here below. /6/
Bathing facilities of Dire Dawa town by housing unit as per 1994 CSA data
Town All Topes of Bathing facilities
housing has no Bathing Bathing Shower Showers other Not
The reason why the rural respondents have not a latrines indicate in the survey was
financial problems. 73.3 % of the urban respondents who have not a latrine have a
reason of financial problem and the rest lack of space to constructs their own or
communal latrine.
37.4% and 44 % of the latrines were not in good condition in urban and rural areas
respectively. This shows most of the urban and rural latrines sanitary condition is not
good because of different conditions.
23.2 percent from the total respondents urban and 15.9% of the rural dwellers, have no
supper structure for their latrines. This is because of lack Knowledge about the use of
supper structure.
There is an important point of the survey finding is seen in the 129 /45% / respondent
of the urban arias, when the latrines are filled. They are seen play emptying manually by
digging another open pit. This practice was totally in Santeria and leads to gross
contamination.
Out of the 87 respondents 16% in urban aria who have latrine but they do not used by
the latrine, respond the reason why they are using their latrine was the bad smell of the
latrines .
In rural area 20.7 % of the respondents is not practice hand washing after using the
latrines. This shows there is very low awareness on hygiene education. But in urban
areas a large number of respondents /92/6%/ have practiced hand washing after
defecation.
60.9 % of the rural responds simply throughing their children faces in open filed. This
practices lead to for transmission diseases. Where as this type of practice is not
significant in urban respondents.
18.2 Liquid waste disposal
In urban and rural areas respondents asked the question of how to mange their liquid
waste excluding urine and feasus. In urban areas 63.3% disposed in un open field,
12.4% in the latrine, 19.5% in open ditch in rural areas. 98.5 % of the respondent
disposed their liquid waste in an open field and 1.5 % in their latrine.
Out of the 625 respondents in urban and rural area 95.7% and 100% of the respondents
have no any type of septic tank for liquid waste disposal system.
Out of 254 respondents who have solid waste container in urban area 110 respondents /
40%/ does not have closed system containers for their solid waste containers. This leads
to for fly breading.
The types of solid waste generated from the house hold respondent of urban and rural.
Urban Rural Type of solid waste
And the rest other types of waste /that much not significant/.
18.4 Food Hygiene
25% of the urban respondents were having the habit of row meat also 6.2 in rural areas
also 88.9% and 78% of the urban and rural respondents are know about the disease
transmission of row meat respectively.
The answer of the respondents about the knowledge of the type disease the are
transmitted by row meat as follows.
9.6% in urban area respondents and 51% in rural area respondents have habit of drinking
row milk. 19.3% of the urban and 33.5% of the rural respondents do not know the disease
transmitted by drinking raw milk, but 90.2% of the urban and 71.5% respondents know to
make free the row milk from disease agents by boiling. However 28.5% of the rural
respondents do not know anything about method of milk preservation.
57.7% respondents in urban area and 44.8% in rural area used to eat row vegetable, but
42.3% and 55.2% of the respondents do not eat row vegetables.
75.3% in urban area respondents and 64.7% respondents of the rural area knows about
the disease transmission that comes but raw vegetables, but 24.7% in urban and 35.3% in
rural area respondents do not know the disease transmitted by row vegetables. But 90.8 of
the urban respondents and 75.9% of the rural respondents will know that makes row
vegetables free from disease by cooking.
Assessment of constitutions rights, polices, proclamation and regulation issues.
In 1996, GIBB/ Seuereca, has conduct hydro geological study and selected Dire Jara area
as well field for Harar town water supply and subsequently, drilling results of bore holes
at Dire Jara well field shows that:
•The water bearing formations are mainly fractured sandstones and lime stones
•The overlying formations, basalts and alluvial deposits (silty clay and sandy clay)
are the confining layer the water bearing formations of upper sandstone and lime
stone
•Mostly water was struck at average depth between 120 and 140 meters below
ground level, while the static water level varies between 50 and 70 meters below
ground level
•From the pumping test results 12 bore holes have well yield each greater than 20 l/s.
Currently additional drilling of production wells is underway in Dire Jara well field.
Associated Engineering PLC (AE) carried out hydrogeological study in 1986 and
selected potential groundwater sites of Sabiyan well field located Northwest of Dire
Dawa town. The well field has areal boreholes distribution and wells spaced 200-300
meters apart.
Rehabilitation and pumping test on existing wells has been performed in 2002/2003 in
Sabian well field. Comparison was made between pumping test results during well
accomplishment in 1989, and before and after rehabilitation works. The results are
summarized as shown as below:
22.2. Existing ground water pollution level
General
The study of the groundwater quality was carried on the different geological formation
within the Dire Dawa Administrative Council territory on water samples collected during
the water points inventory program and analyzed for physical, chemical and
bacteriological analysis. In this section, it is attempted to classify the various types of
water in the different geological formations and compared with different standards to
evaluate their quality from different uses.
Samples were also collected in the Dire Dawa town area for bacteriological analysis with
the objective to evaluate the human interference condition of the alluvial and sandstones
aquifers found within the town. As the result of analysis the following conclusion was
drawn:
• High faecal coliform bacteria is observed in dug wells, while in bore holes in
most case the faecal bacteria is zero.
• No correlation is observed between faecal coliform bacteria with nitrates,
indicating that the contaminated water has taken longer time than the lifetime of
the bacteria to reach the sandstone aquifer.
• The sabiyian well field production wells water and reservoir water were found to
be free of both faecal and total coliform bacteria, except PW2, which could be
recent contamination or an outlier.
22.4 Pollution of the Groundwater system & Aquifers Vulnerability
The first report on the nitrate contamination of the hydro-geologic system in the Dire
Dawa town centre was reported in 1959 with maximum nitrate concentration of 45 mg/l.
Since then a number of records show that the contamination increasing from time to time.
For example, in 1981 it was recorded a maximum nitrate concentration of 320 mg/l. The
degree of nitrate concentration in the groundwater depends on the population density and
recharge condition in the area. There are two aquifers in Dire Dawa town area i.e. the
alluvial and the upper sandstone aquifer. The main aquifer that is exploited for the Dire
Dawa town water supply is the upper sandstone. This aquifer is vulnerable to pollution
due to moderate to high permeability of the alluvial sediments overlying the aquifer.
The main ground water contamination sources of Dire Dawa groundwater are:
• Pit latrines and septic tanks, which form aerial distribution of
contamination due to their high density and forms a continuum by
diffusion since the town is without sewerage system.
• Solid waste and waste water disposal along Dechatu river
• Animal feed lots and irrigation areas
• Faulty constructed dug wells and not properly abandoned wells
• Waste from industries, cemeteries and fuel station, etc.
• Recent drilling report indicate that wells drilled at a depth greater than 170
m in Sabian well field shows low concentration of Nitrate ions.
The laboratory error for each analysis was checked by the following relationship:
Laboratory Analysis error (%) = 100*abs (Sum of Cations – Sum of anions)/(Sum of
Cations +Sum of anions)
All laboratory results were checked by the above relationship and it was found that more
than 86% of the analyzed samples were found to have less than 10% error and 14% of
them from 10 to 30% error. All laboratory results with lab error of more than 20% were
excluded from further analysis.
22.6 Water Quality indicators
As discussed earlier the main water quality indicators are physical, chemical and
bacteriological constituents of water. These constituents are highly influenced as a
function of geological formation and human interferences.
In this section the three main characteristics of the DDAC groundwater are described as
follows:
i) Physical and Chemical Characteristics
The physical characteristics considered in the present study are color, turbidity,
temperature, odor, taste, electrical conductivity (EC) and pH. The water quality analysis
showed that almost all of the water samples analyzed are colorless, odorless, non-turbid
and tasteless.
The statistical value of the physico-chemical analysis of the groundwater of DDAC is
given in the following table.
Water quality EC, Ca++, Mg++, Mn4+, Fe++ Cl-, NO3-, F-, HCO3-, CO3--, SO4--
indicator pH µ S/cm Na+,mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l SAR
Min 6.7 178.0 2.0 32.0 3.0 0.0 0.0 8.0 0.0 0.1 107.4 7.2 2.4 0.4
Max 8.5 3780.0 600.0 472.0 109.4 0.2 0.8 694.1 244.0 2.4 700.3 16.8 1213.0 1.8
Average 7.5 1171.9 72.3 151.9 28.6 0.1 0.1 110.9 34.0 0.6 403.7 12.0 120.1 0.5
St. Dev. 0.3 588.2 89.4 63.7 22.2 0.0 0.2 122.0 50.7 0.3 100.6 6.8 208.6 0.4
Var% 21.0 95.0 100.0 93.0 97.0 95.0 99.0 99.0 100.0 94.0 85.0 57.0 100.0 0.9
Sample No 76.0 76.0 68.0 68.0 68.0 48.0 31.0 75.0 71.0 73.0 68.0 2.0 74.0 76.0
The major and important physico-chemical parameters of the groundwater of Dire Dawa
area are discussed in this section.
40
Groundwater Temperature, deg.C
35
30
25
20
Temp= -13.934Ln(H) + 123.11
15 R2 = 0.6178
10
0
100 1000 10000
Surface elevation (H), masl
The temperature distribution in the different geological formation (fig.28) shows that the
temperature of the alluvium and upper sandstones aquifers has relatively higher mean
temperatures. This is mainly governed by their location in the area i.e. the alluvium and
the upper sandstone aquifers are found at the foot of the escarpment of lowered elevation.
The basalts and basement rocks temperature is represented by springs emerging on the
escarpment of higher altitude. High temperature ground waters are recorded in the basalt
formation at the eastern part of DDAC i.e. thermal spring (Lega hartu spring) BH-01at
Armakule. Summary of temperature of various formations is given in table 20.
50
Temp. deg.C
Temperature
40 Mean
30
20 20.7 20
10
Alluvial Basalts Upper Sandstone Limestone Basements rocks
Geological formations
3500
3000
TDS= 0.6588EC
2500 R2 = 0.9098
TDS, mg/l
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Conductivity, ,MicroS/cm
Figure 5 Conductivity and TDS distribution in various geological formations
Conductivity
4000
3500
3000 Mean
Conductivity, microS/cm
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Alluvial Basalts Upper sandstone Hamanlei Basement rocks
limestone
Geological formations
3500
3000
TDS
2500 Mean
TDS, mg/l
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Alluvial Basalts Upper Hamanlei Basement rocks
sandstone limestone
Geological Formations
Hardness: As can been from fig.32 all groundwater of Dire Dawa area can be considered
as hard with mean hardness of 512, 359.8, 543, 429.6, and 446 mg/l for alluvium, basalts,
upper sandstones, lime stone and basement rocks respectively. The median values are less
than the mean for all formations indicating that the distribution is log normal distribution.
Figure 6 Hardness Concentration in different geological formations
1800
1600
1400
Hardness
1200
Mean
Hardness, mg/l
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Alluvial Basalts Upper Limestons Base,ments
sandstones
Geological formations
3 0 0 .0
2 5 0 .0
2 0 0 .0 N itra te s
M ean
NO3, mg/l
1 5 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
5 0 .0
0 .0
A llu via l B a s a lts U p p e r s a n d sto n e H a m a n le i B a s e m e n t ro c k s
lim e s to n e
G e o lo g ic a l fo rm a tio n s
The chemical contaminants of principal importance that are derived on-site sanitation are
nitrates and chlorides.
High correlation (fig34) between chlorides and nitrate indicates that the origin of high
nitrates in Dire Dawa town is certainly sewage.
Relationship of Chlorides versus Nitrates at Dire dawa Town
251
Palace
201 NO3 = 0.7631CL - 15.711
R2 = 0.6877 Hafcat
DD food complex
Nitrates, mg/l
151
Sabiyian W-6
51
SabiyianPW-1
Sabiyian PW-4
1Amdael
Sabiyian PW-8
1 8 13 35
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Chlorides, mg/l
• High faecal coliform bacteria is observed in dug wells, while in bore holes in
most case the faecal bacteria is zero.
• No correlation is observed between faecal coliform bacteria with nitrates,
indicating that the contaminated water has taken longer time than the lifetime of
the bacteria to reach the sandstone aquifer.
• The sabiyian well field production wells water and reservoir waater were fournd
to be free of both faecal and total coliforrm bactria, expt PW2, whih ould be ceent
contaminationor an outlier.
Table 5 Bacteriological analysis, chlorides, Nitrates and sulphates
Faecal Total
Coliform Coliform
Code LocalName UTMeast UTMnorth Formation (per100ml) (per100ml) SWL,m CONDUCTIVITY TDS,mg/l NA,mg/l CA,mg/l CL,mg/l NO3,mg/l SO4,mg/l
BH-52 Rail way station 813936 1061662 Upper Sandstones 0 0 29.77 1582 1092 60 214 166 129.4 56.7
BH-07 D/Dawa food complex 814520 1063426 Upper Sandstones 25 480 30 1996 1060 40 188.8 144 155.32 92.3
BH-14 Hafcat #1 814865 1063384 Upper Sandstones 0 2740 1810 1245 80 240 216 184.8 221.5
BH-05 Cement Factory 812378 1061804 Alluvial 100 250 16 994 532 30 116 83.6 18.46
BH-06 Ras Hotel # 2 813870 1061350 Upper Sandstones 50 100 45 1393 946 60 200 150 115.28 50
BH-10 East Afri Bot#2 814020 1061049 Upper Sandstones 0 45 36.5 1137 834 40 152 80.6 92.84 39.56
DW-14 D/DEdible oil f 812941 1061925 Alluvial 45 210 23 1084 650 60 140 100 34.76 31.65
DW-30 Tony farm #1 811769 1063611 Alluvial 60 110 15.5 1168 724 5 183 91.2 25.5 65.9
DW-31 Christos school 814820 1061283 Alluvial 40 100 38
SP-14 Cement Factory 812255 1061280 Alluvial 1500 1900 908 526 4 132 94.6 18.92 7.9
SP-21 Legehare 818219 1061625 Hamanlei Limestone 5 25 966 570 50 140 56.1 4.84 15.8
BH-43 Sabian Pw-1 812491 1063930 Upper Sandstones 0 0 13.5 1057 622 50 136 106 34.32 44.8
BH-44 Sabian Pw-2 812097 1063961 Upper Sandstones 80 100 9.3 1066 664 50 160 100 27.28 42.2
BH-46 Sabian Pw-4 812527 1063543 Upper Sandstones 0 0 19.7 1060 670 50 160 106 35.2 29
BH-47 Sabian Pw-5 812362 1063793 Upper Sandstones 0 0 15.9 1017 618 40 159 75.7 23.76 47.5
BH-13 Amdael well #1 814356 1064666 Upper Sandstones 20 110 1302 790 100 112 161 21.12 14.5
BH-2 Dechatu 816294 1058832 NA 0 160 784 470 10 140 28.6 27.72 12.1
BH-67 Textile A.W-2 814652 1064390 Upper Sandstones 30 100 32.13
BH-70 Textile N.W 3 816584 1062892 Upper Sandstones 0 820 14.86
DW-26 Goro(sheh Moham 810773 1062220 Alluvial 600 640 1279
DW-22 Catholic ch. 816161 1061685 Alluvial 180 1000
DW-23 ELFORA 811200 1062365 Alluvial 0 0 26
DW-04 Tsehay Hotel 813009 1061596 Alluvial 120 290 1380 878 80 180 133 92.4 15.8
DW-21 Cement Factory 812282 1061937 Alluvial 1400 2400 5.7
WSS-1 Reservior 0 0
WSS-2 Tap 5 20
22.7 Water Quality of different geological formations
To classify the type of waters in each geological formation and determine their
relationship, different graphical methods of interpretation of the chemical analysis and
correlation of major ions of the different formations is carried out. For the classification of
the water type in the different formations piper is used for each geological formations
applying Aquachem computer software. The Piper Diagrams for each geological formation
are given in fig35.
Alluvial sediments piper in fig. 35.a clearly shows that the water types in the alluvial
deposits varies in a wide range. The major water types are Ca-Mg-HCO3, Ca-HCO3-Cl,
Ca-Mg-HCO3-Cl, Ca-Na-HCO3-Cl, Na-Ca-Mg-HCO3-SO4, etc. The water type with
chlorides, sulphates and sodium are the modification of the water by human interference in
the Dire Dawa town and unprotected shallow dug wells.
b) Basalts:
Piper Diagram of the Basalts groundwater (fig35.b) shows that the ground waters are Ca-
HCO3, Ca-Mg-HCO3-Cl, Ca-Na-HCO3 are the major type of waters. It should be noted
that similar to the alluvial sediment water types with chlorides are ground water that the
water quality is modified by human interference.
The piper diagram of the upper sandstones and Hamanlei lime stones (fig35.c) show a
wide variety of water types. The main water types are Ca-HCO3, Ca-HCO3-Cl, Ca-Mg-
HCO3-Cl, Ca-Na-Cl-HCO3, Ca-Na-HCO3-Cl, Ca-Cl-HCO3-SO4, etc.
Evaluation of the water types in the different part of the area the following results are
found:
• Water types of Ca-HCO3 and Ca-Mg-HCO3 are distributed at Dire Jara well field,
Serkama well at Hurso and recently test well drilled at Bore TW4. These bore holes
are located in the rural areas and free from human activity and under protected
conditions.
• The Sabiyian well field bore holes have been modified to Ca-HCO3-Cl (PW2 and
PW4), Ca-Na-HCO3-Cl (PW-6 and PW-8) and Ca-Mg-HCO3-Cl (PW-7)
indicating that the groundwater of Sabiyian well field is modified.
• Similar to the Sabiyian well field the groundwater of Dire Dawa town have
different water types Ca-HCO3-Cl [Ras Hotel (BH-06), Railway (BH-52), BH-10,
BH11, etc], Ca-Na-HCO3-Cl and Ca-Na-Mg-HCO3-Cl (Melka Jebdu BH-09,
Palace bore holes), Ca-Mg-Na-Cl-SO4 and Ca-Cl-HCO3-SO4 (Hafcat wells BH-14
and BH-15). In general the bore holes in Dire Dawa town and its periphery (Melka
Jebdu) have high concentration of chlorides, sulphates and sodium unlike bore
holes far from the town.
d) Basement rocks
Unlike the other formations, the basement rocks outcrops on the escarpment and the
groundwater of the weathered and fractured of the formation or recharged by the limestone
emerges as springs favored by its topography. Piper diagram of basement rocks (fig35.d)
also shows that the diversity of water types is limited and most of them are Ca-HCO3 and
Ca-Mg-HCO3. However, there some unprotected springs (Halobusa SP-2, Adada SP-4 and
SP-8), which have high chloride concentrations.
Figure 9 Piper Diagram of all water bearing formations
a) Alluvium Sediments
b) Basalts
c) Upper Sandstones and Hamanlei limestones
d) Basement rocks
ii) Relationship of groundwater in the different formations
The relationship of the groundwater in different geological formation is preliminarily
evaluated by correlating the average major ions of one of the formation with the other
formations (fig36).
As it can be seen from figure 36 and table 24 the groundwater in the different water
bearing formation interacts each other. In general the following preliminarily
understanding can be derived from the above relationships.
• The alluvial water bearing formation shows high relationship with the other water
bearing formation and there is groundwater movement to the lower water bearing
formations forming one groundwater system in the area.
• Comparatively the basalts ground waters do not highly correlates with the other
formations water indicating that the basalt aquifer is relatively isolated or the
groundwater distribution is highly localized.
• Upper sandstone aquifer and Hamanalei limestone aquifer highly correlate
indicating that these aquifers form one complex aquifer unit.
• The Limestone and basement aquifers major ions are almost identical. This is
probably the springs from weathered and fractured basement rocks, mainly gets
from the overlying fractured and sometimes karstified limestone.
The above conditions make it possible to consider the DDAC as one groundwater system
for all formations together.
Correlation of average major cations and anions of alluvium sediments with the other
formations
450.0
400.0
350.0
other formation, mg/l
Correlation ofaverage major cations and anions of Basalts with the other
formation
450
400
R 2 =0.73
300
50
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Correlation of average cations and anions of upper sandstones w ith the other
formations
450
400
average major ions of other
350
B asement =1.06sandstone - 28.1
formation, mg/l
300 R 2 =0.95
250
Limestone=1.128Sandstone - 45.9
200 R 2 =0.92
150
100
50
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
400.0
Average major ions of
R2 = 0.99
300.0
250.0
200.0
150.0
100.0
50.0
0.0
0.0 100.0 200.0 300.0 400.0 500.0
Ethiopian
Property Guidelines Alluvial sediments Basalts Upper Sandstones Hamanalei Basements Remar
Value (2000), limestone k
mg/l Range Median Range Median Range Median Range Median Range Media
n
28
24
Hig So
h diu
m
ab 20
so
rpt
ion
Me rat 16
diu ion
m
12
LO
w
4
0
100 1000 10000
250 750 2250
Conductivity, microS/cm
The first report on the nitrate contamination of the hydro-geologic system in the
Dire Dawa town centre was reported in 1959 with maximum nitrate concentration
of 45 mg/l. Since then a number of records show that the contamination
increasing from time to time. For example, in 1981 it was recorded a maximum
nitrate concentration of 320 mg/l. The degree of nitrate concentration in the
groundwater depends on the population density and recharge condition in the
area.
According to Taye Alemayehu, (1988) report it was stated that Dire Dawa town is
a fast growing industrial and commercial town, which produces pollutants in great
quantities. The town has no sewer system and wastewater treatment plant. The
main sources of pollution are multiple point sources pollution of pit latrines and
septic tanks and linear source pollution of industrial and domestic waste disposal
along the sandy seasonal river channels.
Human waste disposal in the town are pit latrines and septic tanks. The rapid
infiltration condition of the unsaturated zone of the sandy formation of the area
and shallow groundwater condition have facilitated to receive large amount of
contaminant load into the groundwater. The filling of pit latrines and septic tanks
is rare chance. It is estimated that annually about 65,000 tons human excreta is
dumped in the groundwater system and about 10,000 m3 of solid wastes were
accumulated on three hydro-geologically favorable to pollution areas. Dire Dawa
textiles factory discharges waste water with TDS of 7500 mg/l with abundant of
sodium, chlorine and sulphate in the Lege Hare river channel.
23.2 Aquifers Vulnerability
There are two aquifers in at Dire Dawa town area i.e. the alluvial and the upper
sandstone aquifer. The main aquifer that is exploited for the Dire Dawa town
water supply is the upper sandstone. The main aquifer (upper sandstone) is semi
confined overlaid by the alluvial aquifer. The groundwater level depth (fig41) and
groundwater level elevation maps (fig42) show that the groundwater level is deep
along Dechatu river and at the same time is the overlying alluvial and the upper
sandstones are highly permeable and the groundwater flow concentrates along the
river. Along Dechatu river fan the upper sandstones aquifer is highly vulnerable to
pollution due to the high permeability about 5 m/day of the alluvial sediments.
Away from the Dechatu river to the west the alluvial becomes finer and the
permeability decreases to 1m/day, the upper sandstone aquifer is also vulnerable
to pollution. In general the upper sandstone aquifer at Dire Dawa town area is
vulnerable to pollution due to the high to moderate permeability of the alluvial
sediments overlying the aquifer.
2 Hafcat dairy farm 1062851 815079 1159 Flat plain, near Decahtu river Animal feedlots, irrigation surface Point, Diffuse 120000m2 16/02/2003
3 Amdael Agri-farm and diary 1064603 814550 1128 Flat plain, near Decahtu river Animal feedlots, irrigation surface Point, Diffuse 270000m2 16/02/2003
4 Elfora 1062105 812470 1178 Inclined to the east solid waste and waste water surface line 15/02/2003
5 Main 1062911 815528 1155 Inclined to the east Cemetry Unsaturated zone Point 90000m2 15/02/2003
6 East Africa bottling 1060725 814353 1205 Inclined to the east Waste water from industry surface line 15/02/2003
7 D.D. Food complex 1063470 814420 1175 Slightly inclined to NE direction Waste water from industry surface line 15/02/2003
8 D.D. Slaughting factory 1062634 811558 1188 flat plain Waste water from industry surface Point 15/02/2003
D.D. Solid waste disposal Slightly inclined towards Dechatu
9 area 1063541 815485 1147 river solid waste and waste water surface Points 120000m2 15/02/2003
Slightly inclined towards Dechatu
10 Total Fuel station 1061089 814724 1208 river Waste Water from fuel station surface Fuels,Greese Point, line 16/02/2003
11 Agip/shell fuel station 1061200 813750 1199 Slightly inclined to North direction Waste Water from fuel station surface Fuels,Greese Point, line 16/02/2003
12 Shell fuel station 1060730 813880 1211 Slightly inclined to North direction Waste Water from fuel station surface Fuels,Greese Point, line 16/02/2003
Slightly hilly and inclined to
13 Legehare Cemetry 1061027 815743 1243 northeast Cemetry Unsaturated Point 157500 16/02/2003
14 Christos school 1061283 814820 1236 Slightly hilly and inclined to north Abndoned well Below water table point 16/02/2003
15 St Gebriel school 1061800 813338 1201 Flat plain along Dechatu river Abndoned well Below water table point 16/02/2003
17 Garages, machine shops 1061450 813500 1180 Plain Salvage yard, garage, machine shop Surface point 16/02/2003
18 WFP(Abikian) 1063061 814317 1189 flat plain Abondoned well Below water table point 16/02/2003
19 Tony Farm well 1063118 811366 1181 flat plain faulty constructed well Below water table pont 16/02/2003
20 Tony farm 1063118 811366 1181 flat plain Irrigation practice, manuring surface diffuse 16/02/2003
Goro kebele, sheh
21 Mohammed 1062220 810773 1211 rugged plain faulty constructed dug well Below water table point 16/02/2003
22 Goro kebele 1062334 810738 1215 rugged plain faulty constructed dug well Below water table point 16/02/2003
23 Tsehay Hotel 1061596 813009 1179 Plain faulty constructed dug well Below water table Point 16/02/2003
Slightly hilly and inclined to
24 Cement factory 1061937 812282 1180 southwest faulty constructed dug well Below water table Point 16/02/2003
Cement factory (Butiji
25 spring) 1061280 812255 1185 depression Unprotected spring surface Line 17/02/2003
23.4 Contamination Condition of the upper sandstone aquifer
Since the Dire Dawa area \groundwater is generally vulnerable to pollution and
the on site sanitation contamination is directly related to population density. As
can be in figs 44, 45, 46, and 47 the high nitrates and chlorides concentrations are
distributed where the population density is high. High chlorides concentrations
are also found at Hafcat and Palace area. High concentration of Sulphate within
the town is found at high population density areas and at low population density
areas at farming plots of Hafcat, Tony etc.
The pollution condition of the Dire Dawa area is highly manifested mainly due to
the absence of sewerage system in the town. This condition may not be resolved
in the near future. In order to have an early warning system on the rate of Nitrates
and chlorides contamination of Sabiyian well field, it is highly advisable to start
water quality monitoring work along the advancing plumes of from southeast to
northwest direction on the following monitoring wells i.e. Dire Dawa food
complex water supply well and PW9, PW6, PW4, PW5 and PW2 of the Sabiyain
wells. Here is recommended to carry out analysis of main cations and anions
including nitrates two times per year (in July and January).
It was not possible to model the extent and amounts of nitrates pollution and other
contaminants since there is not sufficient data to construct flow model as stated
earlier.
Various exotic and land race tree species have been maintained in public and private
gardens, and along streets and avenue landscapes of the metropolitan.
In spite of the urban population growth and associated growing demand for greenery
during the past 20 years, only few green structures, i.e. one municipal and three private
parks, were developed for public greenery and recreation access. Few plantations have
been made on roadsides, peri urban areas and over the ground water buffer zone.
Except few ecological land race Acacia species left as a natural remnant in conservation priority areas at the southwest, a vast green
zone in the north and most gullies, stream banks, flood plains unkempt lots, and utility right off ways at various parts of the city are
covered by exotic invasive species, i.e. Prosopis juliflora and Parthenium hystrophorous, which are known to be a major threat for the
green biodiversity.
I) Residential greenery
According to the green area assessment sample survey study made on residential
settlements of transition and expansion zones, about 95% of the housing plots are found
to deserve green vegetation with an average coverage ratio of 12% per plot size. How
ever, higher green area as high as (30%) coverage has been observed in compounds of
the public facilities and social service providing offices and institutions. This shows that
green areas/trees are important to moderate the climate of the area.
Except in some government quarters, sub neighborhoods green areas are less developed
because open spaces and play lots are scarce in most portion of the city (see Table 18
below).
In the peri urban areas of the city, i.e. Melka Jebdu, Lega Hare, Butiji, horticultural
orchards are developed at respective riverbanks. Few farm and conservation plantations
are developed at few parts of Dechatu flood plains, while most portion of Dechatu, Goro
GTZ, Butiji and air port flood plains are still un developed and remains a major threat of
flooding hazard.
Hilly areas of Butiji-Goro, Goro-MelkaJebdu, Lega Hare, Genda Gerada, and Addis
Alem are degraded hills except little coverage at Addis Alem hills. Butiji-Melka Jebdu
hills are conservation priority areas for the groundwater aquifer protection. The only
developed buffer areas include plantation of Sabian groundwater well field, near Gende
Tesfa, and the banks Melka Jebdu flood plain cemetery buffer areas.
As far as woodland and urban forest is concerned, the Melka Jebdu peri urban prosopis
plantation is the only wood lot for urban fuel wood supply. However, natural woody
shrubs and trees around Melka Jebdu and the vicinity urban rural peasant association’s
(PA’s) constitute the natural green nets. The survey made during data collection showed
that many areas are under severe degradation in and around the City table 20. below.
Table 3 Size and distribution of degraded ecology and undeveloped green areas in and
around the city.
Includes formal green areas in the form of parks recreation areas, street side and green
boulevards.
IV) Parks and recreational areas
Survey made by this study shows that except 3 private parks located entirely in one
kebele (03), there is no municipal parks for public access. The Lega Hare Park, which
was planned to be a major municipal park, remains unfinished and ownerless project are
now in a state of demolishing .The Kezira Mini Park which used to serve minor
recreation facilities are now changed in to office.
Number of Number of
residents within public transport
N Name of garden / parks Location Area size 1km distance from line leading to
o (Ha) urban green space. green space
V) Sport fields
Include main stadium, the city has got six sport fields for community access. However, except
the main stadium most of the rest fields are undeveloped open areas. Boulevard roads of
Kezira, Sabian and Fasika Hotel are presently used as a ridding field for bicycle riders and
athletics runner.
Table 6. Size, distribution and accessibility of Sport fields
Number of public
Name of the Number of resident with in 1km transport line
2
Location Area (m ) distance from urban green space. leading to green
field Location
space
Sport Fields
*Main stadium sport Kebele 04 25731.4 42148 1
field
Sabian sport field Kebele 02 11100 2782 1
Leghare sport field Kebele 08 8400 50136 1
Police meret sport Kebele 09 12000 12057 1
field
Konel sport field Kebele 07 15162 48860 2
*Total area of main stadium football field is 8250
VI) Street sides and green boulevards
Presently most street side trees are confined at city core areas of Kezira, Genda Kore, and to
some extent in Genda Dipo. It covers about 9 kms, which is only 5% of the total road size.
Table 7. Size and distribution of Squares and Boulevards
N Name of the square Location Area size (M2)
o
1 Ferensai square kebele 03 154
2 Ras hotel square kebele 03 28
3 Michael square Kebele 03 78.57
4 Tedros square Kebele 03 28
5 Lagahar square Kebele 03 28
6 Municipal square Kebele 03 63.64
Total 380.2 [=0.038 ha]
On the contrary green boulevards are mainly developed over the roads of expansion and
transition areas as in the Table ---below.
Table 8. Size and distribution of green boulevards along streets
No Location Area size [m2]
Consequently, the roles of green structure in the past were limited to very few functions like
climatic amelioration (shade) and recreational amenity, while the vital ecologic, economic and
social roles of the green structures are still poorly understood.
The following Table 26 below shows the existing green area coverage and the standard
required to be meet in Dire Dawa. From the Table 26 there is a large gap between the actual
need and the standard.
Table 9. Existing green area in relation to demand
Required based on
No Type of greenery Existing area norms and Remarks
estimate standards
1 Total road length is 187
Street and avenue 9km 187 km km of which asphalt
greens covers 31km
2
Residential greenery 132.2 439-732
[4 - 5%] [15-25%]
3
Parks and gardens 18.76 ha 60 ha All existing functional
parks and gardens are
located in one kebele
[kebele03]
4 Sport fields.
4.92 ha 16.25 ha Only main stadium [2.5
ha] is developed green
area.
5
Play grounds 9.1 ha 27.2
[1m2/ person]
6
Agriculture and 190 ha Above 600 ha
wood land
However, in recent years, many municipal plans have pointed out the importance of green
areas for the following main purposes:
It allows restoration of ecological balance, reduce pollution and wind speed, and
replenish the ground water aquifer.
It improves the living environment and provides aesthetic pleasure and recreation
amenity.
It gives opportunity and access to use un build areas, such as unkempt lots, utility right
off ways, sand streams, flood plains and urban hills for urban forestry and agriculture.
Green areas are important in-situ conservation sites for plant biodiversity and corridor
for wild life.
Thus, in view of its immense functions spans of green nets are currently increased and include
the following basic components:
Home gardens and open areas /Green space at neighborhood level/
Green belts along streets /Avenue, road island and squares/
Recreational amenities [Public and private parks, Sport fields and youth centers]
Zoo, botanical gardens and nurseries.
Natural monument, cemetery buffer zone and worships places
Natural and semi natural urban woodlands and forest areas.
Urban farms /Mixed agriculture/
Protected and preserved areas that lie in and around the conservation priority areas of
the metropolitan.
& PROJECT PLANNING
Problem tree analysis of environmental
sanitation
Of dire dawa town
Public Lead to water Clogging of Municipal Emission Wastage of Breading ground Spoil the
health and open space urban budget of GHG use full for vector and image of the
problem pollution drainage demand resource scavenging city by vision
system animals & potential
developers
EFFECTS
ACTIONS
Core
problems
Poor environmental sanitation