You are on page 1of 91

1.

Introduction on background
Ethiopia is one of the countries with the lowest sanitation coverage, communities lack of
awareness concerning the linkages between sanitation and health, and the prevalence of
other pressing need, are amongst the main reasons that attributed to low coverage figure.
Sanitation and hygienic practices are the requirements for overall reductions in morbidity
and mortality rates, especially among children 50% of diarrhea reduction can be achieved
with the use of latrine, 15% with the use off clean water, 35% with proper sanitation and
32% with the practices of hand washing under five-child mortality rate in Ethiopia is
reported 117/1000 of which 20% of the death is caused by diarrhea.
The government set and exercise different programs and strategies by appropriate
intervention measures to over come sanitation problems. Among those. MDG and
PASDEP are the main and important issues for the sanitation sector.
At the United Nations millennium summit in September 2000 heads of state of 191
countries adopted the millennium declaration. The declaration was further elaborated and
eight millennium development goals/MDGS/ and 18 target were elected as a set of
quantifiable and time bound goals and target to dramatically improve the human
condition by 2015. Among these goals is the millennium development goal 7 ensure
environmental sustainability with three of its specific targets.
♦ Target 9 integrates the principles of sustainable development policies and
programs reverse lose of environmental resources.
♦ Target 10 cut in half by 2015 the proportions of people with out sustainable
access to safe drinking water
♦ Target 11 achieve significant improvement in the live of at least 100 million slum
dwellers by 2020
Since water and sanitation are inextricably linked to the eradication of poverty and to the
achievement of sustainable development. The millennium target itself as modified lates
during the world summit on sustainable development with the addition of specific
reference to basic sanitation.
With respect to sanitation PASDEP will see a major program to promote and support the
use of latrines including through the health extension coverage from 17.5% to 79.8% and
urban sanitation coverage from 50% to 89.4% of the population.
Inherent to other regions of Ethiopia the environmental sanitation conditions of Dire
Dawa is not satisfactory the over all sanitation coverage is 79% the problems of
environmental sanitation is cholera intestinal parasite, malaria etc--- lack of sanitation
facilities also packed by over crowding increasing population and unemployment. The
increase of slummy areas and street children in the town.
The integrated development plan /IDP/ preparation was launched in 1997 and officially
endorsed in 1998 during the IDP preparation time the sanitation sections plan were
prepared and integrated. However during that time PASDEP was not prepared and can’t
integrate with IDP.
The implementation of IDP elapsed two and a half year now a day the administration
decide to evaluate and review the plan in line with MDGS and PASDEP and finally to
develop the regional PASDEP document. Therefore the main analysis of environmental
issues to meet MDGS goals and PASDEP document under taken here.
2. Objective
The objectives of the analysis are
♦ The broad objective of the analysis is to put the regional IDP on the
MDGs and PASDEP planning path.
♦ To adjust the time frame of IDP in line with national PASDEP /2005/06-
2009/10)
3. Scope of analysis
The scope of analysis
♦ The analysis mainly focus on environmental issues including sanitation
♦ Assessing the regional environmental status current situation and
reviewing of MDGS and PASDEP documents in order to integrate and develop
the regional PASDEP.
4. Strategy of analysis
The strategy adopted include
♦ Expert discussion
♦ Consultation with responsible bodies, staffs key partners and stakeholders
♦ Review of available documents including
- Sanitation and hygiene issue paper
- Millennium development goal for water and sanitation
- Sanitation millennium development goal assessment
- Dire Dawa regional IDP /analysis doucment/
- Dire Dawa EPA study document and reports
- Dire Dawa sanitation and beatification study documents and
reports
- A plan for accelerated and sustained development to end
poverty/PASDEP/ document.

5. Location and Access


The Dire Dawa Provisional Administration (DDPA) is located at the eastern part of
Ethiopia approximately between 9027' and 9049' North latitudes and longitudes 41038' and
42019' East, particularly at the margin of the Rift valley. The capital of the
Administration /study area/ is accessible by airplane, train, and cars, and is about 520
kms road distance from Addis Ababa. A network of dry weather roads crosses various
parts of the DDPA, making most parts of it accessible by four-wheel drive vehicles. Most
of the roads are crossing the wide riverbeds and are used only in dry season.
Figure 1. Location Map of Dire Dawa Provisional Administration.

6. Ecology and Natural Resources


6.1. Ecology
Ecologically of the region is lying a in desert and semi-desert scrub shrub land ecosystem
bounded by dry ever green mountain forest ecosystem in south and south west, and
Acacia Commiphora Wood Land Ecosystem in the northeast and south part of the region
[NBDSAPP, 2004].
The broad agro-climatic category of the regional ecosystem felt in the "Hot semi arid
zone. Thus, because of the climatic stress farmland accounts for only 9% of the total land
area. Whereas the vast regional ecology is believed to be more important for its various
environmental services and products mainly, fuel wood, charcoal, fodder, edible fruit,
and rangeland. Moreover, it is a habitat and corridor for wild life and eco-tourism.
Table1. Ecosystem category of Dire Dawa and surrounding influence areas
No Region Ecosystem Area Importance Species
/Zone Category Covered
(Ha)

1 West Montane dry 35 000  Juniparus Procera, Podocarpus falcates, Olea


Hararghe forest european, Cordia africana and others
2 East Montane dry 14000  Juniparus procera, Podocarpus falcates, Olea
Hararghe forest european, Cordia africana ,Hagenia, Erica belts and
others.
3 Dire Dawa Semi desert 36365  Acacia,
scrub shrub Eupharbia,Aloe,Caraluma,Opuntia,Dracaena,balanites
Prosopis , and Ziziphus.spp.
4 Shinila-Jijiga Acacia -  Cordeauxia edulis, Boswellia , commiphora species
commiphra and others
wood land and
semi desert
scrub
Source: National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (-----).

6.2 Climate

The study area has a warm dry climate, which is a characteristic of semi-desert climate.
The altitude in the administration varies from 950 ms to 2260m above mean sea level.
Both temperature and precipitation is the function of altitude. Only two meteorological
stations, Dire Dawa and Hurso, are found in the administration. There is other three
nearby meteorological stations (Alemeya, Dengego, and Kulubi) outside the
Administration boundary. The mean annual temperature of the Administration can be
approximated between 16 0c at Dengego and 27 0c at Hurso. Similarly, the smallest mean
annual rainfall also varies from 479mm at Hurso and 1009.2 mm at Kulubi. The
following mean annual rainfall and temperatures computed at Alemaya, Dengego and
kulubi are (813mm, 160c), (775mm, 160c), and (1009.2mm, 15.70c) respectively. The
mean annual temperature and precipitation is about 25.30c and 640mm respectively in the
capital of the Administration, Dire Dawa.
6.3 Physiographic and Drainage system
6.3.1 Physiographic
According WWDSE (2003) the regional physiographic setting of the study area is
categorized in to three major groups:
 The Harar plateau,
 The escarpment, and
 The Afar Depression.

The southern limit of the studied area is located on the northern limit of the Harar
plateau.
The escarpment is composed of a series of tilted blocks most of which dip to the south
and bounded by step like faults. The topographic descent is steep where the primary
Harar plateau fringes were high (ancient basement swell) including the southern part of
Dire Dawa. Towards north, the blocks disappear beneath the young rift alluvium and
volcanic.

The Afar depression is generally flat, northward gently slopping terrain, characterized by
alluvial flats, lacustrine deposits, basaltic lava flows with numerous cinder cones, which
is a characteristic of the northern part of the DDPA area.
When we come to the study area, three distinct geomorphologies have been identified
earlier studies. These are:
 The plateau marginal area, which demarcates the southern limit of the region,
has elevations in the range of 2,100-2,300 masl.
 The area of the escarpment, stepped margin of the valley depression, extending
from the plateau to the southern limit of Dire Dawa city has elevations in the range of
2,100-1,200 masl.
 The area of the valley depression situated in the vicinity of the city of Dire Dawa
extending to the north, west and eastern limit of the region. This valley depression lies at
a relatively lower elevations of 1,000-1,200 masl. Most of the settlement of the DDPA is
either nearby the foot of the escarpments or within the escarpment in valley depression
areas, where water and fertile soil are available.
6.3.2 Drainage
The study area, DDPA, is located within the Awash River Basin at the foot of Wabi
Shebelle-Awash Rivers' Basins’ divider escarpment. The whole drainage system in the
DDPA is intermittent streams carrying water only after heavy rain events. They are, thus,
dry wadis with sand beds. These wadis are erosive at the southern and southeastern
escarpment having capacity to erode and carry heavy sediment loads including rock
fragments and tree twigs that are discharged/deposited when they reach the flat plain of
the Dire Dawa graben. The Administration is drained by 10 water sheds as shown in the
Figure…below.
Figure 2. Watersheds draining the Administration

Dir e Da wa Ca t chment Ma p
Rivcatchgeo.shp
Main river
DD catchment.shp N
Aboley
Anchel
Cherecha-Kulfgosha

ayile
Dechato
Degna Jebis

Gob
Gobayile
Kelead
Lege Oda Gunufeta
Yebelo
Yebelo

Anchel

Jebis
Kelead

Degna
sha
lfgo

Aboley
-Ku
feta

Dechato
cha
Gunu

ere
Ch
Oda
Lege

5 0 5 10 Miles
6.4 Natural resources
6.4.1 Vegetation
Vegetation development in the study area is mainly governed by physiographic/altitude,
climate, etc besides other factors. Vegetation in the study area is scanty except along the
intermittent streams. The natural vegetation is largely scanty acacia trees and cactus. On
the patchy rock outcrop areas in the town and its surroundings there is very weak
vegetation development since there is no soil development.

The dominant vegetation covers of the region’s ecosystem consists of deciduous shrubs
mostly Acacia species often interspersed with less frequent evergreen shrubs and
succulents such as Euphorbia, Aloe, Caralluma, Opuntia, and Dracaena spp. on rocky out
crops [WBISPP, 2000`]. The low land and flood plains are dominantly covered by
species of Acacia, Azadirachta, Delonix, Ziziphus and Prosopis juliflora. The grass
species are widely distributed in patchy and Plateau land escapes. High mountain areas in
the southern part are covered by the remnants of dry evergreen montanae forest such as,
Juniperous procera, Cordia africana, Cupressus lusitanica and Olea europea.

6.4.2 Wildlife
Though there is little information available on the status of wildlife resources of the
region, the ecosystem is known to be habitat for various wildlife in relatively dense
shrubs and bushy low land areas of the region that includes many game animals such as
unique Antelopes [Beia, Dibatag and Gazelle], Mongoose, Warthogs, Anubis Baboons,
greater and lesser Kudu and predators like Lion, Cheetah, Fox, and Hyenas.
6.4.3 Mineral resources
As described below under the section environmental geology different mineral resources
have been reported from different areas of the Administration. The study is at its
rudimentary level with out detail exploration study. Lead, rare metals and associated
gemstones, construction and industrial minerals of different types are reported from
different sites. Construction and industrial minerals are found in the vicinity of the Dire
Dawa City in large volume. Limestone, sandstone, sand, travertine, basalt, gneiss, diorite,
etc. are found in and around the City.
6.4.4 Water resources
As described above there is no perennial river in the administration, and the intermittent
streams or wadis, which are not gauged so far. The surface runoff potential in the
Administration has been estimated for the entire watersheds as well as for project sites by
WWDSE (2003). Accordingly, the total surface water potential of all the watersheds is
estimated as 211.2 Mm3 per annum. It is important to note that in some of the
watersheds, particularly those on the eastern part of the Administration; most of the
runoff comes from parts of the watersheds, which lie outside the boundary of the Council
in the south.
The Administration is endowed with groundwater resources abstracted mainly from
upper sandstone and Hamanelei limestone aquifers that act as reservoir of the
groundwater of the Administration (major aquifer). The current utilization of this
resource is by far less than the estimated annual recharge. The abstractions from all type
of water schemes (deep and shallow boreholes including dug well, springs) are 18.85
Mm3/year (597.8 l/sec) while existing annual recharge estimated is 38.8 Mm3/year (1233
l/sec).
Concerning the quality of surface water resources there is no adequate data. The existing
water quality investigation conducted to assess/check the adequacy of the quality of the
surface runoff at the proposed irrigation sites by WWDSE (2003) at three locations
corresponding to the three proposed irrigation sites indicated the following results:
 The water of Chirecha and Gerba Kenissa Rivers are "low salinity water" and can
be used for almost all crops and almost all kinds of soils, very little salinity may develop
through time, which may require slight leaching, but it is permissible under normal
irrigation practice except in soils of extremely low permeabilities.
 The Jeldessa River water exhibited 265 µ s/cm, which is "Medium Salinity
Water” and can be used for irrigation, if a moderate amount of leaching occurs. Normal
salt tolerant plants can be grown without much salinity control.
 Since the SAR values in all the river water samples from the three streams are
less than 10, then it can be used for irrigation on almost all soils and for almost all crops.
The groundwater quality of the Administration is very hard type of water represented by
Ca-HCO3 and Ca-Mg-HCO3 with hardness value exceeding 180 mg/l; however, this
water type is modified in and around the Dire Dawa city to Ca-Na-HCO3-Cl, Ca-HCO3-
SO4 in response to poor waste management practices.
6.4.5 Energy resources
There are no existing potential energy resources in the Administration in relation to
hydroelectric power development. There are also limited resources regarding biomass
fuel. No report has been made so far on the existence of fossil fuels in the
Administration. In spite of the potential to develop solar and wind energy in the area
very few attempts has been made regarding these alternative energy sources.

According to WWDSE (2003) from the total energy consumption in 2002 in Dire Dawa,
it is estimated to be about 2924 tera joules (TJ) of which 58 percent comes from biomass
fuels (50 percent woody biomass, 4 percent charcoal and 4 percent agricultural residue),
37 percent from petroleum fuels, and 5 percent from electricity. WWDSE contend that
energy consumption by sector is as follows: households (72 percent), commercial
services (6 percent), industry (8 percent), and transport (14 percent).
Table 2. Energy balance for the Dire Dawa Provincial Administration, TJ (2002) in
(WWDSE, 2003).

Woody Crop Fuel


Sector Dung Charcoal Kerosene LPG Gasoline Diesel Electricity Total
biomass residue Oil
Households 1,334.1 111.8 - 115.9 453.0 36.7 51.3 2,102.7
Urban 766.6 104.5 - 115.9 453.0 3.8 51.3 1,495.1
Rural 567.5 7.2 - - - 32.9 - 607.6
Commercial services 118.8 13.7 4.6 36.1 173.1
Industry 14.0 155.4 57.6 227.0
Medium scale 155.4 48.4 203.8
Small scale 2.7 9.2 11.8
Construction 11.3 0.1 11.4
Transport 244.4 175.8 420.3
Passenger 244.4 - 244.4
Freight 175.8 175.8
Rural social services & government 0.3 0.9 1.2
Water supply 0.3 0.3
Health 0.0 0.0
Education 0.0 0.0
Government 0.9 0.9
All sectors 1,452.9 111.8 - 129.6 457.5 36.7 244.4 190.1 155.4 145.9 2,924.3
6.4.5.1 Renewable energy sources

I) Solar and wind energy

According WWDSE (2004) solar and wind energy resource potential exist for future
development. This study contends that annual mean solar energy is about 5.4kWh/m2-day
while annual mean wind speed is 5.5m/s (at 10 meter above ground). Potential solar
energy application areas in DDPAs’ include solar water heating in the City and solar
electricity for home systems and for rural social services (water supply, health centers
and schools). Wind energy may be employed for rural water supply projects (both for
pumping potable water for humans and livestock) and for small wind generators.

Table 3. Solar energy in Dire Dawa (Latitude 9.36N; Longitude 41.52E;


Elevation 1210 masl)

Months Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Sunshine
hours 8.6 8.1 7.9 7.6 8.3 7.7 7.1 7.6 7.4 8.0 9.0 9.3 8.0
% 75 69 66 62 67 61 57 62 61 68 78 81 67
Average daily radiation on horizontal surface (kWh/m2)
Total 5.2 5.3 5.5 5.5 5.7 5.3 5.1 5.4 5.3 5.3 5.4 5.3 1,965
Direct 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.2 3.4 3.1 2.9 3.2 3.1 3.3 3.5 3.5 1,202
Diffuse 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.1 2.0 1.9 1.8 763
Source: ENEC-CESEN, Technical Report 3, Solar energy resources, 1986.

Table 4. Wind speed in Dire Dawa


Months Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Mean
2 masl 2.6 2.7 3.0 3.3 3.8 4.5 4.9 4.4 3.8 3.6 3.3 3.0 3.6
10 masl 4.0 4.1 4.6 5.0 5.8 6.8 7.4 6.7 5.8 5.5 5.0 4.6 5.5
Mean monthly wind speeds (m/s) measured at approximately 2 m above ground derived from meteorological data
(1968-1973). Wind speed at 2 masl is converted to speed at 10 masl using the formula V10=V2 (h10/h2) b
Source: Wolde-Ghirogis, W. 1992, On a Tandom Small-scale wind and Micro Hydro-power Energy Conversation
Model, Sinet, Ethiop. J. Scil, Vol 15 (1), PP. 1-21.
Figure 3. Solar energy in Dire Dawa
6.0 10.0

5.0

Radiation - kWh/m2-day
8.0

Sunshine hours - daily


4.0
6.0
3.0
4.0
2.0

Total 2.0
1.0
Direct
Sunshine hours
- 0.0

Jul

Sep
Mar

May

Nov
Jan

Source: WWDSE (2004)


Figure 4. Wind speed in Dire Dawa (m/s at 10 magl)
8.0

7.0

6.0

5.0

4.0

3.0
May

Nov
Oct

Dec
Mar

Apr

Sep
Jan

Jun
Feb

Aug
Jul

Source: WWDSE (2004)


6.4.5.2 Energy Demand Projection

I) Total Energy Demand


Energy demand in DDPA is projected by WWDSE (2004) to grow at a rate of 4 percent
per year and is expected to reach 7.5 PJ (three times that of 2002 values). Sector wise
growth rates are as follows: households, 3.8 percent; commercial services, 4.1 percent;
industry, 7.6 percent; transport, 2.9 percent, and rural social services, 4.1 percent.

Due to a much faster growth rate for the industry sector the relative share of energy
consumption by sector will change where the household sectors’ share falls slightly from
72 percent to 69 percent while that for the industry sector rises from 5 percent to 12
percent.
Fuel shares will also change slightly where the contribution from biomass falls from 70
percent to 66 percent and that for electricity increases from 8 percent to 11 percent.
Petroleum fuel shares are expected to stay at the present 22 percent.
Table 5.-Dire Dawa Provisional Administration Energy Demand projections:
2000-2030, TJ
2000 2002 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 AAGR
Households 1,684.2 1,825.2 2,038.2 2,452.3 2,954.0 3,562.4 4,300.6 5,196.9 3.8%
Commercial services 154.1 168.5 190.1 232.5 284.4 347.8 425.4 520.3 4.1%
Industry 99.7 115.0 142.6 204.7 294.8 425.7 616.2 893.3 7.6%
Transport 399.5 420.3 451.6 513.0 588.0 679.7 791.8 928.9 2.9%
Social services and government 0.9 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.6 1.9 2.3 2.8 4.1%
TOTAL 2,338.4 2,529.8 2,823.5 3,403.7 4,122.7 5,017.5 6,136.3 7,542.2
Woody biomass 1,366.5 1,479.0 1,649.0 1,978.9 2,377.9 2,861.1 3,446.5 4,156.4 3.8%
Crop residue 16.8 17.6 18.8 21.0 23.4 26.1 29.2 32.6 2.2%
Charcoal 243.1 265.4 299.2 365.3 446.0 544.7 665.4 812.8 4.1%
Kerosene 68.2 74.5 84.1 102.9 125.8 153.9 188.3 230.3 4.1%
Gasoline 223.7 244.4 275.8 337.1 412.1 503.9 616.0 753.0 4.1%
Diesel 189.3 191.3 194.8 202.8 214.3 230.7 254.4 288.4 1.5%
Fuel oil 42.2 49.2 61.8 90.3 132.1 193.2 282.6 413.3 7.9%
Electricity 188.6 208.4 240.1 305.4 391.0 503.8 654.0 855.5 5.2%
Source: WWDSE (2004)
7. Environmental geology
7.1 Geological Setting and Tectonics
The geology of DDPA composed of all major three-rock types (metamorphic,
sedimentary and igneous). Based on existing geological maps, aerial photos and field
visits the WWDSE (2003) prepared geological map at 1: 50 000 scales. Thus, this work
is mainly based on this report.
7.1.1 Geological Setting
The geological setting of the DDPA consists of:

a) High grade basement rocks,

b) Mesozoic sedimentary sequences,

c) Quaternary volcanics, and

d) Quaternary Sediments.
The geology of the area is described based on their regional stratigraphic position, from the base (old) upwards (to youngest).

8. Sanitation current status/National level/


All documents reviewed report coverage figures without however defining the
word coverage, central statically authority [CSA] and MOH documents has coverage on
the basis of number of people with toilet facilities according to the mid term assessment
of progress to meeting the MDG drinking water and sanitation in Ethiopia is reported to
have the lowest ratio of sanitation coverage of all the reported countries. Table 1 below
shows the reported coverage figures from documents reviewed.
Table 1 reported sanitation coverage figures
Document Year Coverage Rural Urban Source
Sanitation strategy/WSP/ 2003 15% Issue paper
Master plan 2000 18% 8.9% 71.6% CSA WMS
HHRI, EFY 1995 of 2002/3 11.5% 3.9% 49.7% FMOH
MOH
Meeting the MDG 2007 6% 4% 19%
drinking water and
sanitation
MDG for water and 2000 15% 6% 62%
sanitation country
Master plan 1996 100% World
development
report
Existing toilet facilities in use in rural Ethiopia mostly consists of pit latrines with or
without improvement. The improved latrines usually have a 60x60cm sized samplats.
Urban Ethiopia latrine facilities include flush cisterns, VIPS and traditional pit latrines.
Table 2 shows people with access to toilet facilities at country and regional levels
Table 2 access to toilet facilities

Region Access to excreta disposal


Urban Rural Total
Achieved % Achieved % Achieved %
Current level 5,124,76 49.7 2578,446 3.1 7,703,20 11.5
1 7
Tigray 409200 60 386,280 12 795,480 20.4
Afar 62,381 58.3 58250 5 120,631 9.5
Amhara 400,000 21.8 453.000 2.9 583,000 5
Oromia 1,171,18 40.1 780751 3.8 1,951,93 8.2
7 7
Somali 295,626 48.1 223,603 6.8 519,229 13.3
Benishangul 30,656 59 119,574 23.3 150,231 26.6
Gumuz
SNNP 402,137 38.0 537,285 4.4 939,422 7.1
Gambella 8,533 21.9 7018 3.8 15,551 7.0
Harari 50,721 48.3 11,730 17.5 62451 36.3
Dire Dawa 177520 71.3 9.55 2 178,475 52.2
Source: - Sanitation Millennium Development goals needs assessment document
Table 3 type and number of toilet facilities available at HH urban level
Region All Type of toilet facility %
House Flush Flush Pit Pit Not
housing
no toilet toilet private shared stated
toilet private shard
Country level 1,482,589 4233 3.45 2.05 24.20 26.85 1.12
Tigray 115421 6999 2.37 2.64 9.82 13.77 1.41
Afara 20161 58.33 4.87 0.86 20.19 15.70 0.05
Oromia 406,169 39.94 1.82 1.35 33.41 22.39 1.10
Somali 70088 51.64 1.04 0.52 21.35 24.68 0.77
Benishangul 8,499 35.09 2.24 3.95 30.27 26.73 1.72
Gumuze
SNNP 142,212 35.86 1.24 0.87 38.08 22.77 1.19
Gambella 6268 66.98 3.03 3.14 13.05 11.74 2.06
Harari 17445 28.70 5.1 2.98 25.35 35.75 2.13
Addis Ababa 374742 23.89 8.04 3.95 18.12 45.03 0.98
Dire Dawa 36382 23.45 4.57 2.39 29.77 37.96 1.91

Source: - CSA results at country level voL. II analytical report June 1999
The national PASDEP document also states the national current status of toilet facilities
and waste disposal systems. It states that one of the indicators of the well being of house
holds incorporated in the welfare monitoring surveys is the availability and quality of
toilet facility. According to the survey results only about 28% of house holds have access
to pt latrine and the vast majorities (68%) do not have access to any kind of toilet
facilities. Among rural house holds more than 78% don’t have any toilet facilities and
20% have pt latrines. From a sanitation and health point of view, it is even more serious
to observe that almost a fifth of urban house holds do not have access to any kind of toilet
facility, and have to use open fields.
While this results are striking by inter national standards it is important to note that there
has been substantial improvement over the survey with the proportion having some form
of toilets with the proportion having some form of toilets raising from 13% eight years
ago to 31% today

Table 4 distribution of HH by types of toilet facilities


Type of toilet facilities and Survey year
place of residence 1996 1998 2000 2004
Country
♦ Flush toilet 09 1.4 1.7 2.5
♦ Pit latrine 12.1 18.8 16.3 28.1

♦ Container 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.2


84.4 83.3 81.5 68.2
♦ Field /forest
2.5 0.4 0.5 0.2
♦ Others
Rural
♦ Flush toilet 06 0.9 0.8 1.3
♦ Pit latrine 4.4 6.6 8.1 20.0

♦ Container 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.2


92.0 92.0 9.17 78.2
♦ Field/forest
2.9 0.4 0.4 0.2
♦ Others
Urban
♦ Flush toilet 2.4 4.4 7.0 8.8
♦ Pt latrine 55.6 63.3 64.6 71.4

♦ Container 1.2 0.9 0.7 0.3


41.7 30.6 26.9 18.2
♦ Field/forest
0.2 0.8 0.8 0.3
♦ others

Improper waste disposal systems have adverse repercussions on environmental sanitation


impeding efforts to control disease and pollution at country level more than half of house
holds (52% reported that they use the waste as manure /fertilizer/ in their fields these are
by and large rural house holds. A substantial proportion /31.9%/ stated that they dispose
their waste by just throwing away. Only a small proportion (4.8%) has access to a waste
disposal vehicle/container almost exclusively in urban areas.

Table 5 distribution of HH by method of solid waste disposal


Type of toilet facilities and Survey year
place of residence 1996 1998 2000 2004
Country
♦ waste disposal 2.1 2.6 2.7 4.8
vehicle/container
♦ dug out 3.1 4.4 3.1 6.3

♦ through away 86.2 83.9 49.8 31.9

♦ Burning - 3.2 3.5 4.1


- - - 52.0
♦ Used as manure
8.6 6.0 1.1 0.9
♦ others

Source: - PASDEP document.

9. INTERSECTORAL linkage
MDG goal a is described briefly below
Goal1 Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
Sanitation can provide work and income to both the urban and rural poor the
local service Providers could come out from the local poor like local latrine
builders working in improving sanitation is the health and environment of the
urban and the rural poor that improver by the provision of sanitation facilities.
Goal 2 Achieve universal primary education
Improvement in sanitation facilities particularly provision of separate toilet for
girl and of enrollment of girl students. Further school students would be one vital
means in the dissemination of information.
Goal 3 Promote gender equality and empower women
Access to basic agitation brings significant difference to the quality of poor
women’s life. They become health and more dignified and enjoy the benefits of
privacy with the use of latrine gender issues are a cross cutting topic in water and
sanitation services women in particular have major responsibility for water,
sanitation and family health nursing their kids, preparing and distributing food
women also play a major role in transferring health in formal networks. They are
also responsible to managing sanitation facilities at the house hold level but not
all sanitation and hygiene education do not recognize women’s vital role in this
regard to meet the MDG goal community promoters that do promotional work
house to house are proposed to be women.
Goal 4 Reduce child mortality
Provision of proper sanitation reduces one of the killing causes of children under
five
Goal 5 Improve maternal health
Basic sanitation is needed in health care facilities to ensure basic hygiene
practices following delivery.
Goal 6 Combat HIV/AIDS malaria and other diseases
Access to sanitation and hygiene reduces the opportunistic infection disease
including HIV/AIDS victims. Home based care can only be provided to
HIV/AIDS patient and the task of ensuring their dignity when there is access to
sanitation
Target 11 of Goal 7
Significant improvement to the lives of all slum dweller for sanitation the
target is “Achieve significant improvement in lives at least 100 million slum
dwellers by 2000” which has an indicator of “The proportion of people with
access to improve sanitation” This has now been taken to generally apply to
all peoples not solely slum dwellers.

10. Development rapid population & Environment


Rapid population growth remains a major barriers to poverty eradication. The addition of
almost 2 million people per year puts tremendous strains on Ethiopia’s resource base, the
economy and the ability to deliver services. It is much more difficulty to make progress
in creating sufficient employment or in raising agricultural productivity to keep up with
good needs when a proximately 38,000 people are being added to the population each
week. There is also the direct cost of additional services and sanitation facilities for
example over a third of the massive cost of reaching the MDGs in education is accounted
for by expected population growth. Finally the high number of pregnancies (average 6
per women) has a debilitating impact on women and children’s health including
communicable diseases caused by lack of proper sanitation facilities.
11. International conventions and country policy & legal issues
Ethiopia have agreed a number of international convention on environmental issues
beyond these international convention regarding the importance and world wide needs of
environmental sanitation the third report of the WHO expert committee on environmental
sanitation states “Environmental sanitation is fundamental and basic to individual of life
and death”
Agenda 21 the United Nation conference on environment and development Rio Dejaniero
in 1992 emphasized on chapter 21 reducing waste and maximizing environmentally
sound waste reuse and recycling should be the first step in municipal waste management.
The environmental, social and economic benefits of integrating practices of waste
reduction in to MSWM municipal solid waste management/ are the basic for an emerging
world wide agenda.
There for environmental sanitation covers all aspects of our inter-relationship with our
environmental, social as well a physical activity problem of wastes generated by
production and consumption.

11.1Policy and legal measures in Ethiopia


Over the past few years, there has been a growing perception and commitment towards
an improved natural resources management and environmental protection regime of the
country. Consequently, in order to address the environmental problems mentioned at the
beginning of this paper and heading towards archiving sustainable development, the
mechanism of environmental protection adopted by Ethiopia since 1994 could bee
characterized by a three-stage approach.

11.2Constitution Measure
The constitution of the Federal Republic of Ethiopia provides the overriding principles
and legal provisions for all legislative frameworks in the country. The concept of
sustainable development and the environmental right off the people are ensured in the
constitution by the following articles that stipulate the rights of people in Ethiopia.
Article 43: The right to Development
1. The peoples of Ethiopia as whole, and each Nation, Nationality, and People in
Ethiopia in particular have the right to improved living standards and to
sustainable development.
2. Nationals have the right to participate in national development and, in particular,
to be consulted with respect policies and projects affecting their community.
3. All international agreement and relations concluded, established or conducted by
the state shall protect and ensure Ethiopia’s to sustainable development
4. the basic aim of development activities shall be to enhance the capacity of citizen
for development and to met their basic needs
Article 44: Environmental Rights
1. All persons have the right to live in a clean and healthy environment.
2. All persons who have been displaced or whose livelihoods have been adversely
affected as a result off State programs have the right to commensurate monetary
or alternative mean of compensation, including relocation with adequate State
assistance.

Article 92 also relates to environmental right and the duty to adopt enforcement
instruments. These constitutional provisions have served as the guiding principles for all
activates that are related to policy formulation, strategy development and the formulation
of legislative and institutional frame work for environmental protection.

11.3Policy Measures
The second stage was formulation of national policy and strategy on environmental
management and protection. The primary need in preparing national policy and strategy
document on environmental matters was aiming at determining the objectives and
strategies, which should be used in order to ensure the respect for environmental
imperatives, by taking is to account the prevailing economic, social and cultural
situations of the country.
In this context, with a view of further amplifying the constitutional provisions on
environmental protections, the Environmental Policy and the Conservation Strategy of
Ethiopia have been prepared. These policy and strategy documents recognized and
addressed environmental issues in a holistic manner, and were adopted as well as
approved on 2 April 1997.

11.4 Legislative Measures


The Federal Government of Ethiopia is in the process of passing a number of
proclamations that are aimed at providing the legislative instrument for the
implementation of the national environmental policy objectives and strategies. The
following approved and draft environmental protection proclamations are currently
existed in the country.

11.5 Environmental impact Assessment Proclamation


Environmental impact assessment is used to predict and manage the environmental
effects that a proposed development activity might entail and thus helps to bring about
intended development. Furthermore, assessment off possible impacts on the environment
prior to the approval of a public instrument is recognized as providing an effective means
of harmonizing and integrating environmental, economic, cultural and social
considerations in to a decision making process in a manner that promotes sustainable
development.

To this end the law is prepared to facilitate the implementation of the environmental
rights and objectives ensured is the constitution and the maximization of their socio-
economic benefits by predicting and managing the environmental effects which a
proposed development activity or public instrument might entail prior to their
implementation.

This proclamation requires all licensing agencies have to ensure that EPA or the
respective regional Environmental Agency has authorized their implementation prior to
issuing any type of license for projects. The proclamation includes provisions on:
categories of EIA requirements, duties and responsibilities of the project proponent and
the competent agency, procedures on EIA report and its approval, conditions of offense
and the ensuing penalties and conditions of public participation in the EIA process.

11.6Environmental pollution control proclamation


The law recognizes the fact that some social and economic development endeavors may
inflict environmental harm that could make the Endeavour counter-productive. It also
underline the fact that the protection of the environment, in general, and the safeguarding
of human health and well being, as well as the maintaining of the biota and the aesthetic
value of nature, in particular, is the duty and responsibility of all. To this end the law
aims to eliminate or, when not possible, to mitigate pollution as an undesirable
consequence of social and economic development activities.

This proclamation contains general provisions on pollution control, environmental


standards, power and duties of environmental inspectors, rights to appeal and offenses
and penalties. The pollution control component includes provision on management of
hazardous wastes, chemicals and radioactive substances, management of municipal
wastes and protection of the ozone layer.
11.7 The draft industrial pollution prevention and control regulation (IPPC)
The draft industrial pollution prevention and control regulation has dual objectives.
Firstly, it is aimed primarily at preventing pollution at source by requiring industries to
take measures such as introducing appropriate and cleaner technologies that treat or
reduce polluting substances within the industrial process. Secondly, to control missions
or discharges to the environment through regulatory mechanisms such as setting
standards and putting in place a permit system.
The IPPC regulations is divided into seven parts which include general provisions (part
1); duty to prevent and reduce environmental damage (part 2); requirements to prevent
and reduce pollution (part 3); restrictions on discharging industrial release (part 4);
enabling measures to prevent or reduce pollution (part 5); compliance and enforcement
(part 6); and lastly, offenses and penalties(part 7).

11.8 Public Health Proclamation No. 200/2000


One of the rationales for enacting this proclamation, as stipulated in the preamble, is the
creation of a healthy environment for the future generation.
A number of issues are addressed by the proclamation from public health perspective.
These include provisions to control food quality and standards, water quality,
occupational health and safety, waste handling and disposal, and the availability of
sanitation facilities. Some of the provisions are relevant to the industry sector. The
proclamation tends to regulate industries with respect to the manner of discharging
wastes and ensuring the safety of their employees. More specifically, article 10(3)
prohibits industries from discharging untreated liquid waste into near by water bodies or
water convergence. There is a more general provision under Article 12(2) that prohibits
the disposal of solid, liquid or any other waste in a manner, which contaminates the
environment or affects the health of the society.
In Dire Dawa there are some important achievements have been seen by preparation of
regional solid waste management regulation and sanitation and beatification agency
regulation already forwarded on practice but the regional public health regulation yet not
formulated and set on practice.
12. International Convention /Agreement
The international community came together in 1992 at the Rio Conference to deal with
environment and development problems that humanity has faced in this era. The three
Rio Conventions, viz., the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
(UNCCD), the United Nations Convention on Biodiversity (UNCBD) and the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) have been the major
outcome of this conference.

In recognition of the major environmental problems that are increasingly affecting the
country, Ethiopia has joined the international community by signing, adopting and
largely ratifying the Rio-Conventions (and the related protocols, agreements, etc
formulated on their basis). The country has undertaken a number of measures to pursue
their subsequent implementation. While EPA is the focal point and coordinator of the

12.1 The Convention on Biological Diversity


The major aim of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is the conservation and
sustainable use of biological resources. The Cartagena Protocol on Bio safety establishes
a regulatory framework to control the harm arising from Genetically Modified Organism
(GMOs) on biodiversity and human health. Biological resources, both habitats and
species, are being critically threatened. Key habitats are being lost at a rapid rate.
12.2 The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
The major goal of the Framework Convention on Climate Change is to stabilize the
concentrations of Green House Gases (GHGs, e.g. carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous
oxide, hydro fluorocarbons, perflurocarbons and sulphur hexafluoride) in the atmosphere
that are related to human induced interference with the climate system. GHGs are thought
to exacerbate climate change and alter agricultural / eco zones e.g. mid-latitude regions
are expected to shift 200 - 300 km for each one degree Celsius increase in temperature.
Due to glacial melt and thermal expansion of the sea, sea levels are predicted to rise by as
much as 65 cm by 2100, threatening both coastal and low lying areas. The frequency and
intensity of extreme natural events e.g. storms and hurricanes are also expected to
increase.
12.3 The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

As described in Ch. 12 of Agenda 21, the Convention to Combat Desertification seeks to


not only tackle the impacts of desertification but also to mitigate the effects of droughts.
Under the convention desertification refers to dry-land areas vulnerable to over-
exploitation and inappropriate land-use as a result of poverty, political instability,
deforestation, overgrazing and bad irrigation. Currently the livelihoods of over 1.2 billion
people are threatened or at risk because of drought and desertification, impacting 110
countries. The detail national obligations and rights are summarized in the text.

12.4 The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species


The overriding goal of the Convention is to ensure that international trade in specimens
of wild fauna and flora does not threaten the survival of the species traded. CITES is
conceptually limited to prevent the overexploitation of international traded wildlife.
Parties must adopt domestic legislation, which prohibits international trade in specimens
in violation of the Convention, penalizes such trade, and allows for confiscation of
specimens illegally traded or possessed
12.5 The Vienna Convention and the Montreal Protocol
The Vienna Convention aims at protecting the ozone layer from modifications, due to
human activities, require international co-operation and action, and are based on relevant
scientific and technical considerations.
The Montreal Protocol was developed to minimize world-wide emissions of certain
substances (controlled substances listed under Annexes A, B, C and E of the Protocol)
that can significantly deplete and otherwise modify the ozone layer in a manner that is
likely to result in adverse effects on human health and the environment. On the basis of
this protocol, protection of the ozone layer involves actions of precautionary measures to
control global emissions of substances that deplete it, with the ultimate objective of their
elimination on the basis of scientific research and findings.

12.6 The Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure

Based on the “London Guidelines for the Exchange of Information on Chemicals in


International Trade” and “International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of
Pesticides”, the aim of the “Rotterdam Convention on Prior Informed Consent Procedure
for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade” is to protect
citizens and the natural environment from potential dangers of hazardous chemicals and
pesticides. Each year thousands die or are poisoned by toxic pesticides and chemicals.
These substances also accumulate in animals and plant life. Under the agreement export
of such chemicals can only take place with the prior informed consent of the importing
party. The detail national obligations and rights are summarized in the text.

12.7 The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants


The aim of the Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants will be to tackle chemical
substances that persist and bio accumulate through the food web and pose a risk to human
health and to the environment. It will initially cover 12 POPs including: 8 pesticides
(aldrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, mirex and toxaphene), 2 industrial
chemicals (Poly Chlorinate Biphenyls - PCBs and hexachlorobenzene, also a pesticide)
and 2 by-products of combustion and industrial processes (dioxins and furans).

13. The Major Policy Frameworks of Ethiopia

The overall policy goal of Ethiopia is to improve and enhance the health and quality of
life of all Ethiopians and to promote sustainable social and economic development
through the sound management and use of natural, human-made and cultural resources
and the environment as a whole so as to meet the needs of the present generation without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The major policy
frameworks on which other policies have been based and that have an overall bearing on
environment and development are discussed hereunder.

13.1 Agricultural Development-Led Industrialization (ADLI)


The framework economic development strategy of the current Ethiopian Government is
the Agricultural Development-Led Industrialization (ADLI). The strategy envisages
agriculture as the engine of the country’s economic growth through agricultural
intensification and commercialization, increasing the proportion of marketable output. In
line with this strategy, the government has declared the pursuit of a liberalization policy,
including the withdrawal of input subsidies, deregulation of different markets, tariff
reduction, etc. Government efforts have continued to focus on rural development and
measures to improve productivity of smallholder peasant agriculture through “extension
packages” as well as rural credit services, primary education, health care, domestic water
supply and rural road construction.

13.2 Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction Program (SDPRP)


The long-term objective of the country is elaborated in the document entitled
"Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction Program (SDPRP)". The program is
designed to serve as the country's strategy to transform agriculture in the shortest time
possible (FDRE, 2002). The program outlines the fundamental development objectives of
Government to build a free-market economic system, which will enable the economy to
develop rapidly, the country to extricate itself from dependence on food aid, and poor
people to be the main beneficiaries form economic growth.

The strategy recognizes the importance of the environment and sustainable development
and treats it as crosscutting issue. It points out three priority areas for action including
strengthening and expanding on-going efforts to address land degradation, deforestation,
overgrazing, soil erosion, loss of soil structure and the disruption of the hydro-logical
cycle, giving special attention to highly degraded, drought prone and food insecure areas,
strengthening regulatory and institutional capacity, strengthening measures currently
under implementation to preserve, develop, manage and sustainable use biodiversity
resources.

In adopting the United Nations Millennium Declaration, Ethiopia agreed to take special
measures to address the challenges of poverty eradication and sustainable development in
the country. The country recognizes that the range of issues necessary to nurture its
environmental base and sustainable use of natural resources is vast and complex and that
a systematic combination of initiatives is necessary to translate into action a coherent
environment program. The capacity need assessment to achieve goal 7 of the MDG calls
for the development and adoption of a coherent action plan and strategies - to ensure
environmental sustainability while at the same time combating poverty and promoting
socio-economic development.

13.3 Food Security Strategy (FSS)


Food security strategy is basically derived from the country’s rural development policy
and is adopted since March 2002. It aims at increasing domestic food production;
ensuring access to food for food deficit households; and strengthening emergency
response capabilities. It is recognized that soil, water, and vegetation are the main asset
base of both the farming community and the country’s economy as a whole without
which the achievement of food security is unlikely. Water and natural resource
conservation based agricultural development constitutes a central element of the strategy.
The strategy has also given due attention to the problems of environmental degradation,
population pressure and land shortage, particularly in moisture deficit highland areas of
the country. Accordingly, water harvesting, proper land utilization and environmental
rehabilitation are identified as top priority areas of intervention that help to combat
drought and famine induced by environmental challenges such as desertification and land
degradation. Thus, the food security strategy is designed taking into account the
importance of conservation, rehabilitation and restoration of natural resources as an entry
point to changing the existing dire livelihood situation in the rural household economy.
13.4 The Conservation Strategy of Dire Dawa City Administration (RCS)
The Conservation Strategy of Dire dawa City Administration (RSC), which was
formulated in 2001 (The National Conservation Strategy, Volume I – Volume IV),
provides an adequate umbrella strategic framework, detailing principles, guidelines and
strategies for the effective management of the environment. It also elaborates state of
resource bases of the country, as well as the institutional arrangement and action plans for
the realization of the strategy.
The RCS Report is prepared in 4 volumes. Volume I deeles with the resource base, Its
utilization and planning for sustainability. Volume II presents a strategy for the
conservation of natural, human made cultural resources. Volume III deals with
institutional frame work and operational arrangements.

Volume IV presents a plan of prioritised actions within the framework of 11 cross-


sectoral and 11 sectoral programmes.
The principles, guidelines and strategies set out in the RCS documents are expected to
provide Dire Dawa City Administration with an adequate umbrella strategic framework
for the effective management of the environment including land degradation. Following
the RCS all sector and cross-sector specific policies are reviewed in line with the
strategy.

13.5 The Biodiversity Conservation and Research Policy


The National Policy on Biodiversity Conservation and Research was issued on April
1998. The policy is formulated based on the rationale that conservation of biodiversity is
one of the conditions of the overall socioeconomic development and sustainable
environmental management goals. It provides a general framework towards effective
conservation, rational development and sustainable utilization of genetic resources.
The objectives of the National Policy for Biodiversity Conservation and Research are to:
• ensure that the Ethiopian plant, animal and microbial genetic resource and
essential ecosystems as a whole are conserved, developed, managed and
sustainable utilized;
• assert national sovereignty over genetic resources and develop a mechanism for a
fair exchange, safe movement and proper management of these resources;
• enrich the genetic resources of the country through introduction ( from abroad and
within the country ), repatriation and restoration in accordance with the laws and
regulations of the country and according to bilateral and/or multilateral
agreements the country had made;
• build national scientific capacities and capabilities to explore, collect, conserve.
Characterize, evaluate and utilize the biodiversity of the country:
• integrate biodiversity conservation and development programs into Federal and
Regional agricultural, health, industrial and overall national economic
development strategies and plans;
• recognize, foster and augment the indigenous knowledge and methods relevant to
the conservation, development and sustainable use of biodiversity, and promote
and encourage the development and putting into practice of new emerging
technologies such as biotechnology;
• encourage the participation and support of local communities in biodiversity
conservation , development and utilization. Furthermore, ensure that they share
the benefit accrued as a result of using indigenous knowledge and/or germplasm;
• create a functional and efficient organizational structure to ensure inter
institutional linkage and coordination in biodiversity conservation, development
and utilization;
• promote regional and international cooperation in biodiversity conservation,
development and sustainable use;
13.6 Water Resource Management Policy of Ethiopia
Ministry of water Resources prepared water resources management policy of Ethiopia.
The over all goal of the policy is to enable and promote all national efforts towards the
efficient, equitable and optimum utilization of the available water resources of Ethiopia
for significant socioeconomic development on sustainable basis.
The detail objectives of the water resources management policy are:
• Development of the water resources of the country for economic and social benefits
of the people, on equitable and sustainable basis.
• Allocation and apportionment of water based on a comprehensive and integrated
plans and optimum allocation principles that incorporate efficiency of use, equity of
access and sustainability of the resources.

• Managing and combating drought as well as other associated slow on-set disasters
through efficient allocation, redistribution, transfer, storage and efficient use of water
resources.

• Combating and regulating floods through sustainable mitigation, prevention,


rehabilitation and other practical measures.

• Conserving, protecting and enhancing water resources and the overall aquatic
environment on sustainable basis.
13.7 Economic Development Strategy for Ethiopia
This strategy is named and commonly known as the "Agriculture Development Led
Industrialization Strategy (ADLI)". This strategy is the guiding tool for the current
development of the country. The basic objectives of the strategy are:
 Sustainable economic growth
 Equity, including regional equity; and
 Self reliance, meaning dependence on national resources and Independent
National Development.
The strategy is a "road map" for the development of the Agricultural, Industrial, Mining,
Science& Technology, Infrastructure and Tourism sectors.
13.8 Poverty Reduction Strategy
Poverty is deeply entrenched in Ethiopia. To meet both domestic goals and the
International commitment to reduce poverty by half in the medium term, the government
introduced the poverty reduction strategy in 1999-2001. Targets were set for poverty
oriented interventions and executing agencies were identified. The plan has served as a
vehicle for resources mobilization and allocation. The second generation of the plan
"Plan for Accelerated and Sustainable Development to End Poverty" (PASDEP) covers
the period from 2002 to 2007. The scope of this plan is broader than the first and
incorporates the well known "Millennium Goals" (MDGs). The regional states, including
DDPA are expected to address poverty issues in accordance with PASDEP.
13.9 Water Supply and Sanitation Policy
The overall objective of water supply and sanitation policy is as stipulated in the Federal
Democratic Republic of Ethiopia water resources management policy is to enhance the
well-being and productivity of the Ethiopian people through provision of adequate,
reliable and clean water supply and sanitation services and to foster its tangible
contribution to the economy by providing water supply services that meet the livestock,
industry and other water users demands.
• To ensure that improved environmental sanitation be placed highest on the federal
and regional agenda for achieving sustainable urban development;
• To promote the construction by individual families of their own houses and create
conducive conditions for communities and individual families to make improvements
to their immediate habitats as well as to provide human and domestic waste disposal
facilities;
• To recognise the importance of and help bring about behavioural change through
education and public awareness of environmental sanitation problems in trying to
achieve demand driven community led sustainable use and maintenance of sanitation
facilities;
• To bring about a sound partnership between the government and communities in the
development of an integrated sanitation delivery system, and to the supplementary
role of NGOs;
• To ensure that housing and sanitation technologies and regulatory standards are set at
a level and cost that are within reach of the users and flexible enough to be adaptable
to the very varied socio-economic, epidemiological, climatic and physical site
conditions which are found in urban areas.
• To give priority to waste collection services and to its safe disposal;
• On the one hand to recognise the importance of adequate water supply as an
important component in achieving a sustainable and healthy urban environment, and
on the other hand to recognise the minimisation of the need for water as and
important factor in the choice of sanitation technologies;
• To construct shared VIP latrines in the low income and very high density housing
areas of Addis Ababa and the older towns with frequent emptying by tankers
integrated with programmes on user education, health and hygiene, with follow up
maintenance and cleaning, all implemented as a component of a broader urban
environmental upgrading programme including storm water drainage;
• To ensure the construction of family latrines in lower density urban and peri-urban
areas as a conditionality of the house plot lease and to integrate this with health and
hygiene awareness programmes
• To create conducive conditions for families, housing groups and communities to
construct latrines and private entrepreneurs to undertake latrine emptying as well as
waste collection and disposal services.
• To undertake studies which identify suitable sanitary landfill sites in the major cites
and towns of Ethiopia.
• To establish safe limits for the location of sanitary landfill sites in the vicinity of
wells, bore holes and dams, and issue regulations to enforce them;

13.10 Sanitation Policy


• Define and implement acceptable minimum sanitation facilities differentiated in
urban and rural scenarios.
• Develop a collaborative and co-operative framework for the development of
sanitation system through definition of the responsibilities of the different
governmental and other major stakeholder in sanitation at all levels.
• Develop and promote guidelines, rules and regulation, for the study, design, operation
and maintenance for efficient, appropriate and sustainable sanitation services as well
as foster appropriate water saving sanitation services and utilisation norms.
• Foster culturally and socially acceptable method and facilities for sanitation.

• Promote the formulation of a housing construction and urban development policy that
incorporates sanitation services.
• Promote the involvement of non-governmental organization, external support
agencies and the private sector in sustainable sanitation programs.
• Develop standards for different types and levels of sanitation systems including both
on site and off site, non-water dependent and water dependent systems.
• Promote research and development on low cost and suitable sanitation alternatives
and enhance users participation in the development of sanitation systems.
• Manage the import of wastewater treatment technologies and materials through
pertinent institutions.
• Build capacity in terms of engineering, design, construction, operation and
maintenance … etc. Of sanitation systems.
• Promote that sanitation services are based on participation driven and responsive
principles without compromising social equity.
13.11 Health Policy – Hygiene and Environmental Health Policy
The health policy was issued by the then Transitional Government of Ethiopia in
September 1993. The policy gives emphasis on the preventive aspect of health services.
The central themes of the National Health Policy (1993)are Awareness raising and
education on personal and Environmental Health care and Sanitation through
information, Education and Communication (IEC), Control of disease, and Promotion of
primary Health care through community participation.
ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH POLICY OBJECTIVES
To promote proper waste management system with regard to the collection,
transportation and disposal of any domestic, commercial, agricultural, industrial and
mining wastes including hazardous, liquid, solid, infectious and radioactive wastes.
• Establish community based hygiene education promotion.
• Advocate and promote the availability of excreta disposal facilities at household
level and develop a latrine culture.
o Ensure sound and effective waste management system, (collection, storage, transport
and disposal)
13.12 Regional Conservation Strategy of DDPA
Strategies for conservation of natural resources are instrumental to determine the extent
in which economic growth and social progress could be achieved on a sustainable basis.
Formulation of a strategy for conserving natural resources is, therefore, essential to
improve the living condition of a society.
With this regard, the DDAC has given due attention to develop a strategy for sustainable
management of the natural resources as they are the base for survival. The conservation
strategy of the Council was prepared in March 2001
In a strategy document the optimal interaction among, all natural, human, capital and
other relevant factors, are taken into consideration in order to attain development that
meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the needs of future
generations.

The overall strategy goal is to improve and enhance the health and quality of the life of
all people of Dire Dawa Administrative Council and to promote sustainable social and
economic development through the sound management and use of natural, human made
& cultural resources and the environment as a whole so as to meet the needs of the
present generation without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their
own needs.
The strategy seeks to:

a. Ensure that appropriate interventions to restore the present impaired regenerative and
productive capabilities of renewable natural resources, and ensure that essential
ecological process and life support systems are sustained, biological diversity is
preserved and renewable resources are used in such a way that their capacity to
regenerate and produce is maintained and where possible enhanced, so that the
satisfaction of future generation is not compromised;

b. Ensure that non-renewable resources are exploited in such a way that the benefits
are extended as far into the future as can be managed, and minimize the negative
impacts of their exploitation on the use and management of other natural
resources and the environment;

c. Identify and develop natural resources that are currently under utilized by finding
new technologies and/or intensifying existing uses;

d. Incorporate the full economic, social and environmental costs and benefits of
natural resources development into planning, implementation and accounting
processes by a comprehensive valuation of the environment and the services it
provides, and by considering the social and environmental costs and benefits
which cannot currently be measured in monetary terms;

e. Improve the environment of human settlements to satisfy the physical, social,


economic, cultural and other needs of their inhabitants on a sustainable basis;

f. Prevent the pollution of land, air and water in the most cost effective way so that
the cost of effective preventive interventions would not exceed the benefits;

g. Conserve, develop, sustainable manage and support Ethiopia’s rich and diverse
cultural heritage;

h. Ensure the empowerment and participation of the people and their organizations
at all levels in environmental management activities; and

i. Raise public awareness and promote understanding of the essential linkages


between environment and development.

14. MDGs target for sanitation


The system that removes waste, particularly human excreta thus preserving health is
called here sanitation. The working definition adapted to basic sanitation by the
millennium development goals task force is “the lowest cost option for securing
sustainable access to safe, hygienic and convenient facilities and services for excreta and
sullage disposal that provide privacy and dignity while at the same time ensuring a clan
and healthful living environment both of home and in the neighborhood of users”.
The definitions off the millennium development goals for water and sanitation task force
I adopted settings in Ethiopia. Thus urban sanitation comprises storage, collection,
transportation, treatment and disposal of liquid and solid waste so as to avoid
environmental degration and aesthetic nuisance at the same time rural sanitation is
defined to mean preservation of health of individuals and communities by carrying
human excreta; animal and household wastes back to nature by providing comfort and
convenience to users.
Sanitation converge
The millennium development goal sanitation coverage is to have by 2015, the proportion
of people with out sustainable access to basic sanitation in this need assessment two
development scenarios are adopted, one ambitions one that meet the full range of
internationally agreed upon MDG targets and another one that meet the current level of
available funds. In both cases the targets as reported here below are assumed to the same,
instead the difference between thee two scenarios is in the type of interventions and
sanitation facilities that will be built.

Target
“To reduce by half between now and 2015 the proportion of people who lack access to
basic sanitation”
This means to raise the national sanitation coverage from 11.5% to 56% by 2015 by the
targeting over 43.8% of people. Rural coverage is raised from 3.9% to 58% and similarly
urban from 49.7% to 75%. The table blow shows national and regional sanitation
coverage and the additional number off people that will have access to sanitation
facilities by the end of the millennium.
National & regional millennium targets
Sanitation coverage No of people to be served by
Region Rural Urban 2015/in thousends
2005 2015 2005 2015 Rural Urban
National 3.9% 52.0% 49.7% 74.9% 37550 7292
Addis Ababa 0.0% 0.0% 80.0% 90.0% 0 1403
Afar 5.0% 52.5% 58.3% 79.2% 718 64
Amhara 2.9% 51.5% 21.8% 60.9% 10155 1365
Benshagul 23.3% 61.7% 59.0% 79.5% 295 43
Dire Dawa 1.0% 50.5% 71.3% 85.7% 59 166
Gambela 3.8% 51.9% 21% 61.0% 115 27
Harari 17.5% 58.8% 48.3% 74.2% 40 76
Oromia 3.8% 51.9% 40.1% 70.1% 13888 2297
SNNP 4.4% 52.2% 38.0% 68.0% 8248 848
Somali 6.8% 53.4% 48.1% 74.1% 2076 484
Tigray 12.0% 56.0% 60.0% 80.0% 1955 521
The coverage targets for both urban and rural sanitation assumed that the uptake in the
first few years of the intervention in any community is slow but the progress will come in
the latter years of the projects.
Calculated sanitation coverage for urban Ethiopia
Region 200 200 200 200 200 200 201 201 201 2013 2014 2015
0 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2
National 50% 50% 52% 55% 57% 59% 61% 64% 62% 70% 72% 75%
Addis Ababa 80% 80% 81% 82% 83% 84% 85% 86% 87% 88% 89% 90%
Afar 58% 58% 60% 62% 64% 66% 68% 70% 73% 75% 77% 79%
Amhara 22% 22% 26% 29% 33% 36% 40% 44% 48% 53% 57% 61%
Benshagul 59% 59% 61% 63% 65% 67% 69% 71% 73% 75% 77% 80%
Dire Dawa 71% 71% 73% 74% 75% 77% 78% 80% 81% 83% 84% 86%
Gambela 22% 22% 26% 29% 33% 36% 40% 44% 49% 53% 57% 61%
Harer 48% 49% 51% 53% 56% 58% 60% 63% 66% 69% 72% 74%
Oromia 40% 40% 43% 46% 49% 51% 54% 57% 61% 64% 67% 70%
SNNP 38% 38% 41% 44% 47% 50% 52% 56% 59% 63% 66% 69%
Somali 48% 48% 51% 53% 55% 58% 60% 63% 66% 69% 71% 74%
Tigray 60% 61% 62% 63% 65% 67% 69% 71% 73% 75% 77% 80%
Calculated sanitation coverage for rural Ethiopia
Region 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
National 4% 5% 7% 9% 11% 16% 21% 27% 33% 40% 47% 52%
Addis Ababa 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%
Afar 5% 6% 8% 10% 12% 17% 22% 27% 34% 40% 48% 53%
Amhara 3% 4% 6% 8% 10% 15% 20% 26% 32% 39% 47% 51%
Benshagul 23% 24% 26% 27% 29% 33% 37% 41% 46% 52% 58% 62%
Dire Dawa 1% 2% 4% 6% 8% 13% 18% 24% 31% 38% 46% 51%
Gambela 4% 5% 7% 9% 11% 15% 21% 27% 33% 40% 47% 52%
Harer 18% 18% 20% 22% 23% 28% 32% 37% 42% 48% 55% 59%
Oromia 4% 5% 7% 9% 11% 15% 21% 27% 33% 40% 47% 52%
SNNP 4% 5% 7% 9% 11% 16% 21% 27% 33% 40% 48% 52%
Somali 7% 8% 10% 12% 13% 18% 23% 29% 38% 41% 49% 53%
Tigray 12% 13% 15% 17% 18% 23% 28% 33% 39% 45% 52% 56%
The indicator is the proportion of urban and rural population with access to improved
sanitation facilities

15 List of interventions in MDG


1. Urban sanitation interventions
In urban Ethiopia waste generates from domestic industrial ad institutional peaces in this
MDG assessment cost of providing urban sanitation considers waste from domestic sites
alone. Domestic waste composes both liquid and solid waste management and
intervention in case of MDGS scenario deals with both waste although of these wastes
are treated in this need assessment separately. The constrained budget scenario on the
other hand only considers the liquid waste.
Assumptions
Costing for private latrines is done in this MDG NA but it is assumed that in urban
settings all new houses that will be constructed in future will have latrines constructed at
the owner’s expense. Houses that at present do not have latrines or that need upgrading
are also costed in this assessment with the same assumption that individual house holds
would cover their cost. House in the slum area that at present do not have latrines will
also be provided with latrine facilities at the house hold level but costing for the same is
done by the urban development intervention instead. Coverage increase due to this urban
development intervention has not been taken in to account.
Communal septic tanks will be provided in place where there is space limitation with
communal septic tank as master plan report indicates a saving of cost up to 2/3rd of the
investment can be attained. Even in such cases, for the communal septic tank and latrine
construction as well is considered.
List of intervention
1. Latrine construction
This composes sewer connected latrines, latrines with communal septic tank or individual
septic tank VIP latrines and improved pit latrines.

2. Sewerage system.
This composes new sewer systems and sewage treatment plan + design and construction.
Both the technical and Economical feasibility of such a should be taken into account in
the provision of a sewerage system houses that can be connected to a sewer system to be
technically feasible these hoses that would be connected to a sewer system need to have
in house water supply connection this great enough velocity of flow.
3. Septic tank sludge(septage) collection, treatment and disposal
Intervention concerning this is the same for bath scenarios, this comprises provision of
vacuum truck services, treatment and environmentally safe disposal of septage for large
and medium size town vacuum trucks are used for the removal of the undigested sludge
for the septic tank or septage, and transportation of the same to the treatment site
4. Solid waste management
This comprises collection of solid waste in urban towns, transportation and disposal at a
sanitary landfill
5. Hygiene education and sanitation promotion
Although awareness for the need for sanitation facilities in urban Ethiopia is relatively
high. There is still a need to promote hygiene education and sanitation promotion in all
urban towns in general and in slum areas in particular the negative impacts due to lack of
sanitation facilities in slum area is evident. The intervention will include social marketing
using radio soap opera for hygiene improvement training of community promoters and
mobilization of sanitarians.
16.Dire Dawa town current sanitation condition
The over all sanitation condition of Dire Dawa town is not satisfactory it has a
converge of 79% generally the features of the sanitation conditions as follows.
16.1 Solid waste management
Over the past year efforts have been conducted to bring proper solid waste
management, but the attempts was not lead to the good result, because of shortage of
appropriate information and need assessment. Now a day. There will be some important
base line dates from 5 year strategic plan preparation and generation and composition
survey of sanitation and beatification agency to prepared good plan of action. /5/
The municipal solid waste of Dire Dawa town include, household wasters,
commercial establishments, (like shops and markets) and service institutions/like
educational, health care and utilities/ streets, hotels and other sectors it can also embody
ordinary wastes fro small and large industrial firms with in the populated areas as well
as construction and demolishing wastes. /5/

16.2 MSW sources, Generation rates & Composition


This type of information is important or they help in the general planning for
IMSW system.
The Compost ion data provides insights in to the opportunities for material
recycling & composting, energy values and the potential recycling characteristics of land
fill gas and leech ate. The generator source details provide insights in to the majors
contraptions to MSW and suggests possible approaches for modifying generation patterns
and management Approaches. /5/
16.3 Generation Rate
The waste quantities and characteristics are site specific and tend to vary with
such factors as standards of living and seasons but the recent survey with is conducted by
the sanitation and beatification agency shows that and average of 0.6kg person/day./5/
The composition is about the following:-
1. Vegetable 12.3
2. Bones 6.6
3. Papers 5.71
4. Texistle 8.6
5. Plastices 7.2
6. Rubber 8.9
7. Gross/leaves/wood 13.1
8. Metals 11.9
9. Glass 5.5
10. Ah 6.5
12. Others 7.8
As the figure indicated above that the organic waste took the 1st rank and a huge
potential of the city to produce compost. So producing compost in Dire Dawa context
seems feasible if there is an opportunity for market not only with Dire Dawa but also in
the neighboring of /Eastern Haregee and Oromia/. /5/
Among the plastic products the so-called festal are the most devastating and
serious environmental challenges and is at its climax in many of the small medium and
large size towns and even in the rural part of the region and reached to an irreversible
stage in Dire Dawa town it estimated that on the overage of 60,000 fastals are used daily
as a container for chat and such amount is used for food items fruit vegetable, meet,
sugar, salt and others/ and is thrown away after a single used because of it is cheap
price. The daily impute of festal in to the environment is assumed to be more than any
other manufactures good using fastales as container become almost a culture of every
citizen. /5/
Some negative impacts of festales are:-
1. Bad image/an esthetic view of the city/
2. Decrease agricultural productivity
3. Decrease percolation rate of water
4. Soil pollution/stay with in the soil / over 80 year with out any fiscal and
chemical change/
5. Intestinal Dieses and depths of animal
6. Produce dioxin when burned
Based on the above facts the total daily generation rate of the Dire Dawa
population /270,000/ is 162,000 kg/per/day. /5/

16.4 Collection Efficiency


The collection efficiency of the town vary between kebele to kebele, that means
the scatter and some slum village of kebeles village of kebeles have low collection
efficiency than the well planned residential, but the average collection efficiency of the
town is 64% such amount of low efficiency shows that there will be great amount of
accumulation of solid waste makes a great problem of the town. It should be alerated;
however the precautionary measure should be necessary to clean the accumulation sites
by developing appropriate system. /5/
16.5 Existing system of MSW collection and transportation
The system of MSW collection and transportation in Dire Dawa town is listed
below:-

a. House hold and commercial wastes


1. Door to Door collection by small and micro enterprise and transport by 1.5-2m3
size hand carts. Transported to communal containers
2. Commercial collection:-
- The collection takes place by the 8m3 size communal containers which and
discharged by the lifter trucks.
b. Street wastes
Street sweeping are manually collected by 0.4-0.5m3 hand carts which are
directly discharged or loaded on 8m3 size communal containers. Which are placed at
different pints. /5/
c. Institutional wastes
Wastes generated in schools, hospitals and some industrial enterprises are
collected by the sanitation and Beatification agency and transported by lifter truck and
side loader trucks and some institutions have their own collection and disposal
systems. /5/

16.6 Treatment and processing of waste transformation

Transformation or treatment such as composting and incineration practices are


not exercised in large scale, but there is a little practical effort have been sorted now
production of compost from the solid waste by one associations.
The composition rote survey indicate that Dire Dawa has a potential waste
material to make composted and recyclable materials such as organic waste paper,
Glass, plastics and metals. /5/

16.7 Final Disposal system


Open /Random/ dumping is the predominant practice for the last years but now
a day there is a proper designed control damping area sanitary land fill prepared and
there is on attempt to purchase a machinery for operational purpose./5/

17. LIQUID WASTE MANAGMENT


17.1 Domestic/private sanitation facilities
In Dire Dawa town, there is no central municipal sewerage system at present. the
sanitary system and practice in the town is very poor unlined traditional pit latrines
are the most common technology in use in the town at present the town doesn't have
any system for the safe disposal of waste water. Each house hold is in charge of
disposing of its own waste. It is clean that the existing facilities don't coves the needs of
the town it terms of sanitary sate of affairs. /6/
Sanitation in Dire Dawa town at the moment is the responsibility of both the
water supply and sewerage authority and the sanitation band beatification agency. Even
though they have insufficient means of this disposal to adequately execute their role. The
water and sewerage authority have only two vacuum tracks for emptying the fillings of
the toilets. /6/
Sanitation technologies currently uses in the town are as follows,
• Septic tanks and sock way pits
• Private unlined pits traditional pits
• Communal pit latrines
• Public latrines
• Open filed deifications and urination

One of the problems facing in urban settlement is the skill to cope with increasing
quantity of wastes, in spite of the growing demand of the population. Thus all urbon
settlements are facing with serious health and environment complications, as the existing
sanitation conditions true out to be worst by unrestrained po0pulaion increase and
urbanization. /6/
Two consecutive national population census had been carried out in the year 1984
and 1994 and analytical reports had been issued by CSA. The report included urban and
rural sanitation condition for the whole country. Where the project towns of Dire Dawa
town included. /6/
In the census analysis distribution of housing units or household is made by
• Types of toilets facilities used
• Types of bathing units/facilities/ used

There fore as the information obtained from CSA the position regarding sanitation
facilities is the town presented here below. /6/

Toilet facilities of Dire Dawa town by housing unites to 1194 census


Town All Types of toilet facilities
housing has no Flush Flush PIT PIT Not
unit Toilet Toilets Toilets private Shared Stated
private Shared

Dire Dawa 36382 8531 1662 851 10831 13811 696

Bathing facilities of Dire Dawa town by housing unit as per 1994 CSA data
Town All Topes of Bathing facilities
housing has no Bathing Bathing Shower Showers other Not

units bathing private shared private shared stated


facilities
Dire Dawa 36382 32743 326 59 1521 488 1007 238

17.2 Non-Domestic facilities


Non domestic facilities in Dire Dawa town are Hotels, Restaurants, Schools,
Health facilities and bars etc dispose, of their waster through pit letrines and septic
tanks and some of them dispose in open fields. /6/

17.3 Public sanitary facilities


• Public bathing
There are 5 public bathing facilities operated in the town but there are a lot of
private public bathing facilities operating by charging 75 cents per uses
• Public Latrines
Public latrines in all respect are for use by people who are away from this home
and for street dwellers and should be erected at cents area, shopping centers, bus
stations and market places. as stated above in Dire Dawa there are 12 public latrines
operating in the town or serving for people but the number is small when we compare
with the population growth and urbanization progress. /6/

18. Dire Dawa town environmental sanitation survery results


According to 2003 Dire Dawa health office sanitation base line survey result the
following waste management survey result. Have been presented in 2003.
18.1 Excreta Disposal
There is a significant different between urban respondents those who have a latrine the
urban respondents of 88.9% have a latrine and 11.1% have no latrine. In rural areas 18.7
% of the respondents have access of pit latrine. The rest 81.3% have no any type of
latrine. This shows urban dwellers have much more accessibility than the rural ones.

The reason why the rural respondents have not a latrines indicate in the survey was
financial problems. 73.3 % of the urban respondents who have not a latrine have a
reason of financial problem and the rest lack of space to constructs their own or
communal latrine.
37.4% and 44 % of the latrines were not in good condition in urban and rural areas
respectively. This shows most of the urban and rural latrines sanitary condition is not
good because of different conditions.
23.2 percent from the total respondents urban and 15.9% of the rural dwellers, have no
supper structure for their latrines. This is because of lack Knowledge about the use of
supper structure.

There is an important point of the survey finding is seen in the 129 /45% / respondent
of the urban arias, when the latrines are filled. They are seen play emptying manually by
digging another open pit. This practice was totally in Santeria and leads to gross
contamination.
Out of the 87 respondents 16% in urban aria who have latrine but they do not used by
the latrine, respond the reason why they are using their latrine was the bad smell of the
latrines .
In rural area 20.7 % of the respondents is not practice hand washing after using the
latrines. This shows there is very low awareness on hygiene education. But in urban
areas a large number of respondents /92/6%/ have practiced hand washing after
defecation.
60.9 % of the rural responds simply throughing their children faces in open filed. This
practices lead to for transmission diseases. Where as this type of practice is not
significant in urban respondents.
18.2 Liquid waste disposal
In urban and rural areas respondents asked the question of how to mange their liquid
waste excluding urine and feasus. In urban areas 63.3% disposed in un open field,
12.4% in the latrine, 19.5% in open ditch in rural areas. 98.5 % of the respondent
disposed their liquid waste in an open field and 1.5 % in their latrine.
Out of the 625 respondents in urban and rural area 95.7% and 100% of the respondents
have no any type of septic tank for liquid waste disposal system.

18.3 Solid waste disposal


90.6% of in rural area respondent about solid waste disposal system give the answer of
damping in an open field, 2.2% on their garden and 8% burning in their compound.
68.5% of the urban respondent disposed their solid waste on municipal container/
Garbage bines/, 1.9% by municipal truck, 6.5% in the pit, 9.8% burning in their
compound, and only 5.7% disposed in an open field. /but this is not practical figure
according to the practical open field disposal system of the town/.
91.5 respondents of the rural area have not any type of solid waste collection material
also 27.4% of the urban respondents do not have solid waste container.

Out of 254 respondents who have solid waste container in urban area 110 respondents /
40%/ does not have closed system containers for their solid waste containers. This leads
to for fly breading.

The types of solid waste generated from the house hold respondent of urban and rural.
Urban Rural Type of solid waste

1.57.8% 28.3% Rabbish


2.2.2% 5.5% grass
3.11.4% 32.1% Ash
415.3% 6.2% fruits
512.5% 0.9% Plastic products
6.0.3% 20% animal dung

And the rest other types of waste /that much not significant/.
18.4 Food Hygiene

25% of the urban respondents were having the habit of row meat also 6.2 in rural areas
also 88.9% and 78% of the urban and rural respondents are know about the disease
transmission of row meat respectively.
The answer of the respondents about the knowledge of the type disease the are
transmitted by row meat as follows.

Type of diseases Urban Rural


1. Amoeba 10% -
2. Tapeworm 76.4% 75.4%
3. TB - 1%
4. Ascaries 0.3% 0.5%
5. Cough - 1%
6. Dysentery 3.6% 1.9%
7. Hook worm - 1.9%
8. Jardea 0.3% -
9. Intestinal parasite 19.6% 19.7%

9.6% in urban area respondents and 51% in rural area respondents have habit of drinking
row milk. 19.3% of the urban and 33.5% of the rural respondents do not know the disease
transmitted by drinking raw milk, but 90.2% of the urban and 71.5% respondents know to
make free the row milk from disease agents by boiling. However 28.5% of the rural
respondents do not know anything about method of milk preservation.

57.7% respondents in urban area and 44.8% in rural area used to eat row vegetable, but
42.3% and 55.2% of the respondents do not eat row vegetables.

75.3% in urban area respondents and 64.7% respondents of the rural area knows about
the disease transmission that comes but raw vegetables, but 24.7% in urban and 35.3% in
rural area respondents do not know the disease transmitted by row vegetables. But 90.8 of
the urban respondents and 75.9% of the rural respondents will know that makes row
vegetables free from disease by cooking.
Assessment of constitutions rights, polices, proclamation and regulation issues.

19. Statement of the problem


Lack of environmental sanitation probably causes more Illness and death than any simple
factor in the world today. although access to sanitation is a fundamental right that safe
Guards health and human dignity , world wide more than 204 million people lack access
to sanitation Facilities and are unable to practice the basic hygienic practices . Numerous
Infection and infestation of man are spread through inadequate sanitation facilities (2)
In Ethiopia recent organized data on environmental sanitation are scanty however some
studies Reports and experiences indicate that environmental sanitation situation is very
poor as a result it contributes to the occurrence of 60-80% of communicable diseases that
are major causes of mortality, mobility and disability, water and sanitation In adequacy
also hinder economical and social developments constitute a major ingredient to poverty
elevation and in equitability lead to environment degradation.(2)
Inherent to other regions of Ethiopia the environmental Sanitation condition of Dire
Dawa is not good, this result a very curious health problems such as diarrhea, Intestinal
parasite malaria etc….lack of sanitation Facilities also packed by over crowding ,In
creasing population and unemployment which results the In crescent of slummy areas and
street children in the town.
Most of the Dire Dawa population traditional hygiene and sanitation practice
Characterized by the Following Features (especially, in the Ashewa –near by Kebeles and
other sum areas) (7)
 Excreta Disposal methods Remains unsolved so that in discriminate defecation
and handling of faces exist resulting in soil water and food contamination
consequently there is high incidence of gastro intentional infection and
infestation.
♦ Liquid and solid waste disposed of in sanitary condition and hence serve
as a suitable harborages and breeding media for disease vectors such as
insects and rodents, create nuisance (odour and unsightly condition).
♦ Adequate/quality and quantity) water supply provision is not satisfactory.
In General the sanitation sector has met with money set backs in the past
due to varied and several reasons few among the many are.
♦ Lack of or low awareness of the community about health implication of
sanitation practices, hence, insufficient or no involvement of the
Beneficiary communities in the sanitation scheme development and
promotion.
♦ Lack of or insufficient government Budget or subsidy and fund to the
sanitation program.
♦ In adequate trained personals of various levels in order teach the
comminutes, design, appropriate Technologies, supervise the facilities to
a certain their proper usage up keep and maintaine and evaluate, The
Impacts of the Falsities In adequate Technology choice , No appropriate
sanitation Technologies which take in to account cost , weather , Ground
waters level, Availability of water construction materials , culture religion
and special needs of women and children, Appropriate designing of
latrines
Based on the above General Feature of environmental sanitation of Dire Dawa town. The
following major environmental sanitation problems Identified by Environmental
sanitation Assessment, which is conduct in 1994.

PROBLEMS OF ENVARONMENTAL SANITATION


Documents reviewed without exception report about sanitation issues need to be
resolved in order to improve the sanitation condition include,
1. Low awareness of linkage between sanitation and Health
2. Less priority given for sanitation by community because of the prevalent other
pressing needs
3. Lack of integration of sanitation with other sectorial development
4. Prevalence of uncleas institutional frame work roles and responsibilities of sector
ministries
5. Limitation of resources and Technology choice
6. Inappropriate or inadequate promotional methods
7. Bad reputation for traditional pit latrines
8. Non availability of affordable, durable and desirable latrine design
9. Inadequate sanitation facilities

20. Sanitation problems deep analysis


Waste is an inevitable result of living the nature (composition) and volume of waste
however varies with the source of waste and consequently the options for disposal.
Evidently waste from domestic site consists of human excreta which contain plentiful
pathogenic disease causing organisms and parasites that reside in the human intestinal
tract. Waste from domestic site also contains food waste. Both human excreta and food
waste are mainly organic and its allowed to accumulate with out treatment decomposes
thus generating malodorous gases. On the other hand if these wastes are made to compost
will be instead resource for agricultural production. Industrial site wastes may also
contain disease causing micro organism’s organic matter or toxic compounds. Thus
proper disposal of waste generated is essential for breaking the chain of disease
transmission and attain nuisance free removal of waste.
In the Ethiopia context primary source of waste particularly both in urban and rural
setting is from domestic sites. The other source of waste in the urban Ethiopia also
include waste from industrial waste institutions and storm waster, while hazard causing
waste in rural settings in Ethiopia all generate from domestic site alone. Safe drinking
water sanitation and hygienic practices are requirement for human health and for over all
reductions in morbidity and mortality rates specially among children studies indicate that
51% diarrhea reduction can be achieved with the use of latrine, 15% with the use of clan
water, 35% with proper sanitation and 32% with the practice for hand washing, as per the
health and health indicators of Ethiopia. Fiscal year 1995 published by panning
department of MOH. The under five child mortally, rates in Ethiopia is 177/100 which
20% of the death is caused by diarrhea.
21. Challenges in sanitation development
1. Low awareness of linkages between sanitation and health
Many people are an aware of the health impact that safe disposal of excreta brings about,
people usually to have latrine merely for the sake its convenience and service delivery
purpose.
2. Less priority given for sanitation by the community because of the prevalent
other pressing needs.
This is particularly the case of in rural areas where demand for basic food, education and
health facilities are more predominate and when open defecation is considered as a norm,
on the other hand demand for clean accessible water and willingness to contribute for the
same is comparatively high.
3. Lack of integration of sanitation with the provision of water
Despite the ongoing discussion of integrating water and sanitation at a higher level very
little is done in integration of the same at the community level. In fact most of the water
projects are given the name water and sanitation and are designed with in the aim of
bringing a health impact during implementation however.
4. Prevalence of unclear institutional frame work roles and responsibilities of
sector ministries
Policies, proclamation and regulations are already inn place but they lack clarity on
establishment of an institutional frame work. Roles and responsibilities of concerned
bodies have not been well defined. MOWR is tasked with the elimination of liquid waste,
which consists of transportation of waste water away from human population, but the
responsibility does not include the treatment of waste water until safe discharge in to the
environmental adoption of proper technology choices with inn the area of liquid waste
handling and disposal.
5. Limitation of resources and technology choice
There is a limitation of resources in terms of finance and skilled personal to promote
hygienic practice. The communities need to see role models who demonstrate before
them the beauty of a hygienic practice usually the private owners are expected to build
their own latrines and affordability of latrines which is much more expensive than water
is a issue.
6. Inappropriate or in adequate promotional methods
The approach that has been used in the past is mostly didactic. Not only it is didactic but
also it has never been continuous. This has always assumed if the people have head
knowledge about sanitation, they would put is in to practice head knowledge on its won
has not brought behavior change.

7. Bad reputation for traditional pit latrine


Although traditional pit latrines are affordable to many urban and rural communities, its
bad smell and substantial number of flies associated with it has been the draw backs for
its wide promotion of use collapse of poorly constructed latrines labs and fear of small
children falling in the pit latrines contracted is Amhara region has proved otherwise.
8. Non available of affordable durable and desirable latrine design
Quality of latrines constructed inn Ethiopia is generally poor. The master plan study
reported that over 50% of the latrines to be structurally un safe and 50% hygienically
inappropriate the need to demonstrate the different technological options, in the form of
sanitation ladder is there for important.
9. Expectation for subsidies
Particularly in rural Ethiopia where hygiene education and latrine use promotion is done
by NGO, communities are provided usually with samplat. This on the other hand limited
the expansion of latrine use since the other communities also expect for provision of san
plats by an external body demonstration latrines constructed in the past were also
inappropriate.
10. MICRO credit opportunities not explored
Cost of providing sanitation facilities at the house hold levels as the master plan study
indicates is about 4 times that of providing water supply. However to date except
subsidies that UNICEF through health bureaus and NGO’s provide the micro credit
opportunity has not been explored inn Ethiopia.
22. Dire Dawa water resource current status
22.1 Status of existing well fields
a) Dire Jara Well Field

In 1996, GIBB/ Seuereca, has conduct hydro geological study and selected Dire Jara area
as well field for Harar town water supply and subsequently, drilling results of bore holes
at Dire Jara well field shows that:

•The water bearing formations are mainly fractured sandstones and lime stones
•The overlying formations, basalts and alluvial deposits (silty clay and sandy clay)
are the confining layer the water bearing formations of upper sandstone and lime
stone
•Mostly water was struck at average depth between 120 and 140 meters below
ground level, while the static water level varies between 50 and 70 meters below
ground level
•From the pumping test results 12 bore holes have well yield each greater than 20 l/s.

Currently additional drilling of production wells is underway in Dire Jara well field.

b) Sabian well field

Associated Engineering PLC (AE) carried out hydrogeological study in 1986 and
selected potential groundwater sites of Sabiyan well field located Northwest of Dire
Dawa town. The well field has areal boreholes distribution and wells spaced 200-300
meters apart.

Rehabilitation and pumping test on existing wells has been performed in 2002/2003 in
Sabian well field. Comparison was made between pumping test results during well
accomplishment in 1989, and before and after rehabilitation works. The results are
summarized as shown as below:
22.2. Existing ground water pollution level
General
The study of the groundwater quality was carried on the different geological formation
within the Dire Dawa Administrative Council territory on water samples collected during
the water points inventory program and analyzed for physical, chemical and
bacteriological analysis. In this section, it is attempted to classify the various types of
water in the different geological formations and compared with different standards to
evaluate their quality from different uses.

22.3 Ground water quality


Groundwater samples taken during the hydrogeological study of Dire Dawa basin were
analyzed. According to Ethiopian guidelines the analyzed groundwater of each geological
formation is compared and found that most of the tested water samples fulfils the
desirable level in their median except hardness. All ranges of value of tested water
samples fulfill the permissible level except some areas of nitrates value. The range, which
exceeds the permissible level are water samples from polluted boreholes and hand dug
wells.

Samples were also collected in the Dire Dawa town area for bacteriological analysis with
the objective to evaluate the human interference condition of the alluvial and sandstones
aquifers found within the town. As the result of analysis the following conclusion was
drawn:

• High faecal coliform bacteria is observed in dug wells, while in bore holes in
most case the faecal bacteria is zero.
• No correlation is observed between faecal coliform bacteria with nitrates,
indicating that the contaminated water has taken longer time than the lifetime of
the bacteria to reach the sandstone aquifer.
• The sabiyian well field production wells water and reservoir water were found to
be free of both faecal and total coliform bacteria, except PW2, which could be
recent contamination or an outlier.
22.4 Pollution of the Groundwater system & Aquifers Vulnerability

The first report on the nitrate contamination of the hydro-geologic system in the Dire
Dawa town centre was reported in 1959 with maximum nitrate concentration of 45 mg/l.
Since then a number of records show that the contamination increasing from time to time.
For example, in 1981 it was recorded a maximum nitrate concentration of 320 mg/l. The
degree of nitrate concentration in the groundwater depends on the population density and
recharge condition in the area. There are two aquifers in Dire Dawa town area i.e. the
alluvial and the upper sandstone aquifer. The main aquifer that is exploited for the Dire
Dawa town water supply is the upper sandstone. This aquifer is vulnerable to pollution
due to moderate to high permeability of the alluvial sediments overlying the aquifer.

The main ground water contamination sources of Dire Dawa groundwater are:
• Pit latrines and septic tanks, which form aerial distribution of
contamination due to their high density and forms a continuum by
diffusion since the town is without sewerage system.
• Solid waste and waste water disposal along Dechatu river
• Animal feed lots and irrigation areas
• Faulty constructed dug wells and not properly abandoned wells
• Waste from industries, cemeteries and fuel station, etc.
• Recent drilling report indicate that wells drilled at a depth greater than 170
m in Sabian well field shows low concentration of Nitrate ions.

22.5 Water Samples collections and Hydro chemical analysis


For the study and analysis of the water quality of the groundwater of DDAC the
following numbers of water samples were analyzed during Phase II program:
• 72 water samples for physico-chemical analysis
• 26 water samples for Bacteriological analysis
Additionally, about ten previous physico-chemical analyses (with recent data) are
considered for further evaluation of the water quality of the various geological
formations.
Totally 82 physico-chemical analysis were used for classification and comparison with
water standards. The water quality parameters considered for analyses are physical,
chemical and bacteriological characteristics.

a) Physical characteristics: The main physical characteristics considered in


the analysis are:
• Color, Turbidity, taste and odor
• Temperature
b) Chemical Analysis: In the chemical analysis the following parameters
were determined.
• The main cations (NH+, Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, total Iron and
Manganese)
• The main anions (Cl-, NO2-, NO3-, F-, HCO3-, SO42-, and ortho PO43-
• Total alkalinity as mg/l of CaCO3 and
• Total hardness as mg/l of CaCO3
• Electrical Conductivity @25oC
• Total dissolved solids @105oC
• PH @25oC
c) Bacteriological analysis
• Faecal Coliform
• Total Coliform
The laboratory data were entered in the DDAC groundwater database, checked for
correctness by checking the sum of cations to be equal to the sum of anions and by
correlating Conductivity with total dissolved solids (TDS.

The laboratory error for each analysis was checked by the following relationship:
Laboratory Analysis error (%) = 100*abs (Sum of Cations – Sum of anions)/(Sum of
Cations +Sum of anions)
All laboratory results were checked by the above relationship and it was found that more
than 86% of the analyzed samples were found to have less than 10% error and 14% of
them from 10 to 30% error. All laboratory results with lab error of more than 20% were
excluded from further analysis.
22.6 Water Quality indicators
As discussed earlier the main water quality indicators are physical, chemical and
bacteriological constituents of water. These constituents are highly influenced as a
function of geological formation and human interferences.

In this section the three main characteristics of the DDAC groundwater are described as
follows:
i) Physical and Chemical Characteristics
The physical characteristics considered in the present study are color, turbidity,
temperature, odor, taste, electrical conductivity (EC) and pH. The water quality analysis
showed that almost all of the water samples analyzed are colorless, odorless, non-turbid
and tasteless.
The statistical value of the physico-chemical analysis of the groundwater of DDAC is
given in the following table.

Table 1 Statistical Physico-chemical Composition of DDAC groundwater

Water quality EC, Ca++, Mg++, Mn4+, Fe++ Cl-, NO3-, F-, HCO3-, CO3--, SO4--
indicator pH µ S/cm Na+,mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l SAR
Min 6.7 178.0 2.0 32.0 3.0 0.0 0.0 8.0 0.0 0.1 107.4 7.2 2.4 0.4
Max 8.5 3780.0 600.0 472.0 109.4 0.2 0.8 694.1 244.0 2.4 700.3 16.8 1213.0 1.8
Average 7.5 1171.9 72.3 151.9 28.6 0.1 0.1 110.9 34.0 0.6 403.7 12.0 120.1 0.5
St. Dev. 0.3 588.2 89.4 63.7 22.2 0.0 0.2 122.0 50.7 0.3 100.6 6.8 208.6 0.4
Var% 21.0 95.0 100.0 93.0 97.0 95.0 99.0 99.0 100.0 94.0 85.0 57.0 100.0 0.9
Sample No 76.0 76.0 68.0 68.0 68.0 48.0 31.0 75.0 71.0 73.0 68.0 2.0 74.0 76.0

The major and important physico-chemical parameters of the groundwater of Dire Dawa
area are discussed in this section.

Temperature:The temperature of the groundwater as function of surface elevation shows


the following relationship fig27. From the figure it can be seen that the groundwater
temperature increases when the surface elevation decreases with a correlation coefficient
(r) of 0.79.
Figure 1 Relationship of surface elevation versus groundwater temperature

Elevation versus groundwater temeprature

40
Groundwater Temperature, deg.C

35

30

25

20
Temp= -13.934Ln(H) + 123.11
15 R2 = 0.6178

10

0
100 1000 10000
Surface elevation (H), masl

The temperature distribution in the different geological formation (fig.28) shows that the
temperature of the alluvium and upper sandstones aquifers has relatively higher mean
temperatures. This is mainly governed by their location in the area i.e. the alluvium and
the upper sandstone aquifers are found at the foot of the escarpment of lowered elevation.
The basalts and basement rocks temperature is represented by springs emerging on the
escarpment of higher altitude. High temperature ground waters are recorded in the basalt
formation at the eastern part of DDAC i.e. thermal spring (Lega hartu spring) BH-01at
Armakule. Summary of temperature of various formations is given in table 20.

Table 2 Groundwater temperature variation in the various formations


Temperature in deg.C
Geological Formations Min Max Mean Median
Alluvial 20.6 29.5 24.27
24.6
Basalts 12.6 60 21.21 20.9

Upper Sandstone 18.7 28.6 23.11 24

Limestone 17.3 24.8 19.49 18.1

Basements rocks 16.7 22.3 19.20 19.15


Figure 2Temperature of groundwater versus different geological formations
Groundwater temperature in different geological formations
70

SP-30 Lega Hartu


60
Thermal spring

50
Temp. deg.C

Temperature
40 Mean

30

20 20.7 20

10
Alluvial Basalts Upper Sandstone Limestone Basements rocks

Geological formations

PH of the groundwater: The pH of the groundwater in the various geological


formations varies from 6.7 (in the alluvium) to a maximum of 8.5 in the Upper sandstone
aquifers. The pH distribution in the various geological formations is given in fig 29. The
mean pH of all water bearing formation is about 7.5.
Conductivity and total dissolved solids (TDS): The relationship of conductivity versus
total dissolved solids (fig30) for all geological formations gave the equation expressed by
the following formula.
TDS = 0.66 Cond, with coefficient of correlation of r = 0.95
For each geological formation the relationship of Conductivity versus TDS shows that all
the formations have similar relationships. i.e.
Relationship of Conductivity with TDS in various geological formations
No. Geological formation Regression equation Coefficient of
correlation
1 Alluvial TDS = 0.69 Cond 0.95
2 Basalts TDS = 0.62 Cond 0.96
3 Upper Sandstones TDS = 0.65 Cond 0.95
4 Hamanlei lime stone TDS = 0.57 Cond 0.95
5 Basement rocks TDS = 0.65 Cond 0.98
The distribution of Conductivity and TDS versus geological formations is given in
fig31.a and fig31.b. From the figures the Upper sandstones and alluvial have higher
Conductivity and TDS compared to the other formations. Very high conductivity and
TDS is observed in the alluvial of Dire Dawa town. Similarly, in the Upper sand stone
where the conductivity greater than 1582 µ S/cm is observed in bore holes within the
center of the Dire Dawa town.

Figure 3 pH versus geological formations

Figure 4 Conductivity Versus TDS

Electrical Conductivity versus Total dissolved solids of all


formation

3500

3000
TDS= 0.6588EC
2500 R2 = 0.9098
TDS, mg/l

2000

1500

1000

500

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Conductivity, ,MicroS/cm
Figure 5 Conductivity and TDS distribution in various geological formations

Conductivity

Conductivity distribution in Various Formations

4000

3500

3000 Mean
Conductivity, microS/cm

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
Alluvial Basalts Upper sandstone Hamanlei Basement rocks
limestone
Geological formations

Total dissolved solids (TDS)

Total Dissolved Solids in the various formations

3500

3000
TDS
2500 Mean
TDS, mg/l

2000

1500

1000

500

0
Alluvial Basalts Upper Hamanlei Basement rocks
sandstone limestone
Geological Formations
Hardness: As can been from fig.32 all groundwater of Dire Dawa area can be considered
as hard with mean hardness of 512, 359.8, 543, 429.6, and 446 mg/l for alluvium, basalts,
upper sandstones, lime stone and basement rocks respectively. The median values are less
than the mean for all formations indicating that the distribution is log normal distribution.
Figure 6 Hardness Concentration in different geological formations

Hardness versus geological formations

1800

1600

1400
Hardness
1200
Mean
Hardness, mg/l

1000

800

600

400

200

0
Alluvial Basalts Upper Limestons Base,ments
sandstones
Geological formations

Table 3 The Statistical values of hardness for all formation

Hardness Geological formations


value Upper Hamanlei Basement
Alluvium Basalts
Sandstones limestone rocks
Min 100.0 100.0 368.0 370.0 180.0
Max 1630.0 790.0 940.0 496.0 770.0
Mean 512.6 359.6 543.0 429.6 446.3
Median 465.0 278.0 476.0 430.0 415.0
The highest recorded hardness 1630 mg/l is from shallow unprotected Dug well at Gebre
Anano with five meters water level depth caused by high pollution.
Nitrates: Although some igneous rocks contain small amounts of soluble nitrates or
ammonia, in general nitrates are not derived from the minerals in the rocks or sediments.
Natural nitrates ranges from 0.1 to 10mg/l. The nitrate concentration in the different
geological formation is given in fig.33and table 22.
Table 4 Nitrate concentration in different formations

Nitrates Geological formations


(mg/l) Alluvium Basalts Upper Hamanlei Basement
Sandstone limestone rocks
Min 0.4 0.0 0.2 0.2 7.9
Max 244.0 25.5 220.0 14.1 46.2
Mean 26.7 11.7 67.0 8.3 20.7
Median 11.0 9.2 35.2 11.2 13.6

Figure 7 Nitrate distributions in different geological formations

N itra te s v e rs u s v a rio u s g e o lo g ic a l fo rm a tio n s

3 0 0 .0

2 5 0 .0

2 0 0 .0 N itra te s
M ean
NO3, mg/l

1 5 0 .0

1 0 0 .0

5 0 .0

0 .0
A llu via l B a s a lts U p p e r s a n d sto n e H a m a n le i B a s e m e n t ro c k s
lim e s to n e
G e o lo g ic a l fo rm a tio n s

The chemical contaminants of principal importance that are derived on-site sanitation are
nitrates and chlorides.
High correlation (fig34) between chlorides and nitrate indicates that the origin of high
nitrates in Dire Dawa town is certainly sewage.
Relationship of Chlorides versus Nitrates at Dire dawa Town

251

Palace
201 NO3 = 0.7631CL - 15.711
R2 = 0.6877 Hafcat

DD food complex
Nitrates, mg/l

151

Ras Hotel Railway station

101 Sabiyian W-7


E.A bottling

Sabiyian W-6
51
SabiyianPW-1
Sabiyian PW-4
1Amdael
Sabiyian PW-8
1 8 13 35
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Chlorides, mg/l

Figure 8 Chlorides versus Nitrates


High nitrate, chlorides, calcium and sodium concentration is observed in the wells found
within the Dire Dawa town.
i) Bacteriological Analysis
26 water samples were collected in the Dire Dawa town area for bacteriological analysis
with the objective to evaluate the human interference condition of the alluvial and
sandstones aquifers found within the town. The bacteriological analysis is given in table
23 and the following conclusion can be derived from the table.

• High faecal coliform bacteria is observed in dug wells, while in bore holes in
most case the faecal bacteria is zero.
• No correlation is observed between faecal coliform bacteria with nitrates,
indicating that the contaminated water has taken longer time than the lifetime of
the bacteria to reach the sandstone aquifer.
• The sabiyian well field production wells water and reservoir waater were fournd
to be free of both faecal and total coliforrm bactria, expt PW2, whih ould be ceent
contaminationor an outlier.
Table 5 Bacteriological analysis, chlorides, Nitrates and sulphates

Faecal Total
Coliform Coliform
Code LocalName UTMeast UTMnorth Formation (per100ml) (per100ml) SWL,m CONDUCTIVITY TDS,mg/l NA,mg/l CA,mg/l CL,mg/l NO3,mg/l SO4,mg/l
BH-52 Rail way station 813936 1061662 Upper Sandstones 0 0 29.77 1582 1092 60 214 166 129.4 56.7
BH-07 D/Dawa food complex 814520 1063426 Upper Sandstones 25 480 30 1996 1060 40 188.8 144 155.32 92.3
BH-14 Hafcat #1 814865 1063384 Upper Sandstones 0 2740 1810 1245 80 240 216 184.8 221.5
BH-05 Cement Factory 812378 1061804 Alluvial 100 250 16 994 532 30 116 83.6 18.46
BH-06 Ras Hotel # 2 813870 1061350 Upper Sandstones 50 100 45 1393 946 60 200 150 115.28 50
BH-10 East Afri Bot#2 814020 1061049 Upper Sandstones 0 45 36.5 1137 834 40 152 80.6 92.84 39.56
DW-14 D/DEdible oil f 812941 1061925 Alluvial 45 210 23 1084 650 60 140 100 34.76 31.65
DW-30 Tony farm #1 811769 1063611 Alluvial 60 110 15.5 1168 724 5 183 91.2 25.5 65.9
DW-31 Christos school 814820 1061283 Alluvial 40 100 38
SP-14 Cement Factory 812255 1061280 Alluvial 1500 1900 908 526 4 132 94.6 18.92 7.9
SP-21 Legehare 818219 1061625 Hamanlei Limestone 5 25 966 570 50 140 56.1 4.84 15.8
BH-43 Sabian Pw-1 812491 1063930 Upper Sandstones 0 0 13.5 1057 622 50 136 106 34.32 44.8
BH-44 Sabian Pw-2 812097 1063961 Upper Sandstones 80 100 9.3 1066 664 50 160 100 27.28 42.2
BH-46 Sabian Pw-4 812527 1063543 Upper Sandstones 0 0 19.7 1060 670 50 160 106 35.2 29
BH-47 Sabian Pw-5 812362 1063793 Upper Sandstones 0 0 15.9 1017 618 40 159 75.7 23.76 47.5
BH-13 Amdael well #1 814356 1064666 Upper Sandstones 20 110 1302 790 100 112 161 21.12 14.5
BH-2 Dechatu 816294 1058832 NA 0 160 784 470 10 140 28.6 27.72 12.1
BH-67 Textile A.W-2 814652 1064390 Upper Sandstones 30 100 32.13
BH-70 Textile N.W 3 816584 1062892 Upper Sandstones 0 820 14.86
DW-26 Goro(sheh Moham 810773 1062220 Alluvial 600 640 1279
DW-22 Catholic ch. 816161 1061685 Alluvial 180 1000
DW-23 ELFORA 811200 1062365 Alluvial 0 0 26
DW-04 Tsehay Hotel 813009 1061596 Alluvial 120 290 1380 878 80 180 133 92.4 15.8
DW-21 Cement Factory 812282 1061937 Alluvial 1400 2400 5.7
WSS-1 Reservior 0 0
WSS-2 Tap 5 20
22.7 Water Quality of different geological formations
To classify the type of waters in each geological formation and determine their
relationship, different graphical methods of interpretation of the chemical analysis and
correlation of major ions of the different formations is carried out. For the classification of
the water type in the different formations piper is used for each geological formations
applying Aquachem computer software. The Piper Diagrams for each geological formation
are given in fig35.

i) Piper Diagrams for Classification


a) Alluvial Sediments

Alluvial sediments piper in fig. 35.a clearly shows that the water types in the alluvial
deposits varies in a wide range. The major water types are Ca-Mg-HCO3, Ca-HCO3-Cl,
Ca-Mg-HCO3-Cl, Ca-Na-HCO3-Cl, Na-Ca-Mg-HCO3-SO4, etc. The water type with
chlorides, sulphates and sodium are the modification of the water by human interference in
the Dire Dawa town and unprotected shallow dug wells.

b) Basalts:

Piper Diagram of the Basalts groundwater (fig35.b) shows that the ground waters are Ca-
HCO3, Ca-Mg-HCO3-Cl, Ca-Na-HCO3 are the major type of waters. It should be noted
that similar to the alluvial sediment water types with chlorides are ground water that the
water quality is modified by human interference.

c) Upper Sandstones and Hamanlei Limestones

The piper diagram of the upper sandstones and Hamanlei lime stones (fig35.c) show a
wide variety of water types. The main water types are Ca-HCO3, Ca-HCO3-Cl, Ca-Mg-
HCO3-Cl, Ca-Na-Cl-HCO3, Ca-Na-HCO3-Cl, Ca-Cl-HCO3-SO4, etc.
Evaluation of the water types in the different part of the area the following results are
found:
• Water types of Ca-HCO3 and Ca-Mg-HCO3 are distributed at Dire Jara well field,
Serkama well at Hurso and recently test well drilled at Bore TW4. These bore holes
are located in the rural areas and free from human activity and under protected
conditions.
• The Sabiyian well field bore holes have been modified to Ca-HCO3-Cl (PW2 and
PW4), Ca-Na-HCO3-Cl (PW-6 and PW-8) and Ca-Mg-HCO3-Cl (PW-7)
indicating that the groundwater of Sabiyian well field is modified.
• Similar to the Sabiyian well field the groundwater of Dire Dawa town have
different water types Ca-HCO3-Cl [Ras Hotel (BH-06), Railway (BH-52), BH-10,
BH11, etc], Ca-Na-HCO3-Cl and Ca-Na-Mg-HCO3-Cl (Melka Jebdu BH-09,
Palace bore holes), Ca-Mg-Na-Cl-SO4 and Ca-Cl-HCO3-SO4 (Hafcat wells BH-14
and BH-15). In general the bore holes in Dire Dawa town and its periphery (Melka
Jebdu) have high concentration of chlorides, sulphates and sodium unlike bore
holes far from the town.
d) Basement rocks
Unlike the other formations, the basement rocks outcrops on the escarpment and the
groundwater of the weathered and fractured of the formation or recharged by the limestone
emerges as springs favored by its topography. Piper diagram of basement rocks (fig35.d)
also shows that the diversity of water types is limited and most of them are Ca-HCO3 and
Ca-Mg-HCO3. However, there some unprotected springs (Halobusa SP-2, Adada SP-4 and
SP-8), which have high chloride concentrations.
Figure 9 Piper Diagram of all water bearing formations

a) Alluvium Sediments
b) Basalts
c) Upper Sandstones and Hamanlei limestones

d) Basement rocks
ii) Relationship of groundwater in the different formations
The relationship of the groundwater in different geological formation is preliminarily
evaluated by correlating the average major ions of one of the formation with the other
formations (fig36).

The correlation results are summarized in table 24.


Table 6 Summary of Correlation of average major ions of the formations
Coeff. of
No. Correlated formation Equation
correlation (R2)
1 Alluvial versus Basalts PN =0.6Q + 27 0.87
2 Alluvial versus Upper sand stone Ka = 0.8Q + 0.9 0.95
3 Alluvial versus Hamanalei lime stone Jh = 0.97Q – 46.8 0.90
4 Alluvial versus Basement rocks PC = 0.90Q –28.9 0.94
5 Basalts versus Upper sandstones Ka = 1.07PN – 5.4 0.73
6 Basalts versus Hamanlei lime stones Jh = 1.18PN – 48.8 0.63
7 Basalts versus Basement rocks PC = 1.12PN –31.9 0.67
8 Upper sandstones versus Hamanalei
limestone Jh = 1.12Ka – 45.9 0.92
9 Upper sandstone versus Basements PC = 1.06Ka –28.1 0.95
10 Hamanalei lime stone versus Basements PC = 0.92Jh +17.3 0.99

As it can be seen from figure 36 and table 24 the groundwater in the different water
bearing formation interacts each other. In general the following preliminarily
understanding can be derived from the above relationships.

• The alluvial water bearing formation shows high relationship with the other water
bearing formation and there is groundwater movement to the lower water bearing
formations forming one groundwater system in the area.
• Comparatively the basalts ground waters do not highly correlates with the other
formations water indicating that the basalt aquifer is relatively isolated or the
groundwater distribution is highly localized.
• Upper sandstone aquifer and Hamanalei limestone aquifer highly correlate
indicating that these aquifers form one complex aquifer unit.
• The Limestone and basement aquifers major ions are almost identical. This is
probably the springs from weathered and fractured basement rocks, mainly gets
from the overlying fractured and sometimes karstified limestone.
The above conditions make it possible to consider the DDAC as one groundwater system
for all formations together.

Figure 10 Correlation of average major ions of various formations groundwater

a) Alluvial water versus other formations

Correlation of average major cations and anions of alluvium sediments with the other
formations

450.0

400.0

350.0
other formation, mg/l

300.0 sandstone= 0.8all+ 0.9


R2 = 0.95
250.0
Basalts = 0.6Alluvium + 27.
R2 = 0.8718
200.0

150.0 Limestone = 0.97alluvium - 46.845


R2 = 0.90
100.0

50.0 Basement = 0.9094alluvium - 28.9


R2 = 0.94
0.0
0.0 50.0 100.0 150.0 200.0 250.0 300.0 350.0 400.0 450.0 500.0
Average major cations and anions of alluvium sediments, mg/l

b) Basalts water versus other formations

Correlation ofaverage major cations and anions of Basalts with the other
formation
450

400

350 Sandstone=1.073Basalts - 5.4


other formations

R 2 =0.73
300

250 Basement =1.1216Basalts - 31.905


R 2 =0.6745
200

150 Limestone =1.184Basalts - 48.8


R 2 =0.6371
100

50

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Average major cations and anions of basalts, mg/l


Upper Sandstone waters versus other formations

Correlation of average cations and anions of upper sandstones w ith the other
formations
450

400
average major ions of other

350
B asement =1.06sandstone - 28.1
formation, mg/l

300 R 2 =0.95

250
Limestone=1.128Sandstone - 45.9
200 R 2 =0.92

150

100
50

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Average major ions of upper sandstones, mg/l

Hamanalei limestone water versus Basement formation

Correlation of average major ions of Hamanlei


limestones versus basement rocks
450.0

400.0
Average major ions of

Basement= 0.9158Limestone + 17.3


350.0
basements, mg/l

R2 = 0.99
300.0

250.0
200.0

150.0

100.0
50.0

0.0
0.0 100.0 200.0 300.0 400.0 500.0

Average major ions of limestone, mg/l


22.8 Water quality criteria (standards)
To Asses the suitability of the groundwater for different purposes, it was necessary
to apply criteria or standards of acceptable quality. The major purpose standards of
acceptable quality are as follows.
a) Drinking water
b) Irrigation water
c) Industrial water
a) Drinking water standards
To analyze the suitability of the groundwater of the DDAC for drinking purposes it
was compared with Ethiopian Guidelines Specification for Drinking Water Quality
March 2002 (table 26).
According to Ethiopian guidelines the groundwater of each geological formation is
compared. As can be seen from the above table most of the tested water samples
fulfils the desirable level in their median except hardness.
All ranges of value of tested water samples fulfill the permissible level except some
areas of nitrates value. The range, which exceeds the permissible level are water
samples from polluted boreholes and hand dug wells.
B) Standards of water for Irrigation purpose
Irrigation water classification based on Sodium Adsorption ratio (SAR) DDAC
groundwater. Sodium concentration is important in classifying irrigation water
because sodium reacts with soil to reduce its permeability. The salinity laboratory
of U.S. Department of Agriculture recommends the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR)
because of its direct relation to the adsorption of sodium by soil. It is defined by
SAR = Na/√ [(Ca + Mg)/2
Where the concentration of the constituent are expressed in milli-equivalent per
liter.
The classification of SAR in terms of suitability is tabulated below.
SAR Class
< 10 Excellent
10-18 Good
18-26 Fair
> 26 Poor
Table 7 Comparison of DDAC groundwater qualities with Ethiopian Guidelines for drinking water-2002.

Ethiopian
Property Guidelines Alluvial sediments Basalts Upper Sandstones Hamanalei Basements Remar
Value (2000), limestone k
mg/l Range Median Range Median Range Median Range Median Range Media
n

Sodium (Na) 358 4.0-300.0 12.1-412.3 14-125 8.0-50.0 2-140


80.0 50.0 50 12.0 37.5

Chloride (Cl) 533 23.1-694.1 12.1-412.3 8-331 13.0-67.1 28.6-226.6


92.9 56.1 100.1 23.1 58.85

Boron (B) 0.3 ND ND ND ND ND ND


ND ND ND ND ND

Iron (Fe) 0.4 0.01-0.09 0.01-0.39 0.01-0.78 0.01-0.116 0.01


0.01 0.2 0.06 0.05 0.01

Manganese (Mn) 0.5 0.01-0.2 0.1-0.2 0.0-0.2 0.05-0.2 0.1


0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

Sulphate (SO4) 483 2.6-1213 2.4-1000.5 14.5-448.5 7.9-142.0 2.64-168.8


48.8 62.0 56.7 23.7 17.01
Total hardness 392 110-1630 100-790 368-940 370-770 180-770 Median
(as CaCO3) 465 278 476 430 415 above

pH 6.5-8.5 6.67-8.1 7.03-8.03 7.01-8.49 7.23-8.18 7.3-7.74


7.54 7.69 7.4 7.43 7.56

Nitrate (NO3) 50 0.4-244.0 0.0-25.5 0.2-220.0 0.2-14.1 7.9-46.2


11.0 9.2 35.2 11.2 13.6

Fluoride (F) 3.0 0.27-1.4 0.15-2.39 0.0-1.4 0.22-0.55 0.16-0.81


0.67 0.51 0.53 0.43 0.42
The SAR of the total samples analyzed in DDAC varies from 0.4 to 1.8 with a mean of
0.5. Therefore, the tested water samples are excellently suitable from the point of their
SAR value for irrigation.
ii) Irrigation water classification according to USSL method.
The Feasibility Report classification based the United States Salinity Laboratory (USSL)
is acceptable (fig.38).
From the figure it clearly depicted that almost all of DDAC groundwater has High
salinity hazard (750 –2250 micro S/cm) and low sodium hazard (SAR<10) and can be
used on soils with adequate drainage with special salinity management.
Figure 11 Suitability of water for Irrigation (USSL-Method) -all water samples

Groundwater Chemical analysis of Wilcox Diagram

28

24
Hig So
h diu
m
ab 20
so
rpt
ion
Me rat 16
diu ion
m
12

LO
w
4

0
100 1000 10000
250 750 2250
Conductivity, microS/cm

Low Medium High Very high

c) Standards for industry

It should be apparent that the quality requirements of water used in different


industrial processes very widely varies i.e. high-pressure boilers must meet
extremely exacting criteria where as water of as low quality as sea water can be
satisfactorily employed for cooling of condensers. Even within each industry,
criteria cannot be established; instead only recommending limits.
Water for industrial use not only must satisfy a certain quality level but also a
relative constancy of its constituents should be guaranteed. Water characteristics
to be considered are: the corrosive or encrusting behavior of the water, its
hardness, the pH, the salinity and its iron and silica content. Various types of
industries demand water with different water quality.
23. Major ground water pollution source in and around Dire Dawa
23.1 GENERAL

The first report on the nitrate contamination of the hydro-geologic system in the
Dire Dawa town centre was reported in 1959 with maximum nitrate concentration
of 45 mg/l. Since then a number of records show that the contamination
increasing from time to time. For example, in 1981 it was recorded a maximum
nitrate concentration of 320 mg/l. The degree of nitrate concentration in the
groundwater depends on the population density and recharge condition in the
area.

According to Taye Alemayehu, (1988) report it was stated that Dire Dawa town is
a fast growing industrial and commercial town, which produces pollutants in great
quantities. The town has no sewer system and wastewater treatment plant. The
main sources of pollution are multiple point sources pollution of pit latrines and
septic tanks and linear source pollution of industrial and domestic waste disposal
along the sandy seasonal river channels.

Human waste disposal in the town are pit latrines and septic tanks. The rapid
infiltration condition of the unsaturated zone of the sandy formation of the area
and shallow groundwater condition have facilitated to receive large amount of
contaminant load into the groundwater. The filling of pit latrines and septic tanks
is rare chance. It is estimated that annually about 65,000 tons human excreta is
dumped in the groundwater system and about 10,000 m3 of solid wastes were
accumulated on three hydro-geologically favorable to pollution areas. Dire Dawa
textiles factory discharges waste water with TDS of 7500 mg/l with abundant of
sodium, chlorine and sulphate in the Lege Hare river channel.
23.2 Aquifers Vulnerability
There are two aquifers in at Dire Dawa town area i.e. the alluvial and the upper
sandstone aquifer. The main aquifer that is exploited for the Dire Dawa town
water supply is the upper sandstone. The main aquifer (upper sandstone) is semi
confined overlaid by the alluvial aquifer. The groundwater level depth (fig41) and
groundwater level elevation maps (fig42) show that the groundwater level is deep
along Dechatu river and at the same time is the overlying alluvial and the upper
sandstones are highly permeable and the groundwater flow concentrates along the
river. Along Dechatu river fan the upper sandstones aquifer is highly vulnerable to
pollution due to the high permeability about 5 m/day of the alluvial sediments.
Away from the Dechatu river to the west the alluvial becomes finer and the
permeability decreases to 1m/day, the upper sandstone aquifer is also vulnerable
to pollution. In general the upper sandstone aquifer at Dire Dawa town area is
vulnerable to pollution due to the high to moderate permeability of the alluvial
sediments overlying the aquifer.

23.3 Sources of groundwater Contamination


The main ground water contamination sources of Dire Dawa groundwater are:
• Since the town is without sewer system, Pit latrines and septic tanks forms
aerial distribution of contamination due to their high density and forms a
continuum by diffusion.
• Solid waste and waste water disposal along Dechatu river
• Animal feed lots and irrigation areas (Hafcat, Tony and Amdael farms)
• Faulty constructed dug wells and not properly abandoned wells
• Waste from industries, cemeteries and fuel station, etc.
The main sources of contamination and their location (excluding pit latrines and
septic tanks are given in table 31 and fig43.
Table 8 Inventory of Contamination sources within Dire Dawa town
Description of contamination source Description of contaminant Date of
Source Location UTMN UTME Elevation Physical setting of the site source type Apperances Type Nature of Release Areas affected site visit
1 D.D Textile Factory 1061995 816583 1189 Flat plain Waste water from industry surface costic soda, H2O2,Line,
NaSO4,
point
H2SO4 16/02/2003

2 Hafcat dairy farm 1062851 815079 1159 Flat plain, near Decahtu river Animal feedlots, irrigation surface Point, Diffuse 120000m2 16/02/2003

3 Amdael Agri-farm and diary 1064603 814550 1128 Flat plain, near Decahtu river Animal feedlots, irrigation surface Point, Diffuse 270000m2 16/02/2003

4 Elfora 1062105 812470 1178 Inclined to the east solid waste and waste water surface line 15/02/2003

5 Main 1062911 815528 1155 Inclined to the east Cemetry Unsaturated zone Point 90000m2 15/02/2003

6 East Africa bottling 1060725 814353 1205 Inclined to the east Waste water from industry surface line 15/02/2003

7 D.D. Food complex 1063470 814420 1175 Slightly inclined to NE direction Waste water from industry surface line 15/02/2003

8 D.D. Slaughting factory 1062634 811558 1188 flat plain Waste water from industry surface Point 15/02/2003
D.D. Solid waste disposal Slightly inclined towards Dechatu
9 area 1063541 815485 1147 river solid waste and waste water surface Points 120000m2 15/02/2003
Slightly inclined towards Dechatu
10 Total Fuel station 1061089 814724 1208 river Waste Water from fuel station surface Fuels,Greese Point, line 16/02/2003

11 Agip/shell fuel station 1061200 813750 1199 Slightly inclined to North direction Waste Water from fuel station surface Fuels,Greese Point, line 16/02/2003

12 Shell fuel station 1060730 813880 1211 Slightly inclined to North direction Waste Water from fuel station surface Fuels,Greese Point, line 16/02/2003
Slightly hilly and inclined to
13 Legehare Cemetry 1061027 815743 1243 northeast Cemetry Unsaturated Point 157500 16/02/2003

14 Christos school 1061283 814820 1236 Slightly hilly and inclined to north Abndoned well Below water table point 16/02/2003

15 St Gebriel school 1061800 813338 1201 Flat plain along Dechatu river Abndoned well Below water table point 16/02/2003

17 Garages, machine shops 1061450 813500 1180 Plain Salvage yard, garage, machine shop Surface point 16/02/2003

18 WFP(Abikian) 1063061 814317 1189 flat plain Abondoned well Below water table point 16/02/2003

19 Tony Farm well 1063118 811366 1181 flat plain faulty constructed well Below water table pont 16/02/2003

20 Tony farm 1063118 811366 1181 flat plain Irrigation practice, manuring surface diffuse 16/02/2003
Goro kebele, sheh
21 Mohammed 1062220 810773 1211 rugged plain faulty constructed dug well Below water table point 16/02/2003

22 Goro kebele 1062334 810738 1215 rugged plain faulty constructed dug well Below water table point 16/02/2003

23 Tsehay Hotel 1061596 813009 1179 Plain faulty constructed dug well Below water table Point 16/02/2003
Slightly hilly and inclined to
24 Cement factory 1061937 812282 1180 southwest faulty constructed dug well Below water table Point 16/02/2003
Cement factory (Butiji
25 spring) 1061280 812255 1185 depression Unprotected spring surface Line 17/02/2003
23.4 Contamination Condition of the upper sandstone aquifer

Since the Dire Dawa area \groundwater is generally vulnerable to pollution and
the on site sanitation contamination is directly related to population density. As
can be in figs 44, 45, 46, and 47 the high nitrates and chlorides concentrations are
distributed where the population density is high. High chlorides concentrations
are also found at Hafcat and Palace area. High concentration of Sulphate within
the town is found at high population density areas and at low population density
areas at farming plots of Hafcat, Tony etc.

From Nitrates, Chlorides and Sulphate concentration distribution in the upper


sandstones aquifer in the Dire Dawa town area the following observations are
made:

• High concentration is directly related to high population density, farming


and industrial areas
• The high concentration plume is flowing along the groundwater flow
direction
• At the Sabiyain well field a localized plume of Nitrates, chlorides and
sulphate are flowing to the well field. At present some of the wells in the
well field are located within the zone of 50-100 mg/l of Nitrates.

The pollution condition of the Dire Dawa area is highly manifested mainly due to
the absence of sewerage system in the town. This condition may not be resolved
in the near future. In order to have an early warning system on the rate of Nitrates
and chlorides contamination of Sabiyian well field, it is highly advisable to start
water quality monitoring work along the advancing plumes of from southeast to
northwest direction on the following monitoring wells i.e. Dire Dawa food
complex water supply well and PW9, PW6, PW4, PW5 and PW2 of the Sabiyain
wells. Here is recommended to carry out analysis of main cations and anions
including nitrates two times per year (in July and January).
It was not possible to model the extent and amounts of nitrates pollution and other
contaminants since there is not sufficient data to construct flow model as stated
earlier.

24. Urban Green Areas


Over the past few decades the city of Dire Dawa has preserved natural and aesthetically
pleasing green areas in various metropolitan landscapes. Especially, these are found on
street green belt, in urban parks, in public and private gardens in natural and semi natural
green zones including urban woodlands. Landscapes along stream banks and flood plains
in and around the city have been farmed by peri-urban inhabitants and were kept green
and hygienic.

Various exotic and land race tree species have been maintained in public and private
gardens, and along streets and avenue landscapes of the metropolitan.
In spite of the urban population growth and associated growing demand for greenery
during the past 20 years, only few green structures, i.e. one municipal and three private
parks, were developed for public greenery and recreation access. Few plantations have
been made on roadsides, peri urban areas and over the ground water buffer zone.

Except few ecological land race Acacia species left as a natural remnant in conservation priority areas at the southwest, a vast green
zone in the north and most gullies, stream banks, flood plains unkempt lots, and utility right off ways at various parts of the city are
covered by exotic invasive species, i.e. Prosopis juliflora and Parthenium hystrophorous, which are known to be a major threat for the
green biodiversity.

24.1 Existing green area features of the city


Recreation and leisure are fundamental aspects of human life, which provide relaxation
entertainment, and personal and social development. According to the Dire Dawa spatial
development report (NUPI, 1994) the most important elements of green area system
includes: private green yards and small public green areas, semi public institutions, land
between buildings, street trees, green areas along some dry rivers, stream channels, flood
plain green areas, private horticulture, trees and wood lands.

I) Residential greenery
According to the green area assessment sample survey study made on residential
settlements of transition and expansion zones, about 95% of the housing plots are found
to deserve green vegetation with an average coverage ratio of 12% per plot size. How
ever, higher green area as high as (30%) coverage has been observed in compounds of
the public facilities and social service providing offices and institutions. This shows that
green areas/trees are important to moderate the climate of the area.
Except in some government quarters, sub neighborhoods green areas are less developed
because open spaces and play lots are scarce in most portion of the city (see Table 18
below).

Table 1. Existing green area structural components of the city


No Type of greenery Area estimate Remarks
[ Ha]
I Developed green areas 356
1.Green belt along street 7.8
• Avenue trees [9km] 7.3 Total city road length is 187 km
• Road Island 0.55 [asphalt covers 31 km]
• Squares [Six squares] 0.04 [RasHotel,Ferensai,Municipal,Laga-
har, Tedros&Michael]
2.Residential greenery 132.2
• Home stead 65.0
• Office/public institution 67.2
3. Parks and gardens 18.76
• Private parks/gardens 1.01 Functional
• Municipal parks/gardens 16.2 Unfunctional
• Hotel gardens 1.53 Functional
4 Sport fields. 7.24 Functional, but not green
6.Agricultural land 190 (C.S.A report)
II Natural/semi natural greens 1181.12
1. Open access/Bush & Shrub/ 1112 (1994 master plan report)
2.Reserved area 61.2
3.Youth centers 0.90
4. Play grounds 9.017.12
Total 1539.1
Source: - Urban sanitary and beatification office, Land supply study, [DDIPO, 1996], CSA
and Kebeles
II) Neighborhood green network
It includes open areas, pedestrian lands, parking lots, play grounds, riverbanks/channels,
conservation and buffer areas, and woodlands on the flood plains.
Currently, out of the former 25 kebeles, playgrounds of different sizes ranging from
6440m2 to 14479 m2 are distributed in each one of the 13 kebeles’, and all of them are
undeveloped open spaces.
Table 2 Playground facilities at kebele level
No Kebele Size of play
ground [Ha]
1 Keb. 01 15000
2 Keb. 02 20417
3 Keb. 03 8574
4 Keb. 04 7066
5 Keb. 05 9625
6 Keb. 06 No
7 Keb. 07 6440
8 Keb. 08 8400
9 Keb. 09 14479
Total 90001

In the peri urban areas of the city, i.e. Melka Jebdu, Lega Hare, Butiji, horticultural
orchards are developed at respective riverbanks. Few farm and conservation plantations
are developed at few parts of Dechatu flood plains, while most portion of Dechatu, Goro
GTZ, Butiji and air port flood plains are still un developed and remains a major threat of
flooding hazard.
Hilly areas of Butiji-Goro, Goro-MelkaJebdu, Lega Hare, Genda Gerada, and Addis
Alem are degraded hills except little coverage at Addis Alem hills. Butiji-Melka Jebdu
hills are conservation priority areas for the groundwater aquifer protection. The only
developed buffer areas include plantation of Sabian groundwater well field, near Gende
Tesfa, and the banks Melka Jebdu flood plain cemetery buffer areas.

As far as woodland and urban forest is concerned, the Melka Jebdu peri urban prosopis
plantation is the only wood lot for urban fuel wood supply. However, natural woody
shrubs and trees around Melka Jebdu and the vicinity urban rural peasant association’s
(PA’s) constitute the natural green nets. The survey made during data collection showed
that many areas are under severe degradation in and around the City table 20. below.
Table 3 Size and distribution of degraded ecology and undeveloped green areas in and
around the city.

No Green area structures


(natural semi natural Landscape location and size
greens)
I Site (Gps Location) Size (Ha)
Degraded ecology
1. Urban hills and food plains. 1.1 Genda Gerada hills 47.84
1.2 Lega Hare hills 166.4
1.3 Addis Alem hills 46.4
1.4 Butiji Goro hills 153.5
1.5 Dechatu flood plains 59.1
1.6 Butiji flood plains 6.2
1.7 Leg Hare flood plains 20.1
1.8 Air port approach flood plains -
1.9 Goro-GTZ flood plain 17.8
2.0 Melka Jebdu flood plain 3.1
2. Degraded ecology of Butiji-Melka Jebdu 240.8
groundwater aquifer
II Less developed poorly 1. Road and avenue trees 187
managed green belts 2. Road Island
3. Squares
III Un developed and poorly
managed public recreation
amenity and parks
1. Municipal recreation 1.1 Lega Hare parks 16.07
amenities 1.2 Kezira parks 0.16
1.3 Butiji parks 26.88
1.4 Airport left location 13.62
1.5 Cuba camp recreation 16.35
1.6 Festival place at Dechatu 5
1.7 Youth center (at each kebele and 12.16
city level) (11.25+0.91)
2. Sport field 2.1 One stadium at kebele level 11.25
2.2 One big stadium at city level 4
3.Private gardens and parks 3.1 Existing private park
 Jungle Park 0.56
 Dini Park 0.15
 Sami Park 0.3
3.2 Additional private parks -
IV Less developed green/ open 1. Residential settlement 15% total plot
space 2. Office and commercial settlement 25% " "
3. Industrial settlement 10% " "
4. Public facilities 50% " "
V Undeveloped preserved 1. Airport road right 15.13
areas and buffer zones 2. Sabian groundwater wellfield 7.6
3. Shinile cemeteries buffer zone -
VI Undeveloped urban open Melka Jebdu (peri-urban) -
access /wood land/
Vll Low accessed Urban Existing Goro nursery 8.9
nursery and Botanical
garden
VIIl Low accessed peri urban Butiji-Goro valley and Boren. -
farmland.
III) City wide green network

Includes formal green areas in the form of parks recreation areas, street side and green
boulevards.
IV) Parks and recreational areas
Survey made by this study shows that except 3 private parks located entirely in one
kebele (03), there is no municipal parks for public access. The Lega Hare Park, which
was planned to be a major municipal park, remains unfinished and ownerless project are
now in a state of demolishing .The Kezira Mini Park which used to serve minor
recreation facilities are now changed in to office.

Table 4. Size and distribution of recreation gardens and parks

Number of Number of
residents within public transport
N Name of garden / parks Location Area size 1km distance from line leading to
o (Ha) urban green space. green space

I Public recreations and


parks: kebele 03 13.62 8930 1
1. Airport- left -recreation kebele 08 16.07 50136 1
2. Lega Hare - recreation kebele 02 26.88 2782 -
3. Kaaba - Butiji - recreation kebele 02 16.35 2782 1
4. Cuba camp - recreation
II Private gardens and parks:
1. Jungle - parks kebele 03 0.56 8930 1
2. Dini paradise- park kebele 03 0.15 8930 4
3. Sami - park kebele 03 0.30 8930 1

III Hotel gardens:


1. Ras hotel garden kebele 04 1.16 32838 2
2. Tsehay hotel kebele 04 0.350 32838 2
Green areas reserved for recreational activities of special nature include parks, forest areas,
farms and research gardens.
Natural woodlands of Butij-Cuba camp, air port vicinal areas; Tony Farm and Goro nursery
are reserved as potentially citywide natural recreation centers.
Table 5. Size and distribution of reserved area
No Name of Area Location Area size (Ha)
1 Airport road (right) kebele 03 15.1
2 Airport road (left) kebele 03 38.5
3 Sabian-groundwater Kebele 02 7.6
well field
Total 61.2
Source: - Dire Dawa Development and Improvement Project Office, 1996

V) Sport fields
Include main stadium, the city has got six sport fields for community access. However, except
the main stadium most of the rest fields are undeveloped open areas. Boulevard roads of
Kezira, Sabian and Fasika Hotel are presently used as a ridding field for bicycle riders and
athletics runner.
Table 6. Size, distribution and accessibility of Sport fields
Number of public
Name of the Number of resident with in 1km transport line
2
Location Area (m ) distance from urban green space. leading to green
field Location
space
Sport Fields
*Main stadium sport Kebele 04 25731.4 42148 1
field
Sabian sport field Kebele 02 11100 2782 1
Leghare sport field Kebele 08 8400 50136 1
Police meret sport Kebele 09 12000 12057 1
field
Konel sport field Kebele 07 15162 48860 2
*Total area of main stadium football field is 8250
VI) Street sides and green boulevards
Presently most street side trees are confined at city core areas of Kezira, Genda Kore, and to
some extent in Genda Dipo. It covers about 9 kms, which is only 5% of the total road size.
Table 7. Size and distribution of Squares and Boulevards
N Name of the square Location Area size (M2)
o
1 Ferensai square kebele 03 154
2 Ras hotel square kebele 03 28
3 Michael square Kebele 03 78.57
4 Tedros square Kebele 03 28
5 Lagahar square Kebele 03 28
6 Municipal square Kebele 03 63.64
Total 380.2 [=0.038 ha]
On the contrary green boulevards are mainly developed over the roads of expansion and
transition areas as in the Table ---below.
Table 8. Size and distribution of green boulevards along streets
No Location Area size [m2]

1 Ferensai-Sabian Road 1993.5


2 Ras Hotel-High School Road 460
3 Michael Road 96
4 Kefira Front Road 63
5 Administration Front Road 64
6 Firdbate-Food Complex Road 675
7 Lega Hare Road 1998
8 St. Mary Road 100
Total 5449.5[=0.54 ha]

Consequently, the roles of green structure in the past were limited to very few functions like
climatic amelioration (shade) and recreational amenity, while the vital ecologic, economic and
social roles of the green structures are still poorly understood.
The following Table 26 below shows the existing green area coverage and the standard
required to be meet in Dire Dawa. From the Table 26 there is a large gap between the actual
need and the standard.
Table 9. Existing green area in relation to demand
Required based on
No Type of greenery Existing area norms and Remarks
estimate standards
1 Total road length is 187
Street and avenue 9km 187 km km of which asphalt
greens covers 31km

2
Residential greenery 132.2 439-732
[4 - 5%] [15-25%]

3
Parks and gardens 18.76 ha 60 ha All existing functional
parks and gardens are
located in one kebele
[kebele03]
4 Sport fields.
4.92 ha 16.25 ha Only main stadium [2.5
ha] is developed green
area.
5
Play grounds 9.1 ha 27.2
[1m2/ person]
6
Agriculture and 190 ha Above 600 ha
wood land
However, in recent years, many municipal plans have pointed out the importance of green
areas for the following main purposes:
 It allows restoration of ecological balance, reduce pollution and wind speed, and
replenish the ground water aquifer.
 It improves the living environment and provides aesthetic pleasure and recreation
amenity.
 It gives opportunity and access to use un build areas, such as unkempt lots, utility right
off ways, sand streams, flood plains and urban hills for urban forestry and agriculture.
 Green areas are important in-situ conservation sites for plant biodiversity and corridor
for wild life.
Thus, in view of its immense functions spans of green nets are currently increased and include
the following basic components:
 Home gardens and open areas /Green space at neighborhood level/
 Green belts along streets /Avenue, road island and squares/
 Recreational amenities [Public and private parks, Sport fields and youth centers]
 Zoo, botanical gardens and nurseries.
 Natural monument, cemetery buffer zone and worships places
 Natural and semi natural urban woodlands and forest areas.
 Urban farms /Mixed agriculture/
 Protected and preserved areas that lie in and around the conservation priority areas of
the metropolitan.
& PROJECT PLANNING
Problem tree analysis of environmental
sanitation
Of dire dawa town

Deterioration of the quality of life

Public Lead to water Clogging of Municipal Emission Wastage of Breading ground Spoil the
health and open space urban budget of GHG use full for vector and image of the
problem pollution drainage demand resource scavenging city by vision
system animals & potential
developers

EFFECTS

Open field Bad condition of Accumulation of Inadequate Inadequate


urination and the existing public all types of wastes collection and collection and
defecation is a private and at critical parts of disposal of solid disposed of liquid
common practices communal latrines the cachment area waste wastes

ACTIONS

Core
problems
Poor environmental sanitation

Prevalence of Low level of


Technical and general The living Economic Inadequate Limitation
community
systemic institutional frame standard of the restriction of the infrastructures and of technical
awareness and
constraints of work roles & community is municipality sanitation facilities choice
participation on
the responsibilities off low /government/
environmental
implementing sector minister
sanitation
bodies
91
REASONS/Causes

You might also like