The Bajaj Pulsar is a motorcycle made by Bajaj Auto in Chakan, India.

Bajaj Pulsar 150 DTSi

It debuted on November 14, 2004.

There are 2 variants - the Pulsar 180 and the 150, both of which were launched in their
newer DTSi avataars recently.

DTS-i stands for Digital Twin Spark ignition, which uses two spark plugs to achieve
optimum combustion of fuel. This system provides better efficiency and power, while
eliminating the need of a catalytic converter to reduce emissions.

The Bajaj Pulsar is acclaimed for its handling and is widely popular in India. The Bajaj
Pulsar is now the most popular bike in its class. It has moved far ahead of its competitors
- primarily the Hero Honda CBZ, the Fiero and the comparatively new Honda Unicorn.
Recently, the Pulsar crossed the 1 million figure,in terms of units sold.

The company has been making constant minor, usually visual, alterations to the bike,
making it look fresh.

In its latest 2006 avatar it will be DTS-Fi

Common rail direct fuel injection is a modern variant of direct fuel injection system for
Diesel engines. It features a high-pressure (1000+ bar) fuel rail feeding individual
solenoid valves, as opposed to low-pressure fuel pump feeding pump-nozzles or high-
pressure fuel line to mechanical valves controlled by cams on the camshaft. 3rd
generation common rail diesels now feature piezo injectors for even greater accuracy,
with fuel pressures up to 1700 bar.

Solenoid or piezo valves make possible fine electronic control over injection time and
amount and high pressure provides better fuel atomisation. In order to lower engine
noise, a small pilot amount of fuel can be injected just before the main load, effectively
reducing its explosiveness; some advanced common rail fuel systems perform as many as
five injections per stroke.
Common rail engines feature no heating up time, lower engine noise and lower emissions
than older systems.

[edit]

History
Common rail engines have been used in marine and locomotive applications in times
past. The Cooper-Bessemer GN-8 (circa 1942) is an example of a hydraulically operated
common rail diesel engine, also know as a modified common rail.

With rising fuel prices throughout the 1990s, a number of companies, including Robert
Bosch GmbH, Fiat,Volvo and MTU, attempted (separately) to develop new Diesel
engines with lower emissions and higher fuel efficiency.

Common rail engines were first used by the Fiat subsidiary Alfa Romeo, and the
technology is most commonly used by Fiat, under their MultiJet brandname. The engines
are suitable for all types of road car, including small hatchbacks such as the Fiat Panda.

Fuel injection
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from MPFI)

Jump to: navigation, search

To meet Wikipedia's quality standards and appeal to a wider international

audience, this article may require cleanup.
The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view.
Please improve the article or discuss the issue on the talk page.

Fuel Injection is a method or system for metering fuel into an internal combustion
engine. The fuel is then burned in air to produce heat, which in turn is converted to
mechanical work by the engine. In modern automotive applications, fuel injection is
typically only one of several important tasks performed by an engine management
system.

For gasoline engines, carburetors were the predominant method to meter fuel prior to the
widespread use of fuel injection, however various fuel injection schemes have existed
since the earliest usage of the internal combustion engine.

Prior to 1980, nearly all gasoline engines used carburetors. Since 1990, almost all
gasoline passenger cars sold in the United States use electronic fuel injection (EFI).
The functional objectives for fuel injection systems can vary. All share the central task of
supplying fuel to the combustion process in the engine, but it is a design decision whether
a particular system will be optimized for power, fuel economy, low emissions, special
fuels, durability, smooth behavior ("driveability"), or other objectives. Because some of
these goals are conflicting, it is impossible to optimize a single system for every goal
simultaneously. For example, maximizing fuel economy or power comes at the price of
somewhat higher exhaust emissions. In practice, automotive engineers strive to provide
an all-round blend of competing goals to best satisfy customers, all while complying with
emission regulations.

An EFI system costs more than a carburetor system, but a greater number of the
competing objectives can be better optimized with EFI than a carburetor.

Contents
[show]
[edit]

Benefits
An engine’s air/fuel ratio must be accurately controlled under all operating conditions to
achieve the desired engine performance, emissions, driveability and fuel economy.
Modern EFI systems meter fuel with great precision, and when used in conjunction with
an Exhaust Gas Oxygen Sensor (EGO sensor), they are also very accurate. The advent of
digital closed loop fuel control, based on feedback from an EGO sensor, permit EFI to
significantly out perform a carburetor. The two fundamental improvements are:

1. Reduced response time to rapidly changing inputs, e.g., rapid throttle

movements.
2. Deliver an accurate and equal mass of fuel to each cylinder of the engine,
dramatically improving the cylinder-to-cylinder distribution of the engine.

These two features result in the following performance benefits:

• Exhaust Emissions
o Significantly reduced "engine out" or "feedgas" emissions
(the chemical products of engine combustion).
o A reduction in the final tailpipe emissions (≈ 0.99%)
resulting from the ability to accurately condition the "feedgas" in a
manner that maximizes the effectiveness of the catalytic converter.

• General Engine Operation

o Smoother function during quick throttle transitions.
o Engine starting.
o Extreme weather operation.
 o Reduced maintenance interval.
o A slight increase in fuel economy.

• Power Output
o Fuel injection often produces more power than an
equivalent carbureted engine. However, fuel injection alone does
not increase maximum engine output. Increased airflow is
necessary to permit oxidizing more fuel, which generates more
heat, which in turn generates more output. The combustion process
converts the fuel's chemical energy into heat energy, whether the
fuel arrived via EFI or a carburetor is not significant. Airflow is
often improved with fuel injectors, which are much smaller than a
carburetor. Their smaller size permits more design freedom to
improve the air's path into the engine. In contrast, a carburetor's
mounting options are limited because it is larger, it must be
carefully oriented with respect to gravity, and it must be
approximately equal distance from each of the engine's cylinders.
These design constraints generally compromise airflow into the
engine.
o A carburetor relies on a drag inducing venturi in order to
create a local air pressure difference, which forces the fuel into the
air stream. The flow loss caused by the venturi is small in
comparison to other flow losses in the induction system. In a well-
designed carbureted induction system, the venturi in and of itself is
not a significant airflow restriction.
o Fuel injection is more likely to increase efficiency than
power. When cylinder-to-cylinder fuel distribution is improved
(common with EFI), less fuel is required to generate the same
power output. Engine efficiency is known as the (BSFC, brake
specific fuel consumption). When cylinder-to-cylinder distribution
is less than ideal (and it always is under one condition or another,
and worse on carburetor systems), more fuel than necessary is
metered to the rich cylinders in order to provide sufficient fuel to
the lean cylinders. Power output is asymmetrical with respect to
air/fuel ratio. In other words, burning extra fuel in the rich
cylinders does not reduce power nearly as quickly as burning too
little fuel in the lean cylinders. The standard fuel metering
compromise is to run the rich cylinders "even richer" of the
optimal air/fuel ratio, in order to provide enough fuel to the leaner
cylinders. The net power output improves with all the cylinders
making maximum power. An analogy is that of painting a wall.
One coat of paint may not cover very well. The second coat
dramatically improves the appearance of the poorly covered areas,
but some extra paint is consumed on areas that were already well
covered.
 o Deviations from perfect air/fuel distribution, however
subtle, significantly impact emissions, by forfeiting combustion
events at the chemically ideal, stoichiometric air/fuel ratio. Grosser
distribution problems eventually begin to negatively impact
efficiency, and the grossest distribution issues finally affect power.
The hierarchy of negative functional impact with regard to
increasingly poorer air/fuel distribution is: emissions, efficiency,
and power.

Injection systems have evolved significantly since the mid 1980s. Current EFI systems
provide an accurate and cost effective method of metering fuel. The emission and
subjective performance characteristics have steadily improved with the advent of modern
digital controls, which is why EFI systems have replaced carburetors in the marketplace.

EFI is becoming more reliable and less expensive through widespread usage. At the same
time, carburetors are becoming less available, and more expensive. Even marine
applications are adopting EFI as reliability improves. If this trend continues, it is
conceivable that virtually all internal combustion engines, including garden equipment
and snow throwers, will eventually use EFI.

It should be noted that a carburetor's fuel metering system is a less expensive alternative
when strict emission regulations are not a requirement, as is the case in developing
countries. EFI will undoubtedly replace carburetors in these nations too as they adopt
emission regulations similar to Europe, Japan and North America.

[edit]

Regulatory Motivation
Throughout the 1950's and 1960's, various branches of United States federal, state and
local governments conducted studies into the numerous sources of air pollution. These
studies ultimately attributed a significant portion of existing air pollution to the
automobile, and concluded air pollution is not bounded by local geographical or political
boundaries. The limited scope local pollution regulations were gradually superseded with
more strategically comprehensive, and therefore more effective, state and federal
regulations. By 1967 the state of California (Governor Reagan), created the Air
Resources Board (www.arb.ca.gov), and in 1970 the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency was formed. Both agencies now create and enforce emission regulations from
automobiles, as well as most other man-made sources.

Additionally, similar studies and regulations were simultaneously being developed in

Europe and Japan.

The primary source of internal combustion engine emissions is the incomplete

combustion of a minute fraction of the total fuel consumed. The unburned portion of fuel
is so small, the lost energy is trivial to fuel efficiency, and therefore commercially
insignificant to the final customer. Auto manufacturers were finally motivated by various
regulations worldwide to address the emission issue.

The modern EFI system evolved to achieve deliberate control of the small fraction of
unburned fuel. The ideal combustion goal is to match each molecule of fuel with a
corresponding molecule of oxygen so that neither has any molecules remaining after
combustion, (see stoichiometry). This is a gross oversimplification of complex
combustion chemistry, that occurs in a complex environment. However, it accurately
describes the magnitude of the control task, and therefore the desired precision of a
modern EFI system.

[edit]

Basic Function
The fuel injector acts as the fuel-dispensing nozzle. It injects liquid fuel directly into the
engine's air stream. In almost all cases this requires an external pump. The pump and
injector are only two of several components in a complete fuel injection system.

The process of determining the amount of fuel, and its delivery into the engine, are
known as fuel metering. Early injection systems used mechanical methods to meter fuel
(non electronic, or mechanical fuel injection). Modern systems are nearly all electronic,
and use an electronic solenoid (the injector) to inject the fuel. A CPU calculates the mass
of fuel to inject.

In contrast to an EFI system, a carburetor directs the induction air through a venturi,
which generates a minute difference in air pressure. The minute air pressure differences
both emulsify (premix fuel with air) the fuel, and then acts as the force to push the
mixture from the carburetor nozzle into the induction air stream. As more air enters the
engine, a greater pressure difference is generated, and more fuel is metered into the
engine. A carburetor is a self-contained fuel metering system, and is cost competitive
when compared to a complete EFI system.

An EFI system requires several peripheral components in addition to the injector(s), in

order to duplicate all the functions of a carburetor. A point worth noting during times of
fuel metering repair is that EFI systems are prone to diagnostic ambiguity. A single
carburetor replacement can accomplish what might require numerous repair attempts to
identify which one of the several EFI system components is malfunctioning. On the other
hand, EFI systems require little regular maintenance; a carburetor typically require
seasonal and/or altitude adjustments.

[edit]

Type of Fuel
The calibration, and often the design, of a fuel injection system differs depending on the
type of fuel: propane (LPG), gasoline, ethanol, methanol, methane (natural gas),
hydrogen or diesel. The vast majority of fuel injection systems are for gasoline or diesel
applications, and in the past, their components and designs were quite different. With the
advent of "electronic" fuel injection, the diesel and gasoline hardware have grown quite
similar. EFI's programmable software has permitted common hardware to be used across
some of the fuels.

• Diesel Fuel
o At one time, nearly all diesel engines used high-pressure "mechanical
injection", i.e., not "electronic injection".
o Diesels are rapidly adopting EFI, which is based on an electronic fuel
injector similar in basic construction to a modern gasoline injector,
although utilizing considerably higher injection pressures.

• Gasoline Fuel
o Prior to EFI, it was extremely rare for a gasoline engine to be equipped
with fuel injection. If it was, it was most likely a low-pressure mechanical
system of relatively "immature" technology. These early systems were
generally used on exotic performance vehicles, or for racing.
o Robert Bosch GmbH, and Bendix introduced the first electronic injection
systems starting in the 1950s, and they were quite dissimilar to today's
EFI. (#Evolution)

• Alternative Fuels (propane (LPG), ethanol, methanol, methane (natural gas),

hydrogen)
o The basic components of a gasoline EFI system can also be used with
alternative fuels, with appropriate modification. Unique fuel metering
values (the calibration contained within the software instructions) are
required to accommodate each type of fuel.
o "Flexible fuel vehicles" are vehicles that are capable of operating on both
gasoline and alcohol (usually ethanol). These vehicles automatically
determine the blend ratio of the two fuels present in the fuel tank and
adjust the injector calculations "on the fly". Flexible fuel vehicles have a
single fuel tank where a blend of both fuels can coexist.
o "Bi-fuel" vehicles also operate on two types of fuel, but since the fuels are
not functionally compatible with each other, they are stored in separate
tanks, and the engine burns only one fuel at a time.

[edit]

Detailed Function
Note: The following examples specifically apply to a modern EFI gasoline
engine. Parallels to fuels other than gasoline can be made, but only
conceptually.
 [edit]

Typical EFI Components

• Injectors
• Fuel Pump
• Fuel Pressure Regulator
• ECU - Electronic Control Unit; includes a digital CPU, and circuitry to
communicate with sensors and control outputs.
• Wiring Harness
• Various Sensors (Some, of the sensors required are listed here.)

• Crank/Cam Position: Hall effect sensor

• Airflow: MAF sensor, sometimes this is inferred with a MAP
sensor
• Exhaust Gas Oxygen: O2 Sensor, Oxygen sensor, EGO sensor,
UEGO sensor

[edit]

Functional Description

A contemporary EFI system requires a number of sensors to measure the engine's

operating conditions. A CPU interprets these conditions in order to calculate the amount
of fuel, among numerous other tasks. The desired “fuel flow rate” depends on several
conditions, with the engine’s “air flow rate” being the fundamental factor.

The electronic fuel injector is normally closed and opens to flow fuel as long as an
electric pulse is applied to the injector. The pulse’s duration (pulsewidth) is proportional
to the amount of fuel desired. The pulse is applied once per engine cycle, which permits
pressurized fuel to flow from the fuel supply line, through the open injector, into the
engine’s air intake, usually just ahead of the intake valve.

Since the nature of fuel injection dispenses fuel in discrete amounts, and since the nature
of the 4-stroke-cycle engine has discrete induction (air-intake) events, the CPU calculates
fuel in discrete amounts. The injected fuel mass is tailored for each individual induction
event. In other words, every induction event, of every cylinder, of the entire engine, is a
separate fuel mass calculation, and each injector receives a unique pulsewidth based on
that cylinder’s fuel requirements.

It is necessary to know the mass of air the engine "breathes" during each induction event.
This is proportional to the intake manifold’s air pressure/temperature, which is
proportional to throttle position. The amount of air inducted in each intake event is
known as "air-charge", and this can be determined using one of several methods, but this
is beyond the scope of this topic. (See MAF sensor, or MAP sensor.)
 Note: The right pedal is not the gas pedal; it is the air pedal. The throttle
pedal determines the air, and in turn, the air mass determines the fuel
mass. The same is true for carburetors, only carburetors were volume, not
mass based devices. With some recent systems, the right pedal isn't even
an "air pedal"... it has evolved to a "power demand pedal" - it isn't
connected to the throttle at all, it signals the CPU how far the driver has
depressed the pedal, and the CPU determines how far to open the throttle
using an electric motor. This has many benefits some of which include:
controlling emissions during transients, cruise control, traction control,
engine start/cranking, driveline clunk, idle speed control, air conditioning
load compensation, etc.

The three elemental ingredients for combustion are fuel, air and ignition. The sensors and
CPU interpret the air mass in order to calculate the fuel mass. The nominal (chemically
correct) air/fuel ratio is 14.64:1, by weight for gasoline. This "molar balanced" ratio is
called stoichiometry.

Deviations from stoichiometry are required during non-standard operating conditions

such as heavy load, or cold operation, in which case, the mixture ratio can range from
10:1 to 18:1 (for gasoline).

Note: The stoichiometric ratio changes as a function of the fuel; diesel,

gasoline, ethanol, methanol, propane, methane (natural gas), or
hydrogen.

Additionally, final pulsewidth is inversely related to pressure difference across the

injector inlet and outlet. For example, if the fuel line pressure increases (injector inlet), or
the manifold pressure decreases (injector outlet), a smaller pulsewidth will meter the
same fuel. Fuel injectors are available in various sizes and spray characteristics as well.
Compensation for these and many other factors are programmed into the CPU's software.

In summary, the vehicle operator opens the engine’s throttle (right pedal), atmospheric
pressure forces air into the engine past sensors that indicate air mass flow. The CPU
interprets these signals from the sensors, calculates the desired air/fuel ratio, and then
outputs a pulsewidth providing the exact mass of fuel for optimal combustion. This
process is repeated every time an intake valve opens.

The modern EFI system treats each injection as a discrete event, which when all strung
together, perform one, smooth, seamless experience. An oversimplified analogy is that it
is not unlike a motion picture that appears to move from a series of individual images.

[edit]

Sample Pulsewidth Calculations

 Note: These calculations are based on a 4-stroke-cycle, 5.0L, V-8,
gasoline engine. The variables used are real data.

[edit]

Calculate Injector Pulsewidth From Airflow

First the CPU determines the air mass flow rate from the sensors - lb-
air/min. (The various methods to determine airflow are beyond the scope of this
topic. See MAF sensor, or MAP sensor.)

• (lb-air/min) × (min/rev) × (rev/4-intake-stroke) = (lb-air/intake-

stroke) = (air-charge)

- min/rev is the reciprocal of engine speed (RPM) – minutes cancel.

- rev/4-intake-stroke for an 8 cylinder 4-stroke-cycle engine.

• (lb-air/intake-stroke) × (fuel/air) = (lb-fuel/intake-stroke)

- fuel/air is the desired mixture ratio, usually stoichiometric, but often different
depending on operating conditions.

• (lb-fuel/intake-stroke) × (1/injector-size) = (pulsewidth/intake-

stroke)

- injector-size is the flow capacity of the injector, which in this example is 24-
lbs/hour if the fuel pressure across the injector is 40 psi.

Combining the above three terms . . .

• (lbs-air/min) × (min/rev) × (rev/4-intake-stroke) × (fuel/air) ×

(1/injector-size) = (pulsewidth/intake-stroke)

Substituting real variables for the 5.0L engine at idle.

 • (0.55 lb-air/min) × (min/700 rev) × (rev/4-intake-stroke) ×
(1/14.64) × (h/24-lb) × (3,600,000 ms/h) = (2.0 ms/intake-stroke)

Substituting real variables for the 5.0 L engine at maximum power.

• (28 lb-air/min) × (min/5500 rev) × (rev/4-intake-stroke) ×

(1/11.00) × (h/24-lb) × (3,600,000 ms/h) = (17.3 ms/intake-stroke)

Injector pulsewidth typically ranges from 2 ms/engine-cycle at

idle, to 20 ms/engine-cycle at wide-open throttle. The pulsewidth
accuracy is approximately 0.01 ms; injectors are very precise
devices.

[edit]

Calculate Fuel-Flow Rate From Pulsewidth

• (Fuel flow rate) ≈ (pulsewidth) × (engine speed) × (number of fuel

injectors)

Looking at it another way:

• (Fuel flow rate) ≈ (throttle position) × (rpm) × (cylinders)

Looking at it another way:

• (Fuel flow rate) ≈ (air-charge) × (fuel/air) × (rpm) × (cylinders)

Substituting real variables for the 5.0 L engine at idle.

• (Fuel flow rate) = (2.0 ms/intake-stroke) × (hour/3,600,000 ms) ×

(24lb-fuel/hour) × (4-intake-stroke/rev) × (700 rev/min) × (60 min/h) =
(2.24 lb/h)

Substituting real variables for the 5.0L engine at maximum power, and
minding the units.
 • (Fuel flow rate) = (17.3 ms/intake-stroke) × (hour/3,600,000-ms) ×
(24 lb/h fuel) × (4-intake-stroke/rev) × (5500-rev/min) × (60-min/hour) =
(152 lb/h)

The fuel consumption rate is 68 times greater at maximum engine

output than at idle. This dynamic range of fuel flow is typical of a
naturally aspirated passenger car engine. The dynamic range is
greater on a supercharged or turbocharged engine. It is
interesting to note that 15 gallons of gasoline will be consumed in
37 minutes if maximum output is sustained. On the other hand, this
engine could continuously idle for almost 42 hours on the same 15
gallons.

[edit]

Various Injection Schemes

[edit]

Throttle Body Injection (TBI or CFI)

Throttle-body injection (called TBI by General Motors and CFI by Ford) was
introduced in the mid 1980's as a transition technology to individual port injection. The
TBI system centrally injects fuel at the throttle body (the identical location where a
carburetor introduced fuel). The induction mixture passes through the intake runners just
like a carburetor system. The justification for the TBI/CFI phase was lower cost. Many of
the carburetor's air induction components could be reused such as the air cleaner, intake
manifold, fuel line routing, which postponed the design and tooling costs that were later
incurred during the next phase of fuel injection's evolution, which is individual port
injection commonly known as EFI. TBI had all the drawbacks of a carburetor, and all the
drawbacks of early automotive electronics.

[edit]

Continuous Injection

Bosch's K-Jetronic or CIS used a continuous injection method. Gasoline was pumped
through a large control valve called a fuel distributor, which sat atop a control vane
mounted in the air intake pathway. The fuel went from there to the injectors on each
cylinder's intake port (which were simply nozzles with no valves in them). The system
worked by varying fuel mixture based on the amount of air flowing past the control vane.
This system was used for many years on Volkswagen and Mercedes-Benz cars. There
was also a variant of the system called KE-Jetronic that used an oxygen sensor to fine-
tune the mixture.

[edit]
Central Port Injection (CPI)

General Motors developed a new "in-between" technique called "central port injection"
(CPI) or "central port fuel injection" (CPFI). It uses tubes from a central injector to spray
fuel at each intake port rather than the central throttle-body. However, fuel is
continuously injected to all ports simultaneously, which is less than optimal.

[edit]

Sequential Central Point Injection (SCPI)

GM refined the CPI system into a sequential central port injection (SCPI) system in the
mid-1990s. It used valves to meter the fuel to just the cylinders that were in the intake
phase.

[edit]

Multi-Port Fuel Injection (PFI or EFI or SEFI)

The goal of all fuel injection systems is to carefully meter the amount of fuel to each
cylinder. On most gasoline applications, the system uses a single injector per cylinder and
injects fuel immediately ahead of the intake valves.

[edit]

Direct Injection

See also: Gasoline Direct Injection

Recently many diesel engines feature direct injection (DI). The injection nozzle is
placed inside the combustion chamber and the piston incorporates a depression (often
toroidal) where initial combustion takes place. Direct injection diesel engines are
generally more efficient and cleaner than indirect injection engines, but tend to be noisier,
which is being addressed in newer common rail designs.

Some recently designed hi-tech petrol engines utilize direct injection as well. This is the
next step in evolution from multi port fuel injection and offers another magnitude of
emission control by eliminating the "wet" portion of the induction system.

[edit]

Evolution
[edit]
Pre-Emission Era

Frederick William Lanchester joined the Forward Gas Engine Company Birmingham,
England in 1889. He carried out what were possibly the earliest experiments with fuel
injection.

Indirect fuel injection has been used commercially in diesel engines since the mid 1920s,
almost from their introduction (due to the higher energy required for diesel to evaporate).
The concept was adapted for use in petrol-powered aircraft during World War II, and
direct injection was employed in some notable designs like the Daimler-Benz DB 603
and later versions of the Wright R-3350 used in the B-29 Superfortress.

One of the first commercial gasoline injection systems was a mechanical system
developed by Bosch and introduced in 1955 on the Mercedes-Benz 300SL.

An early electronic fuel injection system was developed by the Bendix Corporation, but a
commercial application was impractical at the time; there did not yet exist solid-state
sensors or mass-produced transistors. The patents were subsequently sold to Bosch.

In 1957, Chevrolet introduced a mechanical fuel injection option for its 283 V8 engine,
made by General Motors' Rochester division. This system used a single, central plunger
to feed fuel to all eight cylinders through distribution tubes. The engine produced 283 hp
(211 kW) from 283 in³ (4.6 L), making it the first production engine in history to exceed
1 hp/in³ (45.5 kW/L). In contrast, Mercedes' used six individual plungers to feed fuel to
each of the six cylinders.

During the 1960's, other mechanical injection systems such as Hilborn were occasionally
used on modified American V8 engines in various racing applications such as drag
racing, oval racing, and road racing. These racing-derived systems were not suitable for
everyday street use.

[edit]

Post Emission Era

Bosch developed the first production electronic fuel injection system, called D-Jetronic
(D for Druck, the German word for pressure), which was first used on the Volkswagen
411 in 1967. This was a speed/density system, using engine speed and intake manifold air
density to calculate "air mass" flow rate and thus fuel requirements. The system used all
analog, discrete electronics, and an electro-mechanical pressure sensor. The sensor was
susceptible to vibration and dirt. This system was adopted by VW, Mercedes-Benz,
Porsche, Saab and Volvo. Lucas licensed the system for production with Jaguar.

Bosch replaced the D-Jetronic system with the L-Jetronic system. L-Jetronic uses a
mechanical airflow meter (L for Luft, German for air) which produces a signal that is
porportional to "air volume". This approach required additional sensors to correct for
barometer and temperature, to utlitmately determine "air mass". This system first
appeared on the 1974 Porsche 914. L-Jetronic was widely adopted on European cars of
that period, as well as a few Japanese models a short time later.

In 1975, California's emissions regulations, the most stringent in the world, required
manufacturers to resort to using a catalytic converter. A catalyst promotes a reaction
without itself becoming consumed in the reaction. In this case, an oxidation catalyst was
designed into the vehicle's exhaust system to promote reactions of the exhaust
constituents in the presence of heat. When hot products of combustion, such as unburned
hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide, are exposed to the catalyst material (platinum and/or
palladium), these compounds are nearly all oxidized into water and carbon dioxide.

Stricter legislation to reduce compounds called oxides of nitrogen occurred in 1980. This
required a reduction catalyst (rhodium) to reduce the various nitrogen oxides into free
nitrogen and oxygen. The reduction catalyst was used in additiona to the oxidation
catalyst.

Eventually the two features were combined into what is now commonly called a "3-way"
catalyst. The "3" comes from its ability to catalyze the three regulated exhaust emissions;
unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and oxides of nitrogen.

In order to take maximum advantage of a 3-way catalyst's chemical process, excellent

air/fuel ratio control is essential. EFI systems improved fuel control in two major stages.
The first stage was open loop fuel control, and then by 1980, the second stage known as
closed-loop fuel control began to appear.

Open loop injection systems actually provided less acurate air/fuel ratio control than a
carburetor due to manufacturing tolerance issues, but still provided excellent cylinder-to-
cylinder fuel distribution. In order to improve the air/fuel ratio control as well, closed
loop feedback control of EFI appeared in 1980.

Closed loop control is accomplished with a Lambda-Sond sensor, commonly referred to

as the exhaust gas oxygen sensor, or EGO sensor, or O2 sensor. This sensor is mounted in
the exhaust system nearly always upstream of the catalyst. The EGO sensor detects
excess oxygen in the exhaust. Oxygen, or the lack of it, is a directional indicator of the
air/fuel mixture's deviation from the desired stoichiometric air/fuel ratio.

"Closed loop" air/fuel ratio control, along with the catalytic converter, reduced exhaust
emissions to less than 0.1% compared to a 1960, unregulated automobile.

In 1982, Bosch introduced a mass airflow meter on their L-Jetronic system, changing the
name to LH-Jetronic (L for Luft, or air, and H for Heiße-leitung, or hot-wire), as the first
true sensor for actual "air mass", not "air volume". The mass air sensor utilizes a heated
platinum wire, and the rate of the wire's cooling is proportional to the "air mass" flowing
across the wire. Additional temperature and pressure sensors are not required to calculate
the final "air mass" with LH-Jetronic.
The LH-Jetronic system is also notable in that it was the first system to abandon an all
analog Electronic Control Unit in favor of digital CPU, which is now the prevailing
form of ECU. This further refined air/fuel ratio control.

The introduction of digital microprocessor controls facilitated the integration of both the
fuel control and the ignition control, with combined systems first appearing in 1982 (The
Bosch Motronic system, which oddly reverted to using a mechanical airflow sensor until
the mid-to-late 1980s). Full engine management systems came shortly there after, with
control of all powertrain sub-systems in a single digital computer.