Internal Combustion Engines (IC Engines)

The internal combustion engine (IC Engine) is a heat engine that converts heat energy
(chemical energy of a fuel) into mechanical energy (usually made available on a rotating
output shaft).
Applications of IC Engines:
Mainly used as ‘prime movers’, e.g. for be the propulsion of a vehicle i.e., car, bus, truck,
locomotive, marine vessel, or airplane. Other applications include stationary saws, lawn
mowers, bull-dozers, cranes, electric generators, etc.
Classifications of IC Engines:
IC engines can be classified according to:
1. Number of cylinders – 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 to 16 cylinder engines.
2. Arrangement of cylinders – Inline, V-type, Flat type, etc.
3. Arrangement of valves and valve trains – In-block camshaft, OHC, DOHC, etc.
4. Type of cooling – Air-cooled, Water-cooled, etc.
5. Number of strokes per cycle – 2-stroke, 4-stroke engines.
6. Type of fuel burned – Petrol, diesel, CNG, etc.
7. Method of ignition – Spark Ignition (SI), Compression Ignition (CI).
8. Firing order – 1-3-4-2, 1-2-4-3, etc.
9. Primary mechanical motion – Reciprocating, rotary.

Fig. 1: Major Components of a reciprocating single cylinder Petrol Engine.

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 Problem-1: A four cylinder car engine has
bore x stroke = 79 mm x 77 mm.
What is the capacity of the engine in cc?

Solution: Capacity in cc = N.(π/4).B2. S

Here, N= number of cylinders
B= bore diameter in cm
S= stroke length in cm

Therefore, Engine Capacity in cc

= 4 x (π/4) x (7.9)2 x (7.7) = 1509 ≈ 1500 cc Ans.

Fig. 2: Main Geometric parameters of a reciprocating IC Engine.

Four-stroke Petrol Engine.:

A 4-stroke petrol engine operates on air
standard Otto cycle. It completes the
Otto cycle in 4 strokes (4 TDC to BDC
movements of the piston), namely, (1)
Suction Stroke, (2) Compression Stroke,
(3) Power Stroke, (4) Exhaust Stroke.

Otto cycle shown below consists of four

processes:

1 – 2 : Isentropic Compression Process

2 – 3 : Constant Volume Combustion
3 – 4 : Isentropic Expansion Process
4 – 1 : Constant Volume Blowdown

Fig. 3: Four-strokes of an IC (Petrol) Engine.

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Fig. 4: Air standard Otto cycle for petrol engine.

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Diesel Engine working on diesel cycle

Diesel cycle shown above consists of four

processes:

1 – 2 : Isentropic Compression Process

2 – 3 : Constant Pressure Combustion
3 – 4 : Isentropic Expansion Process
4 – 1 : Constant Volume Blowdown

The efficiency of a diesel engine is obtained from

the diesel cycle analysis as,
Fig. 5: Air standard Diesel Cycle for Diesel Engine

⎡ k ⎤
1 ⎢ ρ −1 ⎥
ηdiesel = 1 – k −1
r ⎢⎣ k ( ρ − 1) ⎥⎦
Here, ρ is called the fuel cut-off ratio. ρ is usually greater than 1 and k is 1.4 for air so the expression
in square bracket is always greater than 1. So for the same compression ratio, petrol engine is more
efficient than the diesel engine. But usually the compression ratio of diesel engine is much higher
than that of petrol engine (from 8 to 12). Therefore, the diesel engine is more efficient due to it higher
compression ratio (from 15 to 23).

Problem-2: Calculate the air standard cycle efficiency of an Otto cycle engine that has a compression
ratio of 10:1.
1
Solution: Otto cycle efficiency, ηotto = 1 – k −1
r
1 1
=1– 1.4 −1
=1– 0.4
= 0.6019 = 60.2% Ans.
10 10

Problem-3: Calculate the air standard cycle efficiency of a Diesel cycle engine that has a
compression ratio of 10:1 [take ρ = 1.5].
⎡ k ⎤
1 ⎢ ρ −1 ⎥
Solution: Diesel cycle efficiency, ηdiesel = 1 – k −1 =
r ⎢⎣ k ( ρ − 1) ⎥⎦
⎡ 1.4
⎤
1 ⎢ 1 .5 − 1 ⎥
= 1– = 0.5654 = 56.54% Ans.
10
1.4 −1
⎢1.4(1.5 − 1) ⎥
⎣ ⎦

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Actual Indicator Diagram of a 4-stroke Petrol Engine

Valve Timing Diagram for a 4-stroke Petrol Engine

Valve overlap: The duration (10o + 10o = 20o) when both the inlet and exhaust valves
remain open is called valve overlap.

Spark Advance: The ignition is initiated 20 – 30o before TDC. This is called spark
advance.

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Differences between Petrol and Diesel engines

drilling machines, etc.

Two-Stroke Engines:
Two strokes engines (both petrol and diesel engines) completes the cycle (both Otto and
Diesel cycle) in just two strokes of the piston. In moving from BDC to TDC, both the
suction and compression occur whereas, during TDC to BDC movement, both power and
exhaust occur thus completing the total cycle.
In Brief:
(a) and (b): Up-stroke of the piston : Suction and Compression.
(c) and (d) : Down stroke of the piston : Expansion and Exhaust.

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 (a) Suction (b) Compression (c) Expansion (Power) (d) Exhaust

Fig. 6: Two-stroke IC (Petrol) Engines.

Scavenging in 2-Stroke Cycle Engine:

At the end of the expansion stroke, the exhaust port opens and allows the exhaust gas to
exit. As the piston starts moving down, air-pressure in the crank case increases and air,
through the scavenging port, enters the cylinder (combustion chamber) and pushes out
the burnt gas clear from the cylinder. This is referred to as scavenging.

Differences between 2-stroke and 4-stroke engines

4-stroke Engine 2-stroke Engine

1. The intake, compression, combustion
and exhaust occur in two upward and two
downward strokes of the piston.
2. Needs complicated valve train
arrangement for intake and exhaust strokes.
3. Outputs power once in every two
revolutions of the crankshaft.
4. The engine is heavier for the same power 4. Higher power-to-weight ratio because it
rating, i.e., low power to weight ratio.
5. More expensive than the 2-stroke
engines.
6. It has limited orientation if oil is to be 6. It can be operated in any orientation
retained in the sump.
7. More fuel efficient, less noisy, less
polluting and longer lifespan.
8. Less noisy.
9. Less polluting.
10. Usually lasts longer.
1. All four events are accomplished in one
downward stroke, and one upward stroke.
2. Intake and exhaust are both integrated
into the compression and combustion
movement of the piston, eliminating the
need for valves.
3. The engine delivers power on every
revolution.
is much lighter.
5. Less expensive because of its simpler
design.
because it lacks the oil sump
7. Less fuel-efficient because of the simpler
design, resulting in poorer mileage than a
four stroke engine.
8. Twice as much noisy.
9. Very much polluting.
10. Does not last very long.

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Engine Knocking:
Engine knocking (also called detonation) is a sudden blow on the piston just like a
hammering. Knocking occurs due to localized ignition inside the combustion chamber.
This can be explained thus: at the end of the compression stroke the sparkplug gives
electric spark to initiate
ignition of the air fuel charge.
Ignition takes place and very
quickly advances like a heat
wave to all corners of the
combustion chamber.
Consequently, localized
ignition starts before the flame
reaches it. Therefore, knocking
is a post ignition phenomenon.
Detonation or knocking is
harmful for the engine and
causes the engine-running
shaky. Both high
combustibility of fuel and the
Fig. 7: Engine Knocking
high compression ratio are responsible for knocking. To stop engine knocking generally a
special fuel or a chemical (tetraethyl lead) is mixed with gasoline. Mixing of a small
amount satisfactorily stops knocking. High Octane rating also prevents engine knocking.

Octane Number
The property that describes how well petrol will or will not self-ignite is called the octane
number of petrol or just octane. The higher the octane number of petrol, the less likely it
will self-ignite. Engines with low compression ratios can use petrol with lower octane
numbers, but high-compression engines must use high-octane petrol to avoid self-ignition
and knock.
Common octane numbers (anti-knock index) for petrol used in cars range from 87 to 95,
with higher values available for special high-performance and racing engines. A 93-
octane petrol is more knock resistant than an 89-octane petrol. Reciprocating SI aircraft
engines usually use low-lead fuels with octane numbers in the 85 to 100 range.

Cetane Number
In a compression ignition engine, self-ignition of the air-fuel mixture is a necessity. The
correct fuel must be chosen which will self-ignite at the precise proper time in the engine
cycle. It is therefore necessary to have knowledge and control of the ignition delay time
of the fuel. The property that quantifies this is called the cetane number. The larger the
cetane number, the shorter is the ID and the quicker the fuel will self-ignite in the
combustion chamber environment. A low cetane number means the fuel will have a long
ID. Normal cetane number range is about 40 to 60.

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Engine Subsystem:
The main engine subsystems are:

1. Fuel System ---- carburetor, Electronic Fuel Injection (EFI), etc.

2. Lubrication System ---- splashed lubrication, pump-forced lubrication, etc.
3. Cooling System ---- air-cooling system, water-cooling system.
4. Ignition System ----Spark Plug Ignition (SI), Compresion Ignition (CI).
5. Starting System ---- Battery/Starting motor, manual cranking, compressed air
motor, etc.

Carburetor:

Carburetor is a vital component of the fuel system of a conventional petrol engine.

It composed of 4 main parts:(i) Air horn, (ii) Venturi, (iii) Fuel nozzle and (iv) Throttle
valve

Petrol pumped
from tank

Float bowl

Fig. 8: Engine Carburetor

The above figure shows how petrol is practically atomized while passing through the
carburetor venture. At the venture, the passage is the smallest, resulting in high velocity
of the air and high kinetic energy as well. Since total energy must be unchanged, the rise
in kinetic energy is balanced by the fall in pressure (vacuum) at the venture. Therefore,
the air flowing through the venture creates a sort of vacuum (lower than atmospheric
pressure) at the other end (downstream) of the narrow portion of the passage, which
causes suction (air pushes the petrol) of the liquid petrol from the float bowl.

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Fuel Injection System
A fuel injection system is used usually in diesel engines to inject diesel fuel at the end of
compression stroke at a very high pressure.
A fuel injection pump and its operation are shown below:

Fig. 9: Fuel injection pump and its control unit

The plunger is operated by a cam as shown. As the cam pushes, the plunger moves
upward against a heavy spring and the fuel is delivered towards injection nozzle. The fuel
then enters from the nozzle into the combustion chamber under high pressure. It will be
seen that there is a spiral groove on the body of the plunger to control the amount of fuel
injection. There is a hole (feed hole) on the body of the plunger connected to its central
hole on top. The plunger can be rotated right way or left way (clock wise or anti
clockwise) with the help of a rack and pinion mechanism fitted with the body of the
plunger. Thus the actual amount of fuel per stroke as desired by the operator can be
injected. The rack and pinion again is operated by the engine governor.

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 Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) Engines
CNG:

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is a fossil fuel substitute for gasoline (petrol), diesel, or
propane fuel. CNG is made by compressing natural gas, which is mainly composed of
methane (CH4), to less than 1% of its volume at standard atmospheric pressure. It is
stored and distributed in hard containers, at a normal pressure of 200–248 bar (2900–
3600 psi), usually in cylindrical or spherical shapes. CNG's volumetric energy density is
estimated to be 37% of Gasoline, 42% of LNG's (because it is not liquefied), and 25% of
diesel's.

CNG Engines:
CNG can be used in Otto-cycle (gasoline) and modified Diesel cycle engines. Any
existing gasoline vehicle can be converted to a bi-fuel (gasoline/CNG) vehicle. The
retrofitting process involves installing a CNG cylinder in the trunk, installing the
plumbing, installing a CNG injection system and the electronics. The engine remains as a
standard gasoline internal combustion engine (ICE). This means that it can indifferently
run on either gasoline from a gasoline tank or CNG from a separate cylinder in the trunk.
The driver can select what fuel to burn by simply flipping a switch on the dashboard.
There are also some factory-built dedicated CNG-engine driven vehicles are available.

CNG Advantages:
CNG-powered vehicles have lower maintenance costs. CNG fuel systems are sealed,
which prevents any spill or evaporation losses. It helps to increase the life of lubricating
oils., CNG mixes easily and evenly in air being a gaseous fuel. CNG is less likely to auto-
ignite, since it has a high auto-ignition temperature (540 °C). Further, CNG produces
significantly lesser emissions of pollutants like carbon dioxide (CO2), Unburned
hydrocarbons(UHC), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides (SOx)
and particulate matter (PM), as compared to petrol and diesel. Above all, the cost (fuel
cost) saving is immense by using CNG converted vehicles..

CNG Diadvantages:
The only disadvantage is that CNG vehicles require a greater amount of space for fuel
storage than conventional gasoline power vehicles. Therefore, the tanks used to store the
CNG usually take up additional space in the trunk of a car or bed of a pickup truck which
runs on CNG.

CNG and LNG:

CNG is often confused with liquefied natural gas (LNG). While both are stored forms of
natural gas, the key difference is that CNG is gas that is stored as a gas at high pressure,
while LNG is in uncompressed liquid form. CNG has a lower cost of production and
storage compared to LNG as it does not require an expensive cooling process and
cryogenic tanks. CNG requires a much larger volume to store the same equivalent mass
of gasoline or petrol and the use of very high pressures (3000 to 4000 psi, or 205 to 275
bar).

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Mean effective pressure
The mean effective pressure is a quantity related to the operation of an internal
combustion engine and is a valuable measure of an engine's capacity to do work that is
independent of engine displacement.

It is defined as,

Here, pmep = mean effective pressure, Pa

T = torque, N-m
Vd = displacement volume, m3
nc = number of revolutions per cycle (for a 4-stroke engine nc = 2, for a 2-stroke
engine nc = 1 )

This is useful for comparing engines of different displacements (a specific torque of sorts,
i.e. torque per unit displacement). Mean effective pressure is also useful for initial design
calculations; that is, given a torque, we can use standard mep values to estimate the
required engine displacement.

Brake Mean Effective Pressure (bmep) is, calculated by putting the measured
dynamometer torque into the above equation.

For spark-ignition engines : maximum values are in the range 8.5 to 10.5 bar (850 to
1050 kPa; 125 to 150 psi), at the engine speed where maximum torque is obtained. At
rated power, bmep values are typically 10 to 15% lower.

For four-stroke diesels: the maximum bmep is in the 7 to 9 bar range (700 to 900 kPa;
100 to 130 psi).

Piston engines always have their maximum torque at a lower rotating speed than the
maximum output, the BMEP is lower at full power.

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Problem-4: A four-stroke engine producing 160 N·m from 2 litres of displacement. What
will be it brake mean effective pressure (bmep) ?

Solution: bmep is given by,

Here, T = 160 N-m

Vd = 2 liters = 2 x 10-3 m3
So, bmep = (4π)(160 N·m)/(0.002 m³) nc = 2 for a 4-stroke
engine
= 1,005,000 N/m2 =1005 kPa (10.05 bar).

Problem-5: If the same engine (i.e., four-stroke, 2 liters) as above produces 76 kW at

5400 rpm (90 Hz), Find its bmep.

We have, Here, P = 76 x 103 W

ω=2πN/60=2π(5400)/60
Power, P = T ω =565.5 rad/s

T=P/ ω=(76 x 103)/565.5=134.4 N.m

Where,
Now,
Vd = 2 liters = 2 x 10-3 m3
nc = 2 for a 4-stroke
engine

So, bmep = (4π)(134.4 N·m)/(0.002 m³)

= 844460 N/m2 =844.5 kPa (8.34 bar).

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