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Hydraulic Head

Hydraulic head • Groundwater moves in response


and to an energy gradient.
Hydraulic Gradient
• The total energy available for
water flow is termed the
Hydraulic Head

Hydraulic Head,
• and consists of 3 components: • Often, the kinetic energy due to the flowing
• (1) a velocity head, groundwater is small. Typical groundwater
• (2) an elevation head, and flow rates are about 30 m/y which is about
• (3) a pressure head.
10-6 m/s.
• Each of these terms is characterized by Bernouli’s
equation:
• Therefore, we can safely drop the kinetic
v2 P term from the hydraulic head equation to
h= + z+
2g gρ obtain:
• g=gravity (L/T2)
• z=elevation of water mass above a reference elevation (L)
• v=velocity (L/T) P
• ρ for density of water (m/V ) h= z+
• P=pressure (M/LT2; pascals, N/m2) ρg

• For a fluid at rest, Hydraulic Head


the Pressure at a point = weight of the overlying
water per unit cross-sectional area: Measured as the height that water will rise in a well
relative to a datum (sea level)
• P=ρghp
Composed of two forces:
• hp = height of the water column that provides the 1) Elevation head (Z) distance of the bottom of a
pressure head. well above a datum –often sealevel
• putting this in place of P in our hydraulic head 2) Pressure head (hp) column of water in a well
equation:
htotal=z + hp
• h=z+hp

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Hydraulic head measured in a well
How do we measure hydraulic head? in a confined aquifer

• With a piezometer, a small-diameter well


that is open at its top and its bottom is either
open or has a small screen interval.

• Water in the piezometer rises to a height


that is directly proportional to the total
energy at the bottom of the piezometer.

Hydraulic Head
measured in wells in an unconfined aquifer Groundwater flows from
high to low total hydraulic head
Well 1 Well 2
Land surface • Groundwater flows from areas of high total
Water Tabl
hydraulic head to areas of low total hydraulic
e head.
Groundwater flow • Groundwater does not necessarily flow from areas
h1total

h2total

hp = pressure head of high elevation to low elevation or from areas of


high pressure head to low pressure head.
Sand Aquifer • The total hydraulic head must be taken into
Impermeable Clay account to determine groundwater flow direction.
z = elev. head
datum

Groundwater flows from


high to low total hydraulic
head
hp1 Groundwater
hp2 hp1 hp2
flows in three
z1 z2 z1 z2 dimensions.

hp2
hp1 hp2

hp1

z1 z2
z1 z2

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With only 3 wells,
Groundwater flows in three Map View Potentiometric contours
Can only be straight lines.
dimensions.
First cut assumption is that
• It is often difficult for us to display Groundwater flow is
groundwater flow in three dimensions, Perpendicular to
Potentiometric contours
therefore, we often look in two dimensions (Only true for a homogeneous,
as in a cross-section or in map view or both. Isotropic aquifer)

Need a minimum of 3
Wells to obtain a
Horizontal groundwater
Flow direction.

Vertical Groundwater Flow


Potentiometric Map
• Contours of equal total hydraulic head or
equipotential lines.

• Map in a similar fashion as the isohyetal lines for


precipitation or elevation contours on a
topographic map.

• Determined from water level measurements made


A minimum of two wells located in close proximity in numerous wells across and area.
To one another, but at different depths is needed
To determine vertical groundwater flow direction.

Potentiometric • Water Table Map or Potentiometric surface Map.

map • A plan view of the potentiometric surface of an aquifer.

• For a water table map it is important that the wells are screened across the water table
of surface. Also that the wells be from the same aquifer, and are not sampling multiple
aquifers.

ENP (m) • Only horizontal gradients can be obtained from a water table map.

• For an isotropic aquifer, groundwater flow direction is perpendicular to the equipotential


lines. This is not true for anisotropic mediums.

• At least three wells are needed to determine both groundwater flow direction and
gradient.

• This map can also be used to determine areas of groundwater recharge and discharge.

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Hydraulic gradient Hydraulic Gradient
• Hydraulic gradient is the change in head
over a distance.
• Hydraulic gradient, dh/dl or (i) can be
estimated from 3 or 4 wells. ha

• When more wells are present, then ha – hb = dh


hb
variations in hydraulic gradient can be
visualized.
La La – Lb = dL Lb

Datum h=0

Localized groundwater flow


• Groundwater flow direction is vertically
downward in areas of groundwater
recharge.
• Groundwater flow direction is vertically
upward in areas of groundwater discharge.
• A groundwater divide is when groundwater
flows in opposite directions away from an
area of groundwater recharge.

Regional groundwater flow


Stinson Beach, CA

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Groundwater-
Groundwater flow to a stream
surface water interactions

Groundwater flow to a well Over Pumping

A B C
Surface elevation=225 m
Measured from mean 60 m
Sea level 77 m
80m
75m
• Elevation head is the height of the measuring point above the datum. The elevation at the bottom of
the well.

• Subtract the depth of the piezometer from the surface elevation.


100m
• A: h=225 m - 150m = 75 m
• B: h=225m - 100m = 125 m
• C: h= 225m - 75 m = 150 m
150m
• Note that the hydraulic head is the sum of the elevation head and the pressure head.

• For Darcy’s Law we are interested in the hydraulic gradient, dh/dL.

• Question 1. Three wells are placed side by side at varying depths in the same
• It is the difference in the total head divided by the vertical distance between the bottom of two
aquifer as shown on the following figure. You know that the elevation of the piezometers.
ground surface at each well is 225 m.
• What is the total hydraulic head at A, B, and C? • Between A to B, (148 m - 145 m)/(150-100) = 3m/50m=0.06 downward
• Between B to C, (165 m - 148 m)/(100-75) = 17m/25m= 0.68 downward
• What is the pressure head in each of the wells?
• What is the elevation head in each well?
• What is the vertical hydraulic gradient between the piezometers?

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Head of variable Density

• What happens when a well penetrates and


aquifer containing brackish or salty water?

• In locations of groundwater of varying


salinity, density corrections must be made
to the head measured in the well.

• Remember that the pressure at the bottom of the • Point water head is the water level in a well
well is related to the density of the water filled with water coming from a point in an
aquifer, and which is just enough to balance
the pressure in the aquifer at that point.
• P=ρghp

• hp refers to point water pressure head. • Fresh-water head, is a column of water in a


well filled with fresh-water that balances
• Luscynski (1961) introduced the concepts of the pressure in the aquifer at that point.
point-water head and fresh-water head.

point water pressure for the well


screened in the salty water:

P1=ρsghp
\
Now, let’s assume that the water in
the well is now filled with fresh-
water, its pressure would be • In a fresh water aquifer, all point-water heads are fresh-
defined as:
water heads, and no correction is necessary.
hp hf P2=ρfghf
• In an aquifer of variable salinity, correction of point-water
heads to an equivalent fresh-water head needs to be made
Since the pressures P1 and P2
represent the same point in the
to obtain hydraulic gradients.
aquifer, basically the bottom of the
well, then P1=P2., so
• This works best in determining vertical gradients.
ρsghp=ρfghf
rearranging to solve for hf, the
• For theoretical reasons, in regions of lateral variations of
equivalent fresh-water head: salinity, the correction can not be used to determine the
hydraulic gradient.
hf = (ρs/ρf)hp

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