Aristotle’s Principle of Non-contradiction

Edited by Victor H. Miller

Following The Revised Oxford Translation
Edited by Jonathan Barnes.

For a general introduction to Aristotle go to http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/aristotl.htm#H1

click on Logic and Metaphysics and read these selections as background to this essay.

Beginning in Book 4 (or Gamma) of the Metaphysics, Aristotle begins to lay out what it
is that is the subject matter of metaphysics. He says, “There is a science which
investigates being as being and the attributes which belong to this in virtue of its own
nature.” 1 He then goes on to lay out the various problems which are encountered in
studying this subject. First that there are many ways in which a thing can be said to ‘be,’
“but they are related to one central point, one definite kind of thing …” 2 He then
proceeds to lay out the various senses that the term can be used. He uses health as an
example of what he is talking about. “Everything which is healthy is related to health,
one thing in the sense that it preserves health, another in the sense that it produces health,
another in the sense that it is a symptom of health, another in the sense that it possesses it,
another in the sense that it is naturally adapted to it … another in the sense that it is a
function of the medical art.” 3 And so he concludes that there are other words used
similarly to these. “So too, he says, there are many senses in which a thing is said to be,
but all refer to one starting-point; some things are said to be because they are substances,
others because they are affections of substances, others because they are a process
towards substance, or destructions or privations or qualities of substances, or productive
or generative of substance, or of things which are relative to substances, or negations of
some of these things or of substance itself.” 4 For Aristotle there are two types of
substances, primary and secondary. At this point in the discussion Aristotle probably has
the concept of primary substance in mind. A primary substance is an individual particular
thing. The world as he sees it is made up of individual particular things. And all of these
things of which the world is made up are primary substances.

Now having made the analogy between ‘healthy’ and to ‘be’ he goes on to say, “As, then,
there is one science which deals with all things healthy, the same applies in the other
cases also. For not only in the case of things which have one common notion does the
investigation belong to one science, but also in the case of things which are related to one
common nature; for even these in a sense have one common notion. It is clear that it is
the work of one science also to study being qua being. – But everywhere science deals
chiefly with that which is primary, and on which the other things depend, and in virtue of
which they get their names. If, then this is substance, it is of substances that the
philosopher must grasp the principles and causes.” 5

Now in this paper we are concerned with the principles that Aristotle thinks applies to all
substances. He begins to elaborate this principle as follows “…he whose subject is being
qua being must be able to state the most certain principles of all things. This is the
philosopher, and the most certain principle of all is that regarding which it is impossible
to be mistaken; for such a principle must be best known (for all men may be mistaken
about things which they do not know), and non-hypothetical. For a principle which every
one must have who knows anything about being, is not a hypothesis; and that which
every one must know who knows anything, he must already have when he comes to a
special study. Evidently then such a principle is the most certain of all, which principle
this is, we proceed to say. It is, that the same attribute cannot at the same time belong and
not belong to the same subject in the same respect… For it is impossible for any one to
believe the same thing to be and not to be … for what a man says he does not necessarily
believe.” 6

Aristotle having stated what the principle is goes on argue that there is no demonstration
(proof) for this principle. “Some demand that even this shall be demonstrated, but this
they do through want of education, for not to know of what things one may demand
demonstration, and of what one may not, argues simply for want of education. For it is
impossible that there should be demonstration of absolutely everything; there would be
an infinite regress, so that there would still be no demonstration. But if there are things of
which one should not demand demonstration, these persons cannot say what principle
they regard as more indemonstrable than the present one.” 7

Now some may find this to be an unsatisfactory situation, and Aristotle recognizes this.
He goes on to say that he can demonstrate negatively that the principle is true. The
method he uses is one that is now known to be affirmation through denial. What
affirmation through denial demonstrates is that in the process of denying that a
proposition is false, one has to make use of the proposition. Aristotle’s example is a case
in point. For he says, “… if our opponent will say something; and if he says nothing, it is
absurd to reason with one who will not reason about anything, in so far as he refuses to
reason. For such a man, as such, is already seen to be no better than a mere plant. Now
negative demonstration I distinguish from demonstration proper, because in a
demonstration one might be thought to be assuming what is at issue, but if another person
is responsible for the assumption we shall have negative proof, not demonstration. The
starting-point for all such arguments is not the demand that our opponent shall say that
something either is or is not (for this one might perhaps take to be assuming what is at
issue), but that he shall say something which is significant both for himself and for
another; for this is necessary, if he really is to say anything. For, if he says nothing, such
a man will not be capable of reasoning, either with himself or with another. But if any
one grants this, demonstration will be possible; for we shall already have something
definite. The person responsible for the proof, however, is not he who demonstrates but
he who listens; for while disowning reason he listens to reason. And again he who admits
this has admitted that something is true apart from demonstration so that not everything
will be ‘so and not so. 8
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