DC-DC Converter Fundamentals

Chapter 3
DC to DC CONVERTER
(CHOPPER)
• General
• Buck converter (bad-good converter)
• Boost converter (good-bad converter)
• Buck-Boost
k converter (bad-bad
(b d b d converter))
• Switched-mode power supply
- flyy back converter
- forward converter
- bridge converter
• Cuk converter (good-

good converter)
26/01/2011 Power Electronics and Drives 1

Dr. Awang / Dr Zainal
DC-DC Converter
(Chopper)
DEFINITION:
Converting the unregulated DC input to a
controlled
ll d DC output with
i h a desired
d i d
voltage level.
• General
G l block
bl k diagram:
di
DC supply
(from rectifier-
DC output LOAD
filter, battery,
fuel cell etc.)
PV
Vcontrol
(derived from
feedback circuit)
• APPLICATIONS:
APPLICATIONS
– High-frequency switched-mode power supply
(SMPS), DC motor control (traction, forklift,
electric vehicles, trams, battery chargers,
capacitor chargers
Linear regulator
• Transistor
T i t isi operated
t d
in linear (active)
mode. + VCEce − IL
+
• Output voltage Vin
RL Vo
Vo = Vin − Vce
LINEAR REGULATOR
• The transistor can be

conveniently + Vce −
IL
modelled by an
RT
equivalent variable +
RL
resistor, as shown. Vin Vo
−
• Power loss is high at

EQUIVALENT
high current due to: CIRCUIT
Po = I L 2 × RT
or
Po = Vce × I L
Switching Regulator
• Transistor is operated
in switched-mode:
+ Vce − IL
– Switch closed:
Fullyy on (saturated)
( ) +
– Switch opened: Vin
RL
Fully off (cut-off) Vo
SWITCHING REGULATOR
– When switch is open,
no current flow in it IL
– When switch is
closed no voltage SWITCH
+
dropp across it. RL Vo
Vin
−
• Since P=V.I, no losses

occurs in the switch.
– Power is 100% EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
transferred from Vo
source to load. Vin
– Power loss is zero
(ON) (OFF) (ON)
(for ideal switch): closed open closed
DT T
• Switching regulator is OUTPUT VOLTAGE

the basis of all DC-DC
converters

Buck (step-down) converter
S L
+
Vd D C RL
Vo
CIRCUIT OF BUCK CONVERTER

iL
S + vL −
+
Vd D RL Vo
CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED
S iL
+ vL −
+
Vd
D RL Vo
CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS OPENED

Switch is turned on (closed)
• Diode is reversed + vL -
biased.
S iL +
+
C RL Vo
• Switch conducts Vd VD
− −
inductor current
vL
• This results in
positive inductor Vd − Vo
voltage, i.e: opened opened
closed closed
t
v L = Vd − Vo
• It causes linear − Vo
increase in the iL
inductor current
iLmax
di IL
vL = L L iLmin
dt
1
⇒ iL = ∫ v L dt DT T
t
L
Switch turned off (opened)
+ vL -
• Because of inductive
energy storage, iL S iL +
continues to flow.
flow Vd C RL Vo
D
−
• Diode is forward
biased vL
Vd−Vo
• Current now flows opened opened
(freewheeling) closed closed
through
h h the
h di
diode.
d t
• The inductor voltage

can be derived as: −Vo
iL
vL = −Vo iLmax
IL
iLmin
(1-D)T
t
DT T

Analysis
When the switch is closed (on) :
di
v L = Vd − Vo = L L vL
dt
di V − Vo Vd− Vo
⇒ L= d closed
dt L t
Derivative of iL is a positive
constant Therefore iL must
constant.T
increased linearly. iL
From Figure iL max

diL ΔiL ΔiL Vd − Vo
= = = IL Δ iL
dt Δt DT L
⎛ V − Vo ⎞
⇒ (ΔiL )closed = ⎜ d
iL min
⎟ ⋅ DT
⎝ L ⎠ t
DT T
For switch opened,
opened
di
v L = −Vo = L L
dt
di − Vo
⇒ L=
dt L
di Δi ΔiL − Vo
∴ L= L= =
dt Δt (1 − D )T L
⎛ −V ⎞
⇒ (ΔiL )opened = ⎜ o ⎟ ⋅ (1 − D )T
⎝ L ⎠
Steady-state operation
iL
Unstable current
iL Decaying current
iL Steady-state current
Steady - state operation requires that i L at the

g cycle
end of switching y is the same at the
begining of the next cycle. That is the change
of iL over one period is zero, i.e : Or
(ΔiL )closed + (ΔiL )opened =0 Use Volt
Volt-second
second
Method
⎛ Vd − Vo ⎞ ⎛ − Vo ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⋅ DTs + ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ (1 − D)Ts = 0
⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ L ⎠
⇒ Vo = DVd
Average, Maximum and
Minimum Inductor Current
iL
Imax
IL ΔiL
Imin
Average inductor current = Average current in R L

V
⇒ IL = IR = o
R
M i
Maximum currentt :
ΔiL Vo 1 ⎛ Vo ⎞
I max = I L + = + ⎜ (1 − D)T ⎟
2 R 2⎝ L ⎠
⎛ 1 (1 − D ) ⎞
= Vo ⎜ + ⎟
⎝ R 2 Lf ⎠
Minimum current :
ΔiL ⎛ 1 (1 − D) ⎞
I min = I L − = Vo ⎜ − ⎟
2 ⎝R 2 Lf ⎠
Determine input
Inductor current ripple : current relationship, is
and load current,, io
ΔiL = I max − I min
Continuous Current Mode (CCM)
iL
Imax
Imin t
0
From previous analysis,

ΔiL ⎛ 1 (1 − D) ⎞
I min = I L − = Vo ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
2 ⎝R 2 Lf ⎠
For continuous operation, I min ≥ 0,
⎛ 1 (1 − D) ⎞
Vo ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ ≥ 0
⎝R 2 Lf ⎠
(1 − D)
⇒ L ≥ Lmin = ⋅R
2f
This is the minimum (critical) inductor current to
ensure continous mode of operation.
Normally L is chosen to be >> Lmin

Output voltage ripple
KCL, Capacitor current :
ic = iL + iR L iL iR
The charge can be witten as : iC

+
Q = CVo Vo
⇒ ΔQ = CΔV −
ΔQ
⇒ o ΔVo =
C iL i m ax
Use triangle area formula :
iL= IR
1 ⎛ T ⎞⎛ Δi ⎞
ΔQ = ⎜ ⎟⎜ L ⎟ V o/R i m in
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠
TΔiL iC
= ΔQ
8
Ripple voltage (Peak - to peak)
T/2
TΔiL (1 − D)Vo
∴ ΔVo = =
8C 8 LCf 2
So, the ripple factor,
ΔVo (1 − D)
r= =
Vo 8 LCf 2
Note : Ripple can be reduced by :
1) Increasing switching frequency
2) Increasing inductor size
3) Increasing
I i capacitor
it size.
i

Basic design procedures
SWITCH L
Lmin= ?
RL
L = 10Lmin
Vd Po = ?
f=? D
(input C Io = ?
D=? ripple ?
spec.)
TYPE ?
• Calculate D to obtain required output voltage.
• Select a particular switching frequency (f) and device

– preferably f > 20 kHz for negligible acoustic noise
– higher fs results in smaller L and C. But results in higher losses.
Reduced efficiency, larger heat sink.
– Possible devices: MOSFET
MOSFET, IGBT and BJT BJT. Low power MOSFET can
reach MHz range.
• Calculate Lmin. Choose L>>10 Lmin
• Calculate C for ripple factor requirement.
– Capacitor ratings:
• must withstand p peak output
p voltage g
• must carry required RMS current. Note RMS current for
triangular w/f is Ip/3, where Ip is the peak capacitor current given
by ΔiL/2.
• ECAPs can be used (ECAP – Electrolytic Cap)
• Wire size
Wi i consideration:
id ti
– Normally rated in RMS. But iL is known as peak. RMS value
for iL is given as:
2
2 ⎛ Δi 2 ⎞
I L, RMS = I L + ⎜ L ⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠

Examples
Q1.A
Q1 A buck converter has an input voltage of 12 V. V The
required average output voltage is 5 V and peak-to-peak
output ripple voltage is 20 mV. The switching frequency
is 25 kHz. If the peak-to-peak ripple current of inductor is
limited to 0.8 A, determine
i
i. duty ratio
ratio, D
ii. filter inductance, L
iii. output filter capacitor, C (0.42, 148 mH, 197 uF)
Q2 A buck converter is supplied from a 50V battery source.

Q2. source
Given L = 400 μH, C=100 μF, R=20 Ω, f = 20 kHz and
D = 0.4. Calculate: (a) output voltage (b) maximum and
minimum inductor current, (c) output voltage ripple.
Q3 A buck converter has an input voltage of 50V and output

Q3.
of 25 V. The switching frequency is 10 kHz. The power
output is 125 W. (a) Determine the duty cycle, (b) value
of L to limit the peak inductor current to 6.25 A, (c) value
of capacitance to limit the output voltage ripple factor to
0 5 %.
0.5 %
Q4. Design a buck converter such that the output voltage is

28 V when the input is 48V. The load is 8 Ω. Design the
converter such that it will be in continuous current mode.
The output
o tp t voltage
oltage ripple must
m st not be more than 0.5
0 5 %.
%
Specify the frequency and the values of each component.
Suggest the power switch also.

Example
Consider a buck converter with the followingg

parameters : Vin = 20 V, Vo= 15 V, Io=
5A, f = 50 kHz.
Determine :
a) D
b) Lcritical = Lmin
c)) Maximum
M i andd minimum
i i inductor
i d current
for L = 100Lcritical
d) Average input and output power
e) Voltage ripple if C=0.47 uF,
•Sol-Pg16

B kC
Buck Converter
t conclusion
l i
• The output voltage may be

controlled by the duty-ratio, but
cannot be larger than input voltage
• The voltage conversion ratio
depends solely on duty-ratio, and is
independent of load condition
• The capacitor ripple current is
independent of load current
• The off-state/blocking voltage across
device is supply voltage

Boost (step-up) converter
L D
Vd
S C +
RL Vo
−
CIRCUIT OF BOOST CONVERTER
iL L D
+ vL −
Vd +
S C
RL Vo
−

L
D
+ vL -
+
Vd C RL
S Vo

Boost analysis:switch closed
iL
L D
+ vL −
+
Vd C vo
S
−
v L = Vd Vd
di
=L L v L
CLOSED
dt
t
diL Vd
⇒ = Vd− Vo
dt L
iLmax
diL ΔiL ΔiL
= = i ΔiL
Δt DT
L
dt
iLmin
di V
⇒ L = d
dt L DT T t
V DT
(ΔiL )closed = d
L
Switch opened
iL
D
+ vL -
+
Vd C
S vo
-
vL = Vd − Vo
diL
=L Vd
dt
di V − Vo
⇒ L = d vL
OPENED
dt L t
diL ΔiL
= Vd− Vo
dt Δt
ΔiL
= iL
ΔiL
(1 − D)T
( 1-D )T
diL Vd − Vo DT T t
⇒ =
dt L
( )
⇒ ΔiL opened =
(Vd − Vo )(1 − D)T
L
Steady-state operation
(ΔiL )closed + (ΔiL )opened = 0

Vd DT (Vd − Vo )(1 − D )T
+ =0
L L
Vd Vo 1
⇒ Vo = ; =
1− D Vd 1−D
• Boost converter produces output voltage that is

greater or equal to the input voltage.
• Alternative explanation:
– when switch is closed, diode is reversed. Thus
output is isolated. The input supplies energy to
inductor.
inductor
– When switch is opened, the output stage
receives energy from the input as well as from
the inductor. Hence output is large.
– Output voltage is maintained constant by
virtue of large C.
– The off-state voltage impressed across power
device is Vo
Average, Maximum, Minimum
Inductor Current
Input power = Output power

Vo 2
Vd I d = = Vo I o
R
2
⎛ Vd ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 2
(1 − )
Vd I L = ⎝ ⎠ =
D V d
R (1 − D) 2 R
Averageg inductor current :
Vd Io
⇒ IL = =
(1 − D) 2 R 1- D
Maximum inductor current :
ΔiL Vd V DT
⇒ I max = I L + = + d
2 (1 − D) 2 R 2L
Mi i
Minimum i d t currentt :
inductor
Δi Vd V DT
⇒ I min = I L − L = − d
2 (1 − D) 2 R 2L

L and C values
For CCM,
I min ≥ 0 Vd
vL
Vd Vd DT
− ≥0
(1 − D) R
2
2L
D(1 − D ) TR
2
Lmini = Vd − Vo
2 Imax
D(1 − D ) R
2
iL
= Imin
2f
Ripple factor iD Imax
⎛V ⎞
ΔQ = ⎜ o ⎟ DT = CΔVo Imin
⎝R⎠
Io=Vo / R
Vo DT Vo D
ΔVo = =
RC RCff ic
ΔVo D
r= =
Vo RCf
Contraryy to the buck,, voltage
g ΔQ
ripple is independent of L
DT T
Determine input current
relationship, is and load current, io

Boost Converter conclusion
• Thee output voltage

vo tage iss always
a ways greater
g eate or
o
equal to the input voltage
• The voltage conversion ratio depends
solely on duty-ratio, and always greater
than or equal to one
• Theoretically the output voltage tends to
infinity as D tends to 1, but in practice the
maximum
i output
t t voltage
lt will
ill be
b limited
li it d to
t
conduction loss
• The capacitor ripple current is severe and
depends directly on the load current level
• The off-state voltage impressed power
across devices is output voltage, Vo

Examples
• A boost converter has an input voltage of 5V.
The average output voltage is 15 V and the
average load current is 0.5 A. If L = 150 μH
andd C = 220 μF,
F ddetermine
t i ((a)) dduty
t cycle
l (b)
inductor ripple current (c ) inductor peak
current (d) output ripple voltage
(0 67 0.89
(0.67, 0 89 A,
A 1.95A,
1 95A 60
60.6
6 mV)
• The boost converter has the following

parameters: Vd = 20V, D = 0.6, R = 12.5 Ω,
μ , C = 200μF,
L = 65μH, μ , fs= 40 kHz.
Determine (a) output voltage, (b) average,
maximum and minimum inductor current, (c)
output voltage ripple.
• Design a boost converter to provide an

output voltage of 36V from a 24 V source.
Th load
The l d isi 50 W.
W TheTh voltage
lt ripple
i l factor
f t
must be less than 0.5%. Specify the duty
cycle ratio, switching frequency, inductor
and capacitor
p size,, and power
p device.
Example
• Sketch the current waveform for iL,

iin, iD, io and ic for the boost
converter with the following
parameters.
parameters
L= 1.8 mH, Vin = 50 V, Vo =120V
R=200 ohm,
o , C = 1477 uuF,,
f = 15 kHz.
Also sketch the waveform for vL,
vSW, vc, and vD.
Sol pg27
Sol_pg27

Buck-Boost converter
S
D
+
C
Vd L RL Vo
−
CIRCUIT OF BUCK
BUCK-BOOST
BOOST CONVERTER
S D
+ +
Vd iL vL Vo
− −
S D
+ +
Vd iL vL
Vo
−
−

Buck-boost analysis
Vd
Switch closed vL
di
v L = Vd = L L
dt
diL Vd Vd−Vo
⇒ =
dt L Imax
ΔiL ΔiL Vd iL
= = Imin
Δt DT L
V DT
⇒ (ΔiL ) closed = d Imax
L iD
Switch opened Imin
di
v L = Vo = L L Io=Vo / R
dt
diL Vo
⇒ = i c
dt L
ΔiL ΔiL Vo ΔQ
= =
Δt (1 − D )T L DT T
Vo (1 − D )T
⇒ (ΔiL ) opened =
L
Output voltage
Steady state operation :
Δ iL ( closed ) + Δ iL ( opened ) = 0
Vd DT Vo (1 − D)T
⇒ + =0
L L
Output voltage :
⎛ D ⎞
⇒ Vo = −Vd ⎜ ⎟
⎝1− D ⎠
• NOTE: Output of a buck-boost converter either be higher

or lower than input.
– If D > 0.5, output is higher than input
– If D < 0.5, output is lower input
• Output voltage is always negative.
• Note that source is never directly connected to load.
• Energy is stored in inductor when switch is closed and
transferred to load when switch is opened.
• Off t t voltage
Off-state lt across power switch
it h is
i ( Vd – Vo )

Average inductor current
Assuming no power loss in the converter,

power absorbed by the load must equal
power supplied the by source, i.e.
Po = Ps
Vo2
= Vd I s
R
But average source current is related to
average inductor current as :
Is = ILD
Vo2
⇒ = Vd I L D
R
Substituting for Vo ,
Vo2 Po Vd D
⇒ IL = = =
Vd RD Vd D R(1 − D ) 2

L and C values
Max and min inductor current,
ΔiL Vd D Vd DT
⇒ I max = I L + = +
2 R (1 − D) 2
2L
Δi Vd D Vd DT
⇒ I min = I L − L = −
2 R (1 − D) 2 2L
F CCM,
For CCM Imin I i >= 0
Vd D Vd DT
− =0
R(1 − D) 2
2L
(1 − D) 2 R
⇒ Lmin =
2f
Output voltage ripple,
⎛ Vo ⎞
ΔQ = ⎜ ⎟ DT = CΔVo
⎝R⎠
V DT Vo D
ΔVo = o =
RC RCf
ΔVo D
r= =
Vo RCf
Example
• A buck-boost converter has input voltage of
12 V. The duty cycle is 0.25 and the
switching frequency is 25 kHz. L = 150 μH
andd C = 220 μF.
F Th
The average load
l d current is
i
1.25 A. Determine (a) average output
voltage (b) peak-to-peak output voltage
ripple (c ) peak
peak-to-peak
to peak inductor ripple
current (d) peak current transistor
((-4 V, 56.8 mV, 0.8 A, 2.07 A))
• A buck-boost converter has the specification

as follows: Vd = 18 V, D = 0.6, fs = 40 kHz,
R = 10 Ω, L = 50 μH, C = 200 μF
Consider all components are ideal,
determine (a) output voltage (b) average,
maximum, and minimum inductor current
(-27 V, 6.75 A, 9.45 A, 4.05 A)

Buck-Boost Converter
conclusion
• Consider as a cascaded combination of a
buck and boost topology
• The voltage conversion ratio depends
solely on duty-ratio and less than unity for
D < 0.5. For D > 0.5, the conversion ratio
greater than unity. The maximum
conversion ratio is limited in practice by
circuit losses
• Similar to boost, the capacitor current
ripple is severe and depends on load
current
• The
Th off-state
ff voltage
l impressed
i d across the
h
device is the sum of supply and output
voltage
• The average inductor current is the sum of
average input and output current
• Increased voltage and current levels in
circuit components
Converters in CCM: Summary
Buck
Vo
S L =D
V + Vd
D C RL
Vo ΔVo 1 − D
=
d
− Vo 8 LCf 2
(1 − D) R
Lmin =
2f
L Boost
D
Vo 1
=
V + Vd 1 − D
S C Vo
ΔVo D
=
d
RL − Vo RCf
D(1 − D) 2 R
Lmin =
2f
S Buck − Boost
Vo D
D + =−
V C Vo
Vd 1− D
L RL
d
− ΔVo D
=
Vo RCf
(1 − D ) 2 R
Lmin =
2f
Control of DC-DC converter:
pulse width modulation (PWM)
Compensated error
amplifier (P, PI, PID)
Vo (desired)
+ Vcontrol Vc Switch control
signal
Vo (actual) Comparator
-
Sawtooth Vst
Waveform Sawtooth
Waveform
Vcontrol 1
Vcontrol 2
Switch
control
ton 2 signal
OFF ON
ton 1
Vc>Vst
T Vc<Vst
Ton Vcontrol
PWM – can be achieved using D= = ∧
IC e.g.SG3524
IC, e g SG3524 T V stt
PWM duty ratio control
+Vd
L Vo
Output
voltage
reference
Control
voltage vc
Error
Amplifier Compa- Drive
rator Circuitry
Sawtooth
waveform
• Output voltage is sensed using a resistor (network

divider to scale down signals).
• Using an error amplifier (usually compensated) ,

control voltage (Vc) is obtained.
• Duty ratio of the switch is controlled by comparing

Vc with the a fixed sawtooth waveform.
• The switch duty ratio adjusts the voltage across the

inductor.
• The inductor current feeds the output stage and
eventually brings the output voltage to its reference
value.
Power Electronics Systems 38
(Version 2) Dr.
Zainal Salam
DC-DC Converter Control
• Purpose of control: To regulate the output
voltage so that it is maintained within a
specified tolerance band (e.g. 2% of output
DC voltage)
l )
• Basic block diagram for converter control
• Need small-signal equations of blocks
Compensated
error amplifier
Zf vd
Zi
- vc d Power stage
PWM
Including the vo
Controller
+ Output Filter
Vo, ref
v%o ( s )
T1 ( s ) =
v%c ( s )
d% ( s ) v%o ( s )
Tm ( s ) = Tp (s) =
Tc ( s ) v%c ( s ) d% ( s )
v%o ,ref ( s ) = 0 Compensated v%c ( s ) PWM
d% ( s ) Power Stage v%o
Σ Error
Controller
+
+
Amplifier Ouput Filter
-

Isolated DC-DC Converter
• Isolated DC-DC requires isolation transformer
• Two types: Linear and Switched-mode
• Advantages of switched mode over linear power

supply
-Efficient (70-95%)
-Weight
Weight and size reduction
• Disadvantages
-Complex design
-EMI problems
bl
• However above certain ratings,

SMPS is the only feasible choice
• Types of SMPS
-Flyback
-forward
forward
-Push-pull
-Bridge (half and full)

Multiple outputs SMPS
1: N 1
+
V o1
Vs −
1: N 2
+
V o2
−
1: N 3
+
V o3
−
• With additional transformer windings (same

core), multiple outputs are possible.
• Only one outputs can be regulated with

feedback control loop
• p will follow according

Other outputs g to the duty
y
ratio of the regulated one.
Power Electronics Systems 41

Linear and SMPS block diagram
Basic block diagram of linear power supply
C E
Vce=Vd-Vo +Vo DC Regulated
DC U
Unregulated
l t d
B +
+
Base/gate RL
Vd Drive Vo
Line
Input -
1φ / 3φ -
Rectifier/ Error Vo
50/60 Hz Filter Amp.
Isolation
Transformer
Vref
Basic Block diagram of SMPS

DC-DC CONVERSITION AND
DC ISOLATION
DC
Unregulated Regulated
High
RECTIFIER Frequency
EMI
FILTER
AND AC AC rectifier DC
FILTER DC Vo
and
HFT
filter
Vref
Base/
PWM error
gate
Controller Amp
drive

High frequency transformer
Basic function :
1) Input - output electrical isolation
2)) stepp up/down
p time - varying
y g voltage
g
Basic input - output relationship
v1 N1
= ;
v2 N 2 For periodic voltage and current
operation, flux in the core must
i1 N 2 return to its starting value at the
= end of the switching period – to
i2 N1 avoid core saturation
M d l :
Models
i1 N1 N2 i2
+ +
V1 V2 Id l model
Ideal d l
− −
i1 N1 N2 i2
+ +
Lm Model used for
V1 V2
−
most PE application
−
Lm = Magnetising inductance

Flyback Converter
Derived from buck-boost converter
+
C R Vo
Vd LM
−
SW
Flyback converter circuit
iD
iS i1 N1 N2
+
+ − + vD −
iLM v2 iC iR Vo
v1
Vd
− + −
+ vSW − i2
Model with magnetising •Inverse

inductance ppolarity
y of
secondary
winding

Operation: switch closed
0 N1 N2 + VD -
is=iLM
− +
+
iLM v2
v1 Vo
Vd +
− −
v1=Vs 0
diLm
v1 = Vd = Lm Energy from main
dt source stored in the Lm,
energy deliver to load R
diLm ΔiLm ΔiLm Vd
= = = via capacitor C.
dt dt DT Lm
⇒ ΔiLm(closed
=
Lm
)
Vd DT
On the load side of the transformer,,

⎛ N2 ⎞ ⎛ N2 ⎞
v2 = v1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = Vd ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ N1 ⎠ ⎝ N1 ⎠
⎛N ⎞
v D = −Vo − Vd ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ < 0, i.e. diode turned off
⎝ N1 ⎠
Therefore,
i2 = 0 and i1 = 0
Switch opened
iD
N1 N2
+ +
−
iLM v1 v2= −VS Vo
Vs − + −
+ vSW −
⎛N ⎞ Stored energy in
v1 = −Vo ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ the Lm is used to
⎝ N2 ⎠ charge
h C andd also
l
But v2 = −Vo delivered load R
through
⎛N ⎞ ⎛N ⎞ transformer
⇒ v1 = v2 ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ = −Vo ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟
⎝ N2 ⎠ ⎝ N2 ⎠
di ⎛N ⎞
v1 = Lm L m = −Vo ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟
dt ⎝ N2 ⎠
diL m Δi L m ΔiL m − Vo ⎛ N1 ⎞
= = = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
dt dt (1 − D )T Lm ⎝ N 2 ⎠
V (1 − D)T ⎛ N1 ⎞
⇒ (ΔiL m )open = − o ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
Lm ⎝ N2 ⎠
Voltage across the switch :
⎛N ⎞
vSW = Vd + Vo ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟
⎝ N2 ⎠
Output voltage
For steady - state operation,

(
ΔiLm )closed (+ ΔiLm )opened
=0
V DT Vo (1 − D )T ⎛ N1 ⎞
⇒ d − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 0
Lm Lm ⎝ N2 ⎠
⎛ D ⎞⎛ N 2 ⎞
⇒ Vo = Vd ⎜ ⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 1 − D ⎠⎝ N1 ⎠
• IInputt output
t t relationship
l ti hi is i similar
i il tot buck-boost
b kb t
converter.
• Output can be greater of less than input, depending

upon D.
• Additional term, i.e. transformer ratio is present.
• Positive output voltage polarity

Flyback waveforms
Assume lossless system
Vs
Ps = P0
2 v1
V0
Vd I s =
R
-V(N 1 /N 2 )
I s is related to I Lm as :
I Lm DT
( )
i Lm
Δ iL
Is = = I Lm D
T ILM
Solving for I Lm
is
( )
Vd I Lm D=
V02
R
2 t
V0
⇒ I Lm =
Vd DR iD
I Lm can be written also as :

2
Vd D ⎛ N 2 ⎞ iC
I Lm = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
(1 − D) R ⎝ N1 ⎠
2
V0 ⎛ N2 ⎞
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ DT T − V o/ R t
(1 − D) R ⎝ N1 ⎠
N1 V
i c = i D − i R = i LM ( )− o
N2 R
Max, Min inductor current
ΔiL
IL = IL + m
m , max m
2
2
Vd D ⎛ N 2 ⎞ V dDT
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ +
(1 − D) R ⎝ N1 ⎠
2
2 Lm
ΔiL
I L , min = I L − m
m m
2
2
Vd D ⎛ N 2 ⎞ Vd DT
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ −
(1 − D) R ⎝ N1 ⎠
2
2 Lm
For CCM, I L , min = 0 m
2
Vd D ⎛ N 2 ⎞ Vd DT Vd D
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = =
(1 − D) R ⎝ N1 ⎠
2
2 Lm 2 Lm f
2
(1 − D) R ⎛ N1 ⎞ 2
⇒ (Lm )min = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
2f ⎝ N2 ⎠
Ripple calculation is similar to boost,
ΔV0 D
r= =
V0 RCf
Cf
Example
The Flyback converter has these
specifications:
DC input voltage: 40 V
Output voltage: 25V
Duty cycle: 0.5
Rated load: 62.5W
Max peak-peak inductor current ripple:
25 % of the average inductor current.
Maximum peak-peak output voltage: 0.1V
S i hi frequency:
Switching f 75 kHz
kH
Based on the abovementioned specifications,

d t
determine
i
a) Transformer turns ratio
b) Value of magnetizing inductor Lm.
c) Maximum and minimum inductor current.
current
d) Value of capacitor C.

Example
The Flyback converter has the following:
Input voltage: 24 VDC
Output voltage: 5V
T
Transformer
f turn-ratio
i (N1/N2):
(N1/N2) 3
Load resistance: 5 Ω
Magnetising inductance: 500 μH
Output it 200 μF
O t t capacitor: F
Switching frequency: 40 kHz

specifications
determine
a) duty ratio
b) average inductor current in Lm.
c) maximum and minimum inductor current.
d) output voltage ripple.
0.39, 540 mA, 770 mA, 310 mA, 48 mV

Example
For a Fl
F Flyback
b k converter, consider
id all
ll
components are ideal. The parameters are
shown as follows:
Transformer turn-ratio (N2/N1): 3

Load resistance: 5 Ω
Output voltage: 20 V
Switching frequency: 50 kHz

specifications
calculate
a) The range of duty ratios, D
b) The minimum value of Lm , to ensure
continuous current if the input voltage varies
from 10 V to 40 V.
c)) The required
q capacitor
p if output
p voltage
g
ripple is 0.2 Vp-p.
0.123<D<0.4, 4.08 uH, 57.12 uF

Forward Converter
• Derived from Buck Converter, but Dmax = 0.5
• Transformer magnetizing current must be taken into
account
• Assume transformer ideal, when switch ON, D1
forward biased and D2 reversed biased, VL positive
and iL increases linearly
N
v L = 2 Vd − Vo
N1
• When switch OFF, D1 reversed biased and iL
circulates through D2 . VL negative and iL decreases
linearly
v L = −Vo

Forward Converter
• Equating the integral of inductor voltage over one
time period to zero,
vo N 2
= D
v d N1
• It shows that the output voltage is proportional to
the duty ratio, D, similar to buck converter
• Practically transformer magnetization current must
be considered in converter operation to avoid
converter failure due to energy stored in its core.
• A third/reset/demagnetizing winding is required so
th t energy in
that i transformer
t f core can be
b transferred
t f d
back to the supply when switched turned OFF.
• When switch ON,
v1 = v d ; i m linearly
y increase to i m p
peak
• When switch OFF, i1 = - im, N1i1+N3i3=N2i2;
i2 = 0 since D1 OFF,
N1
i3 = i m ; which flows through D 3 into supply
N3
N
V1 = − 1 Vd
N3

Forwardd C
Converter

Forward Converter
• At ON time
1 V1DT
Φ= v
∫ 1 dt ⇒ Φ p
=
N1 N1
• At OFF time (D3 ON)

1 V1 (1 - D)T
Φ=− v
∫ 1 dt ⇒ Φ n
= −
N3 N3
• In order to ensure transformer core reset to zero
before next switching take place,
place
Φ p + Φ n = 0; in which D = D max
V1 (D max )T V1 (1 - D max )T
− =0
N1 N3
if N 3 = N1 ;
1
D max = = 0 .5
N3
1+
N1

Full-bridge converter
• Derived from step-down converter
SW1 SW3
D1 Lx
+ • + +
NS vx Vo
C R
− −
vp
VS •
NS
−
D2 •DC→AC→AC
SW4 SW2 →DC
SW1,SW2
DT T
SW3,SW4
T T
+ DT
VP 2 2
VS
-VS
Vx
⎛N ⎞
VS ⎜⎜ S ⎟⎟
⎝ NP ⎠ D1 D2 D1 D2
ON ON ON ON
DT T T T
+ DT
2 2

Full bridge: basic operation
• Switch “pair”: [S1 & S2];[S3 & S4].
• Each switch pair turn on at a time as shown. The

other pair is off.
• “AC voltage” is developed across the primary.

Then transferred to secondary via high frequency
transformers.
• On secondary side, diode pair is “high frequency

f ll wave rectification”.
full ifi i ”
• The choke (L) and (C ) acts like the “buck

converter” circuit.
• Output Voltage
⎛ Ns ⎞
Vo = 2Vs ⎜ ⎟⋅ D
⎜Np ⎟
⎝ ⎠

Half-bridge converter
D1 ON D2 ON D1 ON D2 ON
⎛ N ⎞
Vo = Vs ⎜ s ⎟⋅D
⎜ ⎟
⎝ N p ⎠
Industry
y favourites SMPS

Example 1
Q1 Referring to Figure Q1,
a) Sketch the waveforms for the inductor voltage
and current (per cycle) with fs = 25 k Hz.
(5 marks)
b) With the assumption that the switching device
operates as a fixed frequency switch with a duty
ratio D and the inductor current is continuous, show
that the output voltage Vo = Vd / (1 – D).
D)
(10 marks)
c) If the switching device operates at a duty ratio
of 0.4, calculate the output voltage and the average
inductor current when the input voltage is 60 V and
the resistive load is 10 Ω. Determine the inductor
value such that peak to peak inductor ripple current
is 4 A.
(10 marks)
Answ:100 V, 16.67A, 240 uH
iL
+ vL - D +
Vd C R Vo
Figure Q1
•Sol_pg61

Example 2
Q2 Referring to Figure Q2, and assuming converter operates in CCM
a) Sketch the waveforms for the inductor voltage ,inductor current
and capacitor current(per cycle).
b) Prove that the peak-to-peak output voltage ripple
V DT
ΔV = o
RC
o
c) The converter in Figure Q2 required to provide a 400V

regulated output from a variable DC source, ranges between 150
V < Vd < 300 V. The output power varies over the range of 100 W
to 1 kW and the switching frequency is 50 kHz. If the converter
operates in CCM,
i) Calculate the range of the duty ratio, D
ii) Determine the capacitor value that results in the maximum
peak-to-peak ripple voltage of 3 V
iii) Determine the minimum value of inductance to ensure CCM
of current over all condition
Answ: 0.25<D<0.63, 10.4 uF, 2.37 mH
iL
+ vL - D +
Vd C R Vo
Figure Q2
•Sol_pg62

Example 3
Q2 (a)Draw and label a block diagram of a switched mode power
supply
pp y (SMPS).Briefly
( ) y state the function of each element in the
diagram.(8 marks)
(b) Figure Q3 shows a boost converter with the inductor current
waveform in steady state. The key quantities of the waveforms
are labeled. The circuit uses a feedback controller to regulate the
output voltage at 12V by varying the duty cycle, D. It was found
that for this condition,
that, condition the peak-peak ripple Δvo,
peak peak output voltage ripple, Δvo
is 0.08V. Based on the circuit condition and its waveform
determine:
(i) The duty cycle D and the input voltage, Vs. (3 marks)
(ii) The values of R, L and C. (6 marks)
(iii) The maximum value of R to keep the converter operation in a
continuous conduction mode. All other parameters are kept
constant. (3 marks)
(iv) Draw the voltages across MOSFET, vm and diode, vd.
Suggest the minimum voltage rating for the diode and
MOSFET. (3 marks)
Answ: i)0.4, 7.2V, ii)2.5 Ω, 7.2u, 240uF, iii)10 Ω
iL
L + vd -
+ +
Vs vm C R vo
- -
Controller
iL
10A
6A
4μs 10μs t
Fi
Figure Q3

DC-DC Converter Fundamentals

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Chapter 3

• Cuk converter (good-

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• The transistor can be

• Power loss is high at

• Since P=V.I, no losses

• Switching regulator is OUTPUT VOLTAGE

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CIRCUIT OF BUCK CONVERTER

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS OPENED

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• The inductor voltage

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From Figure iL max

Steady - state operation requires that i L at the

Average inductor current = Average current in R L

From previous analysis,

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The charge can be witten as : iC

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• Calculate D to obtain required output voltage.

• Select a particular switching frequency (f) and device

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Q2 A buck converter is supplied from a 50V battery source.

Q3 A buck converter has an input voltage of 50V and output

Q4. Design a buck converter such that the output voltage is

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Consider a buck converter with the followingg

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• The output voltage may be

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CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS OPENED

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(ΔiL )closed + (ΔiL )opened = 0

• Boost converter produces output voltage that is

Input power = Output power

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Ripple factor iD Imax

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• Thee output voltage

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• The boost converter has the following

• Design a boost converter to provide an

• Sketch the current waveform for iL,

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CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS OPENED

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• NOTE: Output of a buck-boost converter either be higher

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Assuming no power loss in the converter,

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((-4 V, 56.8 mV, 0.8 A, 2.07 A))

• A buck-boost converter has the specification

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• Output voltage is sensed using a resistor (network

• Using an error amplifier (usually compensated) ,

• Duty ratio of the switch is controlled by comparing

• The switch duty ratio adjusts the voltage across the

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