ABC Notes - Fire Earthquake Typhoon Volcanic Eruption

Marijune L.
Tiamzon ACUTE BIOLOGIC CRISIS 1
I. DISASTER
A. Definition of Disaster
 A catastrophe which may be natural in origin or manmade, whether produced accidentally
or by design.
B. Stages of Disaster:
1. Threat Stage – when situation has a potential of creating crisis but does not show actual
condition of peril
2. Warning Stage – it is more specific than the stage of threat and almost assures the
reality of disaster
3. Impact – when the disaster is manifested full-blown
4. Recovery – when the assessment of the disaster effects is made, the injured are
rescued, and rehabilitation of people and their lives is begun.
C. Types of Disaster:
A. Natural
• Floods B. Manmade C. Technical
• Earthquakes • Strikes • Vehicular
• Storms • Riots Accidents
• Tornadoes/ • Mass Shootings • Major Industrial
Hurricane • Hostage Taking Accident
• Extreme Heat or • Terrorism • Building Collapse
Coldness • Demonstrations • Hazardous
• Bush Fires Chemical Incidents
• Epidemics • Fire Incidents
II. DISASTER NURSING MANAGEMENT

1. Critical thinking is Important. 2. Collaboration with other
• Nurse should remain calm Agencies
• Rapidly Assesses Situations • Communication
• Consider Options • Delegation
• Enact Emergency Response Plan • Coordination
• Ability to TRIAGE • Negotiation
III. FIRE
A. Definition of Fire
 Fire is rapid, self-sustaining oxidation process accompanied by the evolution of heat and
light in varying intensities. Fire is believed to be based on three elements being present:
fuel, heat and oxidizer. Fire disasters can occur above the ground (in tall buildings and on
planes), on the ground, and below the ground (in mines). Sometimes they occur in
circumstances that are unexpected or unpredictable.
B.Types of Fire
Natural
Fires which are considered as natural are basically earthquake, volcanic eruption
and lightning - generated fires. The fire and explosion risk associated with an
earthquake is a very complex issue. Compared with ordinary (normal) fires the fire and
explosion hazard related to earthquakes can constitute a substantial and heavy risk.
Damage to natural gas systems during an earthquake is a major cause of large fires.
Again probably the most significant direct impact of power systems on fire following an
Marijune L. Tiamzon ACUTE BIOLOGIC CRISIS 2
earthquake is that electric power is a major fire ignition source. In addition to dropped
distribution lines, power circuits in damaged houses are another major ignition source.
There have been cases where as many as two-thirds of all ignitions after an earthquake
has been attributable to power system.
Manmade
Fire caused by human/machine errors are considered as manmade fires, e.g.

industrial or chemical fire disasters, fires at social gatherings due to Electrical short
circuit fires, accidental fire and kitchen-fires. Rural and urban residential and non-
residential structural fires are also largely manmade fires. Any confined fire could be
due to many reasons like, cooking fire confined to container, chimney or fuel fire
confined to chimney, incinerator overload or malfunction, fuel burner/boiler malfunction,
and trash fire
C. Causal/ Contributing factors

Causes include:
Cooking/heating equipment
Intentional
Electrical
Open flame or ember
Appliance, tool or air conditioning
Child playing
Other heat source
Natural causes: earthquake, volcanic eruption and lightening
Other equipment
Smoking material
Contributing factors:
Principal factors contributing to fires across the globe include:
Wood shingle / thatched roofs
High wind
Congested access
Inadequate water distribution system
Lack of exposure protection
Inadequate public protection (i.e. fire department inadequacies)
Unusual hot or dry weather conditions
Delay in discovery of fire
Inadequate personal fire protection
Delay in raining the alarm
IV. WHAT TO DO BEFORE A FIRE
The following are things you can do to protect yourself, your family, and your property in the
event of a fire:
a. Escaping the Fire
• Review escape routes with your family. Practice escaping from each room.
• Make sure windows are not nailed or painted shut. Make sure security gratings on windows
have a fire safety opening feature so they can be easily opened from the inside.
• Consider escape ladders if your residence has more than one level, and ensure that
burglar bars and other antitheft mechanisms that block outside window entry are easily
opened from the inside.
• Teach family members to stay low to the floor (where the air is safer in a fire) when
escaping from a fire.
• Clean out storage areas. Do not let trash, such as old newspapers and magazines,
accumulate.
b. Flammable Items
• Never use gasoline, benzine, naptha, or similar flammable liquids indoors.

• Store flammable liquids in approved containers in well-ventilated storage areas.
• Never smoke near flammable liquids.
• Discard all rags or materials that have been soaked in flammable liquids after you have
used them. Safely discard them outdoors in a metal container.
• Insulate chimneys and place spark arresters on top. The chimney should be at least three
feet higher than the roof. Remove branches hanging above and around the chimney.
c. Heating Sources
• Be careful when using alternative heating sources.

• Check with your local fire department on the legality of using kerosene heaters in your
community. Be sure to fill kerosene heaters outside, and be sure they have cooled.
• Place heaters at least three feet away from flammable materials. Make sure the floor and
nearby walls are properly insulated.
• Use only the type of fuel designated for your unit and follow manufacturer’s instructions.
• Store ashes in a metal container outside and away from your residence.
• Keep open flames away from walls, furniture, drapery, and flammable items.
• Keep a screen in front of the fireplace.
• Have heating units inspected and cleaned annually by a certified specialist.
d. Matches and Smoking
• Keep matches and lighters up high, away from children, and, if possible, in a locked
cabinet.
• Never smoke in bed or when drowsy or medicated. Provide smokers with deep, sturdy
ashtrays. Douse cigarette and cigar butts with water before disposal.
e. Electrical Wiring
• Have the electrical wiring in your residence checked by an electrician.

• Inspect extension cords for frayed or exposed wires or loose plugs.
• Make sure outlets have cover plates and no exposed wiring.
• Make sure wiring does not run under rugs, over nails, or across high-traffic areas.
• Do not overload extension cords or outlets. If you need to plug in two or three appliances,
get a UL-approved unit with built-in circuit breakers to prevent sparks and short circuits.
• Make sure insulation does not touch bare electrical wiring.
V. WHAT TO DO DURING A FIRE
If your clothes catch on fire, you should:
• Stop, drop, and roll - until the fire is extinguished. Running only makes the fire burn faster.
To escape a fire, you should:

• Check closed doors for heat before you open them. If you are escaping through a closed
door, use the back of your hand to feel the top of the door, the doorknob, and the crack
between the door and door frame before you open it. Never use the palm of your hand or
fingers to test for heat - burning those areas could impair your ability to escape a fire (i.e.,
ladders and crawling).
Hot Door Cool Door
Do not open. Escape Open slowly and ensure fire and/or smoke is not
through a window. If you blocking your escape route. If your escape route is
cannot escape, hang a blocked, shut the door immediately and use an
white or light-colored alternate escape route, such as a window. If clear,
sheet outside the window, leave immediately through the door and close it
alerting fire fighters to behind you. Be prepared to crawl. Smoke and heat
your presence. rise. The air is clearer and cooler near the floor.
• Crawl low under any smoke to your exit - heavy smoke and poisonous gases collect first
along the ceiling.
• Close doors behind you as you escape to delay the spread of the fire.
• Stay out once you are safely out. Do not reenter.
VI. WHAT TO DO AFTER A FIRE
The following are guidelines for different circumstances in the period following a fire:
• If you are with burn victims, or are a burn victim yourself, cool and cover burns to reduce
chance of further injury or infection.
• If you detect heat or smoke when entering a damaged building, evacuate immediately.
• If you are a tenant, contact the landlord.
• If you have a safe or strong box, do not try to open it. It can hold intense heat for several
hours. If the door is opened before the box has cooled, the contents could burst into
flames.
• If you must leave your home because a building inspector says the building is unsafe, ask
someone you trust to watch the property during your absence.
VII. FIRE DISASTER
Specific aspects of a fire disaster, briefly summarized as follows:

• The number of persons involved is usually high;
• The burns tend to be extensive, and the general condition of the victims precarious;
• The burn is often associated with other serious pathologies, such as wounds, fractures,
electrocution, and blast or inhalation lesions;
• Hypovolaernic shock, a characteristic feature in the first phase of the burn illness, as early
as within three hours of the trauma, induces a state of tissue hypoxia, with irreversible
damage to the various organs and systems; the time interval between the burn accident
and initiation of resuscitatory therapy must be less than two hours;
• The inhalation of combustion gases, fumes, and hot air causes damage to the airways and
this alone can jeopardize survival;
• The place where the disaster occurs is not always easily accessible, and speedy care and
assistance may be inadequate;
• Triage in loco of the victims must be carried out by specialists, as only experts are able to
evaluate the immediate gravity of the burn and the measures to take;
• Besides the number of dead, the overall assessment of the severity and damage must be
made on the basis of the number of persons in a condition of potential mortality and
severe risk of disability;
• The rapid assessment and care of the viable and potentially curable victims is paramount.
a. Thermal agent disaster, burn disaster

 A disaster causing severe losses in human lives and material goods as a result of massive
heat production.
 It is an exclusively mathematical expression of the damage caused, i.e. of the number of
the dead and injured, and the extent of damage to material goods.
b. Burn Disaster
 Overall effect of the massive action of a known thermal agent on living beings.
 It is characterized by a high number of fatalities and of seriously burned patients with a
high potential rate of mortality and disability.
 Its extent may be aggravated if appropriate rescue operations are delayed.
 Some decisive factors involved here are the type of causal agent, the type of pathology
caused, the overall characteristics of the harmful action of the thermal agent, the
immediate evaluation of its gravity in relation to emergency care, and the modalities of
rescue operations.
 In burn disaster, two concepts are therefore involved: the pathological condition, i.e.
extensive burns, as well as the high number of persons injured.
VIII. THE PLAN FOR BURN DISASTER
The drafting of an operational rescue plan for a burn disaster cannot fail to take into account
two points:
1. The victim's pathological picture, i.e. the presence of extensive burns, inhalation lesions,
and polytrauma;
2. The type of intervention required.
Plans must be developed along three lines:
1. Immediate care
2. Medical rescue within three hours
3. Use of specific equipment and means for the rescue of the burned
patient.
a. Rapid evaluation of the extent of the disaster
A rapid evaluation of the extent of a burn disaster is essential for calculating the size of the
rescue forces that need to be involved (teams operating on the spot, teams brought up to the
operative area, local first-aid units, regional/interregional/intemationaI units, etc.) for health
assistance to the injured.
The death of 25-30 persons indicates a burn disaster of very severe proportions, especially
considering the high number of additional burn patients that can be expected.
The number of dead and injured, the types of pathology involved, the availability on the spot
of material and personnel capable of providing assistance, local environmental conditions as
regards access to the disaster area - all these factors are essential information for the
assessment of the initial gravity of a disaster.
The persons on the spot, who provide immediate aid, must be able to provide rapid
information on local conditions and the extent of the disaster for the use of local authorities in
charge, i.e. fire brigades, police, etc.
These will in turn send the alert to local hospitals, specialized centres, ambulance services,
helicopter rescue, etc. All these persons must be able to assess, even if only approximately, the
time necessary for the arrival of full scale first-aid support.
b. Specific and rapid health assistance response on site
Three distinct phases can be defined in rescue operations: immediate care, medical first aid,
and organized relief.
i. Immediate care.
This is provided by persons present at the scene of the disaster: relatives, friends, passers-by,
uninjured survivors - all persons who witness the disaster or who arrive immediately on the
scene.
Generally speaking, their help is an automatic reaction derived from affection, friendship, and
a spirit of human solidarity.
In the event of burn disasters, in particular, it is important that the first people to provide
assistance should be fully aware of what they have to do.
The behaviour of the rescuers in immediate care can be summarized as follows:

1. Self-control
2. Self-protection
3. Reduction of the fire
4. Extraction and transfer of victims to the open air
5. Appropriate action when clothing is on tire
6. Removal of burning clothing
7. Emergency treatment of burned areas
8. Knowledgeable action pending more complete relief
9. Dealing with chemical burns
10.Dealing with electrical burns
The occasional rescue workers must be able to perform, even if only in summary fashion,
an initial assessment of the damage that has occurred and activate the first triage procedures.
In a disaster with great numbers of burn patients and other casualties occurring in a rural
or isolated area, with predictable delays in the arrival of the first rescue workers, the persons
present on the spot should mark out a safe place as an area for assembly of the injured. This
area should be accessible to vehicles already in the vicinity or on their way (ambulances,
helicopters, private cars, etc.). This will facilitate the task of the first rescue workers who arrive
as they will be able to proceed immediately to their task and perform initial triage and initial
resuscitatory treatment.
ii. Medical first aid.
This refers to the action of trained persons present in the immediate vicinity who have
already received experience in rescue operations and who organize and go into action very
rapidly, within 2-3 hours. They may be physicians, nurses, EMS paramedics, members of
voluntary organizations, etc. They are supported by public and private organizations in the area -
hospitals, casualty departments, clinics, fire brigade, police, etc. - co-ordinated by the local
authorities. The authorities provide guidelines on specific stockpiles in convenient locations, the
management of ambulance services, traffic control, the use of local and regional mass media,
general means of transport, and other relevant services.
The kind of trained assistance provided by these first rescuers is of primary importance for
the prognosis of the casualties. They must carry out the first triage of urgent cases and the many
polytraumatized patients.
Given the particular evolution of burn disease, particularly worsening hypovolaemic shock,
they must also initiate all medical and surgical procedures necessary for preliminary
resuscitatory therapy and the initial local treatment of burns.
The following are ten points that these medical first aid teams must follow:
1. Immediate triage of all victims 6. Analgesic therapy

2. Inspection of the upper airways 7. Bladder catheterization
3. Qualitative assessment of the burns 8. Pressure-relieving incisions
4. Quantitative assessment of the burns 9. Examination of the patient with
5. Intravenous resuscitatory therapy particular attention to respiratory
capacity
10.Hospital transfer
iii. Organized relief.
This refers to the mobilization of all civil defence, military and volunteer forces that
are ready to intervene in the event of a large disaster. These forces arrive on the site as
rapidly as possible, but mostly not within the first three hours, equipped with the
necessary means and structures able to perform rescue action within the first 48-72 hours
after the disaster, until all the wounded have been evacuated.
These units will be involved in triage of the victims, i.e. stabilization of the condition
of serious victims, separating the less injured, preparing a preliminary evacuation plan,
contacting dispatching stations, selecting means of transport, organizing first-aid posts,
and clearing the dead.
1. Burn casualty triage
 Conditioned by the number of patients, the gravity of the burns, the age of the
patients, the presence of respiratory complications, and the availability of beds.
In burn disasters, it is useful to distinguish action for patients according to gravity
categories:
• Minor burns/noncritical sites (<10% TBSA for children; <20% TBSA for
adults): dress wound; tetanus prophylaxis; out-patient care.
• Minor burns/critical sites (hands, face, perineum): admit, early operation,
special wound care, short hospital stay.
• 20-60% TBSA: burns unit, trained personnel; requires intravenous
fluids/careful monitoring.
• Extensive burns (>60% TBSA); mortality high
• Minor burns/inhalation injury/associated injuries; administer oxygen, measure
carboxyhaemoglobin and/or intubate, ventilate, care of injuries.
A second level of triage may be performed in a decentralized, safer area, where

casualties have been assembled, for example outside a hospital.
A third level may be necessary in the hospital itself before sending on patients to
the specialist treatment units.
Once the patients have been selected on the basis of the gravity of their condition,
they should be labelled with cards or other clearly recognizable means of identification in
relation to the priority of health care.
Burn victims should never be marked on the skin with visible signs or by the
application of adhesives to the forehead.
The Pan American Health Organization of WHO uses a colour system:
• Red tag = First priority for evacuation: burns complicated by injury to the air passages.
• Green tag = Second priority for evacuation: seconddegree burns covering >30% T13SA;
third-degree 10% T13SA; burns complicated by major lesions to soft tissue or minor
fractures; third-degree burns involving such critical areas as hands, feet or face but with
no breathing problem present;
• Yellow tag = third priority for evacuation: minor burns, second-degree covering less than
15% TBSA; third-degree <2% TBSA, first-degree <20% TBS/ excluding hands, feet and
face;
• Black tag = dead.
c. Assessment of the capacity of specialized and nonspecialized structures for the treatment
of burn victims
The planning of burn disaster management must include the following:
1. Mapping of hospital facilities, private clinics, and reanimation and emergency centres in
the entire region;
2. List of the larger hospitals in the region having burn centres, including bed capacity;
3. List of smaller regional hospitals with burn unit, including bed capacity;
4. Indications for the use of regional data banks used by the provincial and regional
emergency health services. Inter alia, these give information on the availability of beds by
sectors and by type of emergency, updated periodically. In some countries this aspect is
already operational,
5. Guidelines for the use of specialized and nonspecialized hospital structures (interregional,
national, and international) for the organization of transport and transfer of casualties in
disaster emergencies;
6. Guidelines for the internal organization of hospital facilities in the event of disaster,
including fire disaster.
• collaborating with the Chief of the Burns Centre or Burns Unit in order to integrate nursing
personnel on the spot, with a view to optimal distribution of burn patients in the various
departments and to the despatch, if necessary, of more personnel to the scene of the
disaster.
d. Selective evacuation of casualties from the disaster area
This is certainly the most complex phase on both organizational and operational grounds.
Selective evacuation depends on three factors:
I. Quality of triage already done (and continuing) on the spot;

II. Means of communication with the disaster area;
III. Availability of transport for the injured.
IX. BURN VICTIMS
 The burn is an injury consisting of the destruction of the skin and the underlying
tissues, due to thermal, electrical, or chemical causes.
Division and classification of burns

• First-degree burns affect only the epidermis, causing reddening of the skin, pain, and
oedema.
• Second-degree burns affect not only the epidermis but also some of the dermis,
causing reddening of the skin, acute pain, and the formation of blisters and oedema in
and around the affected area.
• Third-degree burns destroy the full thickness of the skin (epidermis, dermis,
subcutaneous fat, muscle, and bones). The burned area is white and dry. Owing to the
destruction of the nerve endings, pain is minor or non-existent.
Burns are thus divided into the following three categories:

• Superficial burns, corresponding to first-degree burns. These burns heal without
medical treatment in 12-15 days and do not require specialist care;
• Partial-thickness burns, corresponding to second-degree burns. These burns heal in
21-30 days;
• Full-thickness burns, corresponding to third-degree burns. These burns heal slowly.
Scars develop, causing problems for mobility and the patient’s appearance.
There is another classification of burns:

1. small-scale burns
• first-degree burns
• second-degree burns affecting less than 15% TBSA
• third-degree burns affecting less than 2% TBSA. These burns require only topical
therapy and the burn patient is treated as an out-patient.
2. medium-scale burns
• second-degree burns affecting 15-20% TBSA
• third-degree burns affecting less than 10% TBSA, unless the face, limbs, and/or
perineum are involved. These patients are treated in a specialist burns unit;
3. large-scale burns
• second-degree burns affecting 25% TBSA
• third-degree burns affecting 10% TBSA
• burns with complications in the respiratory system and burns due to fractures or
craniocerebral injuries
• electrical burns
• third-degree burns involving the face, limbs, or perineum. These burns require
specialist treatment in a burns unit.
Treatment
First-aid treatment in burns
The treatment of burns caused by heat or electricity starts with the application of cold water
in order to cool destroyed tissues and to minimize damage to them.
This treatment is not administered in extensive or third-degree burns, as cold water may
aggravate the state of shock.
1. If the patient has suffered burns in the face or has inhaled smoke or hot air in a burning
building, the burn is regarded as an inhalation burn that requires assessment by a
physician.
2. We immerse the burned area immediately in cold running water. We place it under a tap
or in a bucket of water, or we apply cold-water compresses (but not ice) to the burned
area.
3. We continue to cool the burned area with cold water for about 5 minutes or until the pain
diminishes. We then dry the area gently with a clean towel and dress it with a sterile or
clean, dry cloth.
4. We do not prick blisters or otherwise interfere with the burned area.
5. We do not remove clothing adhering to the wound. We remove any watches, bracelets,
rings, belts, or constricting clothing from the affected area before it begins to swell.
6. We do not apply butter, oil, or creams to the wound. We use analgesic drugs, ointments,
or sprays only in first-degree burns or according to medical instructions.
7. We do not press the burned area.
8. In electrical burns, we look for the entrance and exit points of the electric current.
9. In chemical burns, we do not use other materials to neutralize the chemicals without
detailed medical instructions. However:
• we remove contaminated clothing and the patient’s shoes and socks;
• we douse the victim with cold water and keep washing off the burned area with
running water for at least 5 minutes;
• we relieve pain with cold-water compresses;
• we cover wounds with a damp bandage;
• we require evaluation by a physician even when the burn is not extensive.
10.When people’s clothing is on fire, they should not start running as this will only cause the
fire to expand. Also, people should not stand upright as this facilitates inhalation of smoke
and their hair may catch fire. In such moments, people should be laid on the ground,
where it is easier to wrap them in a blanket, douse them with cold water, or roll them over
in order to extinguish the fire. We should then remove any clothing still burning and
anything that could retain heat. We should also ensure that any clothing adhering to the
wound is not removed.
11.In extensive burns, the victim is wrapped in a clean sheet and transferred to hospital.
12.In face burns, extensive first-degree burns, second-degree burns in the limbs or perineum,
burns in more than 10-15% TBSA, and all third-degree burns, we require evaluation by a
physician.
Treatment of burn patients in the Emergency Department
A. The treatment of burns in the Emergency Department includes the following actions, in
order of precedence.
1. Checking of respiratory passages

The respiratory passages must be checked to ensure that the patient is properly
oxygenated. Close observation of the victim can prevent suffocation.25,26
2. Placement of phlebocatheter
A vein chosen for intravenous fluid replacement should be able to accept large
quantities of fluids (15-20 l per 24 h in extensive burns). The drip inserted into the
vein should not pass through the affected area; it is recommended that it should be
placed in the neck (subclavicle), in the arm, or in the crural vein, in order to avoid
thrombophlebitis.
3. Record of vital signs

Pulse, arterial pressure, temperature, and respiration frequency (danger of
dyspnoea) should be carefully recorded in order to evaluate the patient’s general
state.
4. Record of the patient’s case-history (information from the patient directly or

accompanying persons)
The patient’s name and age are recorded, as well as the causes of the burn,
including the conditions in which the accident took place, so that the patient can be
properly treated. It is of the utmost importance for the physician to know if the
patient is suffering from any disease (nephropathy, allergy, heart disease, diabetes
mellitus), if first-aid treatment was given, and if the patient takes drugs, has ever
suffered from allergies caused by a drug, or has suffered any other injury apart from
the burn (e.g. a fracture).
5. Relief of pain, and administration of painkillers or intravenous morphine1,27
6. Prevention of shock and anti-shock therapy
7. Placement of a urocyst catheter.

It is necessary to know the quantity and the specific gravity of the urine excreted by
the patient.
8. Placement of a Levin rhinogastric tube

In modern practice, the rhinogastric tube is placed as soon as the patient is
admitted to hospital in order to allow proper feeding. In the past, it was placed in
order to divert gastric fluids.
9. Quantitative evaluation of the burned surface

To evaluate the quantity of the burned surface, all burned areas are added
together, irrespective of their depth.
10.Qualitative evaluation of the burned surface

The depth of the burn cannot always be evaluated precisely when the patient is
admitted to hospital. The depth of the burned area should therefore be re-assessed
on the second or third day post-burn. Qualitative evaluation includes sensibility of
the burned area, erythema, formation of blisters, and the extent of oedema.
11.Laboratory tests
This entails hematocrit, electrolytes, blood air, and urine specific gravity. During the
first days after the accident, the tests should be repeated every 2-4 h. Urea, blood
sugar, creatinine, albumin, liver function, and blood group should be carefully
recorded.
12.Electrocardiogram
Thorax radiography is necessary.
13.Check of patient’s psychological state

Steps should be taken to limit the patient’s psychological and emotional reactions
(e.g. pain, anxiety).
The purpose of the clinical and laboratory check of the burn patient during the first
two days after the accident is to evaluate the effectiveness of treatment and to
diagnose complications as soon as possible.
Earthquake
1. Definition
Earthquake is a shaking of the ground caused by the sudden breaking and shifting of large
sections of Earth's rocky outer shell.
Source: http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/earthquake_worldbook.html
2. Types of Earthquake and Their Causes

a. Tectonic Earthquake
Tectonic earthquake begin when there is movement in the earth Tectonic plates.
These plates are made up of sections of the earth crust and they float on the earth
mantle. Most of the time these plates are slowly in moving; they might slide towards or
away from each other or even slip past each other. However, it is when these tectonic
plates collide or move too closely to each other that an earthquake is caused.
Source: http://earthquakecauses.com/, http://www.britannica.com/
b. Volcanic Earthquake
Earthquakes related to volcanic activity may produce hazards which include
ground cracks, ground deformation, and damage to manmade structures. There are
two general categories of earthquakes that can occur at a volcano: volcano-tectonic
earthquakes and long period earthquakes.
i. Volcano-tectonic Earthquake
Earthquakes produced by stress changes in solid rock due to the injection
or withdrawal of magma (molton rock) are called volcano-tectonic earthquakes
(Chouet, 1993). These earthquakes can cause land to subside and can produce
large ground cracks. These earthquakes can occur as rock is moving to fill in
spaces where magma is no longer present. Volcano-tectonic earthquakes don't
indicate that the volcano will be erupting but can occur at anytime.
ii. Long Period Earthquake

Long period earthquakes are produced by the injection of magma into
surrounding rock. These earthquakes are a result of pressure changes during the
unsteady transport of the magma. When magma injection is sustained a lot of
earthquakes are produced (Chouet, 1993). This type of activity indicates that a
volcano is about to erupt.
Source: http://www.geo.mtu.edu/volcanoes/hazards/primer/eq.html
c. Explosion Earthquake
The pressure wave from an underground explosion will propagate through the
ground and cause a minor earthquake. Theory suggests that a nuclear explosion could
trigger fault rupture and cause a major quake at distances within a few tens of
kilometers from the shot point. The explosion earthquakes are caused due to the
nuclear explosions. These man induced earthquakes are one of the biggest side effects
of the modern nuclear war.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_nuclear_explosions#Earthquake
http://hubpages.com/hub/Types-Of-Earthquakes
3. Measuring Earthquakes
a. Magnitude
Magnitude is a measure of earthquake size and remains unchanged with
distance from the earthquake. An earthquake magnitude is measured by the Richter
Scale.
b. Intensity
Intensity describes the degree of shaking caused by an earthquake at a given
place and decreases with distance from the earthquake epicenter. Earthquake intensity
is measured by the Mercalli Intensity Scale.
c. Instruments
Earthquakes can be recorded by seismometers up to great distances, because
seismic waves travel through the whole Earth's interior. The absolute magnitude of a
quake is conventionally reported by numbers on the Richter scale, magnitude 7
causing serious damage over large areas, whereas the felt magnitude is reported using
the modified Mercalli intensity scale (intensity II-XII).
i. Seismograph
Seismograph is an instrument that measure motions of the ground,
including those of seismic waves generated by earthquakes, nuclear explosions,
and other seismic sources.
ii. Richter Scale

The Richter magnitude scale, also known as the local magnitude (ML)
scale, assigns a single number to quantify the amount of seismic energy
released by an earthquake. It is a base-10 logarithmic scale obtained by
calculating the logarithm of the combined horizontal amplitude (shaking
amplitude) of the largest displacement from zero on a particular type of
seismometer.
The Richter scale has been superseded by the moment magnitude scale,
which is calibrated to give generally similar values for medium-sized
earthquakes (magnitudes between 3 and 7). Unlike the Richter scale, the
moment magnitude scale is built on sound seismological principles, and does not
saturate in the high-magnitude range.
iii. Mercalli Intensity Scale

The Mercalli intensity scale is a scale used for measuring the intensity of
an earthquake. The scale quantifies the effects of an earthquake on the Earth's
surface, humans, objects of nature, and man-made structures on a scale of I
through XII, with I denoting not felt, and XII total destruction. The values will
differ based on the distance to the earthquake, with the highest intensities being
around the epicentral area.
Source: http://www.eoearth.org/article/Earthquake,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismograph, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercalli_intensity_scale,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richter_magnitude_scale
4. Signs of Earthquake Occurrence

a. Scientific
i. Thermal precursor
A few months before the occurrence of an earthquake the average
temperature of the area keeps increasing. Weather report bulletins refer to
temperatures above or below average by so many degrees. It is seen that in
case the area is heading for an earthquake, the average temperature goes on
increasing. On the day of the earthquake it is about 5 to 9 degrees Celsius above
the average normal temperature for that day. This could be monitored by the
meteorology department and also by thermometers inside homes.
ii. Water precursor
There is a sudden rise or fall in water level in the wells. It could be as high
as one meter. Sometimes the well water may turn muddy. At times a fountain
appears inside the well. All these changes happen about one or three days
before the earthquake. Sometimes a fountain appears in the ground. This
normally happens a few hours before the quake.
Another form of water precursor is seen in the flow of riverwater. There is
a sudden and rapid increase or decrease of water flow in the river or nallah. This
happens about one to two days before the quake. In wells, the well water may
begin to bubble.
iii. Seismo-electromagnetic precursor

This is a very reliable precursor. It occurs and is exhibited about 10 to 20
hours before the quake. Before the occurrence of an earthquake the subsurface
temperature rises. As a result of this the geomagnetic field is reduced. The
reduction in geomagnetic field adversely affects the propagation of
electromagnetic waves. This is experienced abundantly on the radio, television
and telephone.
b. Non scientific
i. Animal precursor
It is seen that 10 to 20 hours before the occurrence of an earthquake, the
entire animal kingdom becomes highly disturbed and restless. They move in a
directionless manner and in fear. Birds do not sit on trees but move about at a
low height, emitting a shrill noise. Rodents like rats; mongooses etc are in a
panic. Domestic animals like cows, dogs, cats etc struggle against being tied up,
and even turn on the owner. Pandas may moan.
ii. Human precursor

Doctors and nurses observe that some sensitive patients in hospitals
become highly disturbed. They exhibit a sudden rise in blood pressure, heart
trouble, headache, migraine, respiratory disorders etc. Further, these
psychosomatic signs are manifested without any provocation. It is also seen that
the number of patients in the out-patient department increases by five to seven
times, some 10 to 20 hours before the quake.
Source: http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Warning_signs_for_an_earthquake
5. Effects of Earthquake
a. Shaking and Ground Rupture
Shaking and ground rupture are the main effects created by earthquakes,
principally resulting in more or less severe damage to buildings and other rigid
structures. Ground rupture is a visible breaking and displacement of the Earth's surface
along the trace of the fault, which may be of the order of several meters in the case of
major earthquakes.
b. Landslides and Avalanches

Earthquakes, along with severe storms, volcanic activity, and coastal wave
attack, and wildfires, can produce slope instability leading to landslides, a major
geological hazard
c. Fire
Earthquakes can cause fires by damaging electrical power or gas lines. In the
event of water mains rupturing and a loss of pressure, it may also become difficult to
stop the spread of a fire once it has started.
d. Soil liquefaction
Soil liquefaction occurs when, because of the shaking, water-saturated granular
material (such as sand) temporarily loses its strength and transforms from a solid to a
liquid. Soil liquefaction may cause rigid structures, like buildings and bridges, to tilt or
sink into the liquefied deposits.
e. Tsunami
Tsunamis are long-wavelength, long-period sea waves produced by the sudden
or abrupt movement of large volumes of water.
f. Flood
A flood is an overflow of any amount of water that reaches land. Floods occur
usually when the volume of water within a body of water, such as a river or lake,
exceeds the total capacity of the formation, and as a result some of the water flows or
sits outside of the normal perimeter of the body. However, floods may be secondary
effects of earthquakes, if dams are damaged. Earthquakes may cause landslips to dam
rivers, which then collapse and cause floods.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake#Effects.2Fimpacts_of_earthquakes
6. Interventions
a. Before an Earthquake
• Make sure you have a fire extinguisher, first aid kit, a battery-powered radio,
a flashlight, and extra batteries at home.
• Learn first aid.
• Learn how to turn off the gas, water, and electricity.
• Make up a plan of where to meet your family after an earthquake.
• Don't leave heavy objects on shelves (they'll fall during a quake).
• Anchor heavy furniture, cupboards, and appliances to the walls or floor.
• Learn the earthquake plan at your school or workplace.
b. During an Earthquake
• Stay calm! If you're indoors, stay inside. If you're outside, stay outside.
• If you're indoors, stand against a wall near the center of the building, stand in
a doorway, or crawl under heavy furniture (a desk or table). Stay away from
windows and outside doors.
• If you're outdoors, stay in the open away from power lines or anything that
might fall. Stay away from buildings (stuff might fall off the building or the building
could fall on you).
• Don't use matches, candles, or any flame. Broken gas lines and fire don't mix.
• If you're in a car, stop the car and stay inside the car until the earthquake
stops.
• Don't use elevators (they'll probably get stuck anyway).
• Drop, cover and hold are still recommended by most reputable earthquake
rescue experts. It is recommended that you take cover within three seconds or less
after you feel the first vibrations or shaking. Do not try to run to a safer place, but
get under the nearest sound structure or piece of furniture you can find to avoid
injury from flying debris and glass. Trying to move on your feet also exposes you to
the danger of being thrown violently by the seismic force of the earthquake.
• Triangle of Life
When buildings collapse, the weight of the ceilings falling upon the objects or
furniture inside crushes these objects, leaving a space or void next to them. This
space is what they call the "triangle of life". The larger the object, the stronger, the
less it will compact. The less the object compacts, the larger the void, the greater
the probability that the person who is using this void for safety will not be injured.
c. After an Earthquake
• Check yourself and others for injuries. Provide first aid for anyone who needs
it.
• Check water, gas, and electric lines for damage. If any are damaged, shut off
the valves. Check for the smell of gas. If you smell it, open all the windows and
doors, leave immediately, and report it to the authorities (use someone else's
phone).
• Turn on the radio. Don't use the phone unless it's an emergency.
• Stay out of damaged buildings.
• Be careful around broken glass and debris. Wear boots or sturdy shoes to
keep from cutting your feet.
• Be careful of chimneys (they may fall on you).
• Stay away from beaches. Tsunamis and seiches sometimes hit after the
ground has stopped shaking.
• Stay away from damaged areas.
• If you're at school or work, follow the emergency plan or the instructions of
the person in charge.
• Expect aftershocks.
Source: http://www.geo.mtu.edu/UPSeis/bda.html
http://urbanlegends.about.com/library/bl_triangle_of_life.htm
http://mamimomikuto.files.wordpress.com/2010/03/t-of-l.jpg
http://ezinearticles.com/?Disaster-Preparedness---Triangle-of-Life-Survival-
Method&id=4193940
Tsunami
1. Definition
Pronunciation: \(t)su̇-ˈnä-mē\
A very large ocean wave that is caused by an underwater earthquake or volcanic eruption
and often causes extreme destruction when it strikes land. Tsunamis can have heights of
up to 30 m (98 ft) and reach speeds of 950 km (589 mi) per hour. They are characterized
by long wavelengths of up to 200 km (124 mi) and long periods, usually between 10 and
60 minutes
2. Types of Tsunami
a. Tidal Wave
These waves are caused by the moon’s gravitational attraction. They are
generally only a few feet high, although higher waves are found during the new and full
moons. They can rise 5 to 6 feet above normal when the new and full moon occurs at
the same time as the moon’s perigee (the time when the moon is closest to the earth).
Tidal waves are harmless unless accompanied by storm conditions or on unusual

coastlines, where the topography creates daily tides as high as 50 feet.
b. Tidal Bore
These are quickly advancing front waves of incoming tides and are found in
shallow estuaries. It is usually a foaming water wall that signals approaching tides. The
height can vary from a few inches to a few feet, depending on the tide’s strength, the
attraction of the moon, and the geography of the estuary.
c. Internal Waves/ Underwater Waves

These are the strong, vertical motions that a current causes. They usually occur
when the current is passing through a narrow passage between a pair of islands, diving
into a deep ocean trench, or when two underwater currents of differing density merge
together. One can detect internal waves from the surface by noting patch of strong
turbulence, which can extend as long as 125 miles. Beneath the ocean surface, the
wave, or water of different density, can measure as high as 300 feet. Some experts
think that these are responsible for the disappearance of some submarines, causing
them to drop below safe traveling depths.
d. Storm Waves/ Sea Surges

These are wind-driven waves created on top of normal tides, and are often
caused by hurricanes and cyclones. They reach 30 to 40 feet in height, producing a
constant pounding motion as opposed to the tsunami’s characteristic single huge
wave.
e. Seiche
This is the rhythmic vibration of water in an enclosed water body. Water moves
slowly back and forth from shore to shore in waves no higher than 5 feet. They are
created by either seismic action or storms.
3. Prediction of a Tsunami
eHow Contributor
Tsunamis have killed more than 70,000 people during the 20th century, and thousands
more since the beginning of the 21st. The ability to predict a tsunami is still in its earliest
stages. Predictors range from primitive visual cues to complex satellite data. The best place
to predict tsunamis is in an area where earthquakes are likely.
Things Needed:
• Satellites
• Pressure sensors
• Topographical maps
Instructions
a. Run a computer simulation of the effects of earthquakes in various areas of the globe. Run
the simulation just after an earthquake with an epicenter in the ocean, in order to predict
where the resulting tsunami is likely to occur.
b. Use a pressure sensor at the bottom of the ocean to determine if a tsunami has started, as
well as how large it might be.
c. Map the locations of the places most prone to tsunamis. Consult the data currently being
compiled by satellite along with geological data for maps of the area.
d. Watch for a retreating shoreline, which is an immediate visual indicator that a tsunami is
building. Notice how far the water is receding to gauge how large the tsunami is likely to
be.
e. Pay attention to the earthquake hot zones, such as the, "ring of fire," in the Pacific. Check
elevation maps after an ocean earthquake, to predict which areas of the coast are likely to
be affected by the tsunami.
f. Pay attention to the latest earthquake prediction information, such as new uses for
satellite data. Use earthquake predictors to predict a tsunami.
Measuring a Tsunami
Tsunami are difficult to measure because many factors, such as shape of ocean floor,
shape of coast, size and location of earthquake generating the tsunami, can effect their size
and destructive potential. Often tsunamis are measured after the event by looking at the
damage. However, like earthquakes, a comparison of intensity can give an idea of the
destructive potential.
The chart below gives some general information on relating wave size and damage. It
was recreated from information found at this site.
Heigh
Frequency in
Intensity t in
Description the Pacific
level meter
region
s
Moderate with flooding of
1 per 8
1 2 gently sloping coasts, slight
months
damage.
Large with flooding of shore,
2 4 some light damage to 1 every year
structures.
Very large with general
1 every 3
3 8 flooding and heavy damage to
years
shoreline structures.
Disastrous with almost
1 every 10
4 16 complete destruction of
years
structures.
Sources: http://www.noaa.gov/
http://www.tsunami.org/
4. Interventions
a. Before A Tsunami
Precautions For Those At Risk of a Tsunami
- If you live in a coastal area that is hit by an earthquake, especially near the
Pacific Ocean, the chances of a tsunami hitting increase. Take these precautions
immediately after an earthquake.
• Turn on your radio or TV to hear if there is a tsunami warning

• Move away from the shoreline and to higher ground
• Do not go to the beach, especially if you see a noticeable recession of
water away from the shoreline.
- Tsunami Tips for Boaters

• If you are on a boat when a tsunami is possibly approaching, move to
deeper waters. Upon returning to your boat after a tsunami hits land, be
cautious because wave conditions may be severe and strong currents may
exist for a period after the tsunami hits.
- Protecting Your Home and Property
If you live in an area of the world where tsunamis could occur, there are a
few precautions you can take to help prevent damage to your home and
property.
• Elevate your home if it's on the coast.
• Make a list of things to bring inside in case a tsunami hits.
• Have your home inspected by an engineer to determine ways to
divert water away from the structure.
• Contact your insurance agent. Homeowners' policies don't cover
tsunami flooding. Inquire about the National Flood Insurance Program.
- Family Disaster Plan

Long before a natural disaster strikes, it is wise to create a family disaster
plan, especially for children. Make the following decisions before the evacuation
actually occurs:
1. Determine a place to meet outside your neighborhood
2. Determine a second meeting place in case the first one is damaged or
ruined
3. Decide on another family member (apart from members of your
household) to call to check-in in case you are separated. Ideally, the contact
should be someone out-of-state
4. Designate someone to take the disaster kit when they evacuate.
- What Should Go In a Family Disaster Kit

Keeping a Family Disaster Kit is important in case a tsunami strikes. It
should contain necessities for the entire family.
• Store one-gallon of water per person for at least three days in
plastic containers.
• Keep a three-day supply of non-perishable food, such as peanut
butter, trail mix, canned juices, milk, soup and sweetened cereals.
• Store a first-aid kit, tools, some clothing and bedding and important
documents in the kit as well.
• Be sure to store the kit in a convenient place for all family members
and keep things in a airtight, plastic containers.
Source: http://tsunami.lifetips.com/cat/64567/what-to-do-before-a-tsunami/index.html
b. After a Tsunami
i. Know When Food Supplies Are Safe
• Any food that has been in contact with contaminated flood waters
should be thrown out.
• Don't eat any food that hasn't been sealed in a plastic, waterproof
container or commercially canned.
• Don't consume food from containers with screw caps, twist caps or flip
tops if they've been in contact with contaminated water.
ii. Building Safety after a Tsunami Strikes

• If a tsunami reaches shore, the water damage to structures can be
devastating. Stay out of buildings surrounded by water since floors can sink
and the structure could collapse.
• If a building is safe enough to enter, open all windows and doors to dry
out the building.
• Carefully inspect a building for various fire hazards, such as broken or
leaking gas lines, submerged heating equipment and flooded electrical
outlets.
SOURCE: http://tsunami.lifetips.com/cat/64570/what-to-do-after-a-tsunami/index.html
Landslide
1. Definition
• wide variety of processes that result in the downward and outward movement of
slope-forming materials including rock, soil, artificial fill, or a combination of these
• result from the failure of the materials which make up the hill slope and are driven
by the force of gravity
• Movement of landslide material can vary from abrupt collapses to slow gradual
slides and at rates which range from almost undetectable to extremely rapid
• can be triggered by natural causes or by human activity
2. Types of Landslide Movement

a. Fall
• Abrupt movements of masses of geologic materials, such as rocks and boulders
that become detached from steep slopes or cliffs
• Separation occurs along discontinuities such as fractures, joints, and bedding
planes and movement occurs by free-fall, bouncing, and rolling
• Strongly influenced by gravity, mechanical weathering, and the presence of
interstitial water
b. Topple
• distinguished by the forward rotation of a unit or units about some pivotal point,
below or low in the unit, under the actions of gravity and forces exerted by
adjacent units or by fluids in cracks.
c. Flows
• The most destructive and turbulent form of landslide
• have a high water content which causes the slope material to lose cohesion,
turning it into slurry
• Channeled by the landscape and move rapidly
• 5 basic categories of flows:
a. Debris flows
- a form of rapid mass movement in which a combination of loose soil,
rock, organic matter, air, and water mobilize as slurry that flow down
slope.
- commonly caused by intense surface-water flow, due to heavy
precipitation or rapid snowmelt, that erodes and mobilizes loose soil or
rock on steep slopes.
b. Debris avalanche
- a variety of very rapid to extremely rapid debris flow.
c. Earth flow
- have a characteristic "hourglass" shape
- The slope material liquefies and runs out, forming a bowl or depression
at the head.
- The flow itself is elongate and usually occurs in fine-grained materials
or clay-bearing rocks on moderate slopes and under saturated conditions.
d. Mud flow
- an earth flow consisting of material that is wet enough to flow rapidly
and that contains at least 50 percent sand-, silt-, and clay-sized particles.
e. Creep
- the imperceptibly slow, steady, downward movement of slope-forming
soil or rock.
- Movement is caused by shear stress sufficient to produce permanent
deformation, but too small to produce shear failure
* 3 types of creep:
• Seasonal - movement is within the depth of soil affected by seasonal
changes in soil moisture and soil temperature.
• Continuous - shear stress continuously exceeds the strength of the material.
• Progressive - slopes are reaching the point of failure as other types of mass
movements.
d. Slides
• One of the most common forms of failure
• Three major types of slides:

i. Rotational slides
- a slide in which the surface of rupture is curved concavely upward and
the slide movement is roughly rotational about an axis that is parallel to
the ground surface and transverse across the slide.
ii. Translational slides

- the landslide mass moves along a roughly planar surface with little
rotation or backward tilting.
iii. Block slide

- a translational slide in which the moving mass consists of a single unit
or a few closely related units that move down slope as a relatively
coherent mass.
e. Spread
• The dominant mode of movement is lateral extension accompanied by shear

or tensile fractures
• Failure is caused by liquefaction, the process whereby saturated, loose,
cohesionless sediments (usually sands and silts) are transformed from a solid
into a liquefied state.
• Failure is usually triggered by rapid ground motion, such as that experienced
during an earthquake, but can also be artificially induced.
Source: http://nationalatlas.gov/articles/geology/a_landslide.html#one
www.ga.gov.au/hazards/landslide/
3. Causes of Landslide
Some slopes are susceptible to landslides whereas others are more stable. Many
factors contribute to the instability of slopes, but the main controlling factors are the nature
of the underlying bedrock and soil, the configuration of the slope, the geometry of the slope,
and ground-water conditions. Three distinct physical events occur during a landslide: the
initial slope failure, the subsequent transport, and the final deposition of the slide materials.
Landslides can be triggered by gradual processes such as weathering, or by external

mechanisms including:
• Undercutting of a slope by stream erosion, wave action, glaciers, or human
activity such as road building
- Wildfires: Plants help to stabilize the soil by holding it together like glue with
their roots. When this glue is removed, the soil loosens, and gravity acts upon it
much more easily. The loss of vegetation after a fire makes the razed land
susceptible to slides.
- Humans make landslides more likely through activities like deforestation,
overgrazing, mining and road-building.
• Intense or prolonged rainfall, rapid snowmelt, or sharp fluctuations in ground-
water levels
• Shocks or vibrations caused by earthquakes or construction activity
- Earthquakes: If the Earth's crust vibrates enough to disrupt the force of
friction holding sediments in place on an incline, a landslide can strike.
- Volcanic landslides: Volcanoes have unstable surfaces, so landslides are likely
even when the volcano is dormant. In addition to the fact that the surface is
composed mostly of loose rock, the volcanic gases create acidic groundwater.
This contributes to the rocks' breakdown, making them more likely to be carried
away.
• Loading on upper slopes
• A combination of these and other factors.
Source:
http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/earth/geology/landslide3.htm
http://www.empr.gov.bc.ca/MINING/GEOSCIENCE/SURFICIALGEOLOGYANDHAZARDS/LANDS
LIDES/Pages/Whatcauseslandslides.aspx
4. Landslide Warning Signs

• Springs, seeps, or saturated ground in areas that have not typically been wet
before.
• New cracks or unusual bulges in the ground, street pavements or sidewalks.
• Soil moving away from foundations.
• Ancillary structures such as decks and patios tilting and/or moving relative to the
main house.
• Tilting or cracking of concrete floors and foundations.
• Broken water lines and other underground utilities.
• Leaning telephone poles, trees, retaining walls or fences.
• Offset fence lines.
• Sunken or down-dropped road beds.
• Rapid increase in creek water levels, possibly accompanied by increased turbidity
(soil content).
• Sudden decrease in creek water levels though rain is still falling or just recently
stopped.
• Sticking doors and windows, and visible open spaces indicating jambs and frames
out of plumb.
• A faint rumbling sound that increases in volume is noticeable as the landslide nears.
• Unusual sounds, such as trees cracking or boulders knocking together, might
indicate moving debris.
5. Measuring Landslide Intensity
6. Interventions
a. Before Landslide
i. Assess whether the area is prone or safe to landslides
Areas that are generally prone to landslide hazards:
• Existing old landslide paths

• On or at the base of slopes
• In or at the base of minor drainage hollows
• At the base or top of an old fill slope
• At the base or top of a steep cut slope
• Developed hillsides where leach field septic systems are used
Areas that are generally safe from landslides:

• On hard, non-jointed bedrock that has not moved in the past
• On relatively flat-lying areas away from slopes and steep river banks
• At the top or along the nose of ridges, set back from the tops of slopes
ii. Enumerate features that might be noticed before major landslides
• Springs, seeps, or saturated ground in areas that have not typically

been wet before
• New cracks or unusual bulges in the ground, street pavements or
sidewalks
• Soil moving away from foundations
• Ancillary structures such as decks and patios tilting and/or moving
relative to the main house
• Tilting or cracking of concrete floors and foundations
• Broken water lines and other underground utilities
• Leaning telephone poles, trees, retaining walls or fences
• Offset fence lines
• Sunken or down-dropped road beds
• Sudden decrease in creek water levels though rain is still falling or just
recently stopped.
• Sticking doors and windows, and visible open spaces indicating jambs
and frames out of plumb
iii. Demonstrate ways on what to do during landslide

• Quickly move out of the path of the landslide or debris flow. Moving
away from the path of the flow to a stable area will reduce your risk.
• If escape is not possible, curl into a tight cloth and protect your head. A
tight ball will provide the best protection for your body.
iv. Collaborate with the contact local officials in developing a Family Disaster Plan.
• Contact local officials, state geological surveys or departments of
natural resources, and university departments of geology. Landslides occur
where they have before, and in identifiable hazard locations. Encourage the
family to ask for information on landslides in their area, specific information
on areas vulnerable to landslides.
• Contact local fire, police, or public works department. Local officials are
the best persons able to assess potential danger.
• Inform affected neighbors. Neighbors may not be aware of potential
hazards. Advising them of a potential threat may help save lives.
• Evacuate. Getting out of the path of a landslide or debris flow is their
best protection.
b. During Landslide
• Advise the victim to stay alert and awake. Many debris-flow fatalities occur
when people are sleeping. Listen to a battery-powered radio or television for
warnings of intense rainfall. Be aware that intense, short bursts of rain may be
particularly dangerous, especially after longer periods of heavy rainfall and
damp weather.
• If in areas susceptible to landslides and debris flows, advise the family to
consider leaving if it is safe to do so. Remember that driving during an intense
storm can be hazardous. If they remain at home,they can move to a second
story if possible.
• Listen for any unusual sounds that might indicate moving debris, such as
trees cracking or boulders knocking together. A trickle of flowing or falling mud
or debris may precede larger landslides. Moving debris can flow quickly and
sometimes without warning.
• Be aware of weather conditions and remember that short burst of rain,
particularly after longer periods of heavy rainfall and damp weather, can be
especially dangerous conditions conducive to landslides/rockslides
• If near a stream or channel, be alert for any sudden increase or decrease in
water flow and for a change from clear to muddy water. Such changes may
indicate landslide activity upstream, so be prepared to move quickly.
• Tell the victim to be alert especially when driving. Embankments along
roadsides are particularly susceptible to landslides. Watch the road for collapsed
pavement, mud, fallen rocks, and other indications of possible debris flows.
• Tell the patient that if escape is not possible, curl into a tight cloth and
protect his head. A tight ball/thick cloth can protect his cranium from fractures.
c. After Landslide
• Stay away from the slide area. There may be danger of additional slides.
• Look for injured and trapped persons near the slide, without entering the
direct slide area.
• Assess victims regarding their health status especially a neighbor who may
require special assistance--infants, elderly people, and people with disabilities.
Elderly people and people with disabilities may require additional assistance.
People who care for them or who have large families may need additional
assistance in emergency situations.
• In cases of difficulty of breathing, promote airway of the victim by providing
adequate ventilation. Remove any obstructions in the airway. Position the
patient to help him breathe. Perform Jaw thrust maneuver. If the victim is
already in the hospital, he may be given supplemental oxygen.
• If the victim has a wound, perform wound care. In cases of severe bleeding,
immobilize then elevate the affected part. Apply a pressure dressing on the
affected area then a direct finger pressure depending on the location of the
affected area. If it does not work, put a tourniquet before the wound (if the
affected blood vessel is the artery) or after the wound (if the affected blood
vessel is the vein)
• If the victim had a fracture, immobilize the affected area using a splint (it
may be an umbrella or a branch of a tree) and go to the nearest hospital.
• Listen to the victims when they verbalize their feelings regarding the
landslide. Victims may experience trauma after the disaster. Listening to them
will help them release their stress through verbalization of their feelings.
• Watch out for flooding, which may occur after a landslide or debris flow.
Floods are often tandem with landslides/rockslides since they may share a root
cause
• Look for and report any broken utility lines and damaged roadways and
railways to appropriate authorities. Reporting potential hazards will help direct
efforts to mitigate any additional hazards and injury.
TYPHOON
A. DEFINITION OF TERMS
• A typhoon is a violent tropical hurricane/cyclone that occurs in the west Pacific and the Indian
Ocean.
• A tropical cyclone is warm-core non-frontal synoptic-scale cyclone that originates over
tropical or subtropical waters. This has three classifications: tropical depression, tropical
storms, and the last which name depends where it originates.
• A tropical depression is a tropical cyclone that has a maximum sustained surface wind
speed (using the U.S. 1-minute average) is 33 kt (38 mph or 62 km/hr) or less,
• A tropical storm is a tropical cyclone that has a maximum sustained surface wind speed
(using the U.S. 1-minute average) ranges from 34 kt (39 mph or 63 km/hr) to 63 kt (73 mph or
118 km/hr),
• A tropical storm warning is an announcement that tropical storm conditions (sustained
winds of 39 to 73 mph) are expected somewhere within the specified coastal area within 36
hours.
• A tropical storm watch is an announcement that tropical storm conditions (sustained winds
of 39 to 73 mph) are possible within the specified coastal area within 48 hours.
• A tropical wave is a cyclonic curvature maximum in the trade-wind easterlies that may reach
maximum amplitude in the lower middle troposphere.
B. DEVELOPMENT OF TYPHOON
Tropical Storm Genesis is the technical term for the process of storm formation that
leads ultimately to what are called hurricanes, typhoons, or tropical storms in various parts of
the world. This occurs when, in the Northern Hemisphere, the Intertropical Convergence Zone,
or ITCZ, shifts northward out of the doldrums and atmospheric conditions become favorable for
tropical storm formation after about the middle of May.
A series of low-pressure ripples develops within the ITCZ. These are known as tropical
waves and progress from east to west. In the late season, they typically shift their movement
toward the west-northwest, or even northwest, after crossing 45° or 50° W longitude.
These tropical waves, ideally imbedded in the deep layer easterly flow, contain a
northeast wind shift. This is typically referred to as a “convergence”, where lines of equal
atmospheric pressure are pressed together between the deep-layer high to the north and the
developing low-pressure system. The divergence that results ahead of the convergence zone
gives us a north-easterly wind as the axis of the tropical wave approaches. Gusts up to 25 mph
may occur. Sometimes there can be gusts to tropical storm force in stronger waves. There can
be next to no weather associated with these waves, and they may pass virtually unnoticed. More
typically, there are bands of disturbed weather riding the axis of the wave.
When the wave passes over warmer waters (SSTs), convection and resulting rainfall
are enhanced. This greater rainfall is concomitant with falling surface pressures. By the time
these pressures fall to 1008mb, it is likely that the northeast wind has closed off to a southwest
wind on the backside of the wave. The forward motion of the wave completes the closure on the
northern side of a broad low-level center, and a tropical depression has formed.
We often hear that a tropical depression has formed, but conditions are unfavorable for
further development. There are two conditions that must be present for the tropical depression
to continue its development: warm SSTs (above 79° Fahrenheit/26° Celsius) and low
vertical shear. A tropical storm derives its power from the warm waters below. In addition, a
strong anti-storm directly above the low-level inflow is favorable. As a tropical storm is pulling in
warm, moist air at the surface, it must also evacuate this inbound flow aloft. This occurs in the
upper levels of the atmosphere, where high pressure facilitates the development of the storm by
evacuating the flow from the lower levels of the storm. Every powerful hurricane has an equally
powerful high pressure system over it. The key is inbound air counter-clockwise at the bottom,
outbound air clockwise aloft. In the Southern Hemisphere, it is reversed: clockwise inbound,
counter-clockwise outbound.
If the upper-level high pressure system does not develop over a storm, it means there is
shear instead. This is a strong jet of air that is blowing directly over the storm, and ripping the
tops off the deep convection. This has the effect of breaking down the whole mechanism. This is
known as vertical shear. Vertical shear usually comes from a westerly direction, and can occur
if the storm is located in an unfavorable position near a cold front or upper-level low pressure
system. Another factor that can interfere with the development of a tropical storm is subsidence.
Subsidence is the sinking of air. Usually this happens on the edge of an upper-level high-
pressure system. Subsiding air has the effect of suppressing thunderstorm formation. This also is
why a tropical storm that tries to form near an established hurricane has a very difficult time—
the storm is on the edge of the hurricane’s upper-level outflow, and may have to contend with
both subsidence and shear. The effect of shear on a storm can range from impaired
strengthening to catastrophic failure of the tropical storm’s support structure.
Tropical storms have the low-level circulation and the upper-level circulation (outflow),
whose formation was discussed above. There is also a mid-level circulation. The mid-level
circulation is similar in structure to the low-level circulation, and is critical to the survival of a
tropical storm that is passing over land. The lower-level circulation can be severely disrupted, or
even dissipated, by interaction with land, especially mountainous terrain. If the mid-level
circulation remains intact, the storm can regenerate rapidly when it re-emerges over water,
providing other factors are favorable.
Assuming all the ingredients are in place—warm SSTs, upper-level high pressure,
and falling surface pressures—the storm will develop and reach a point of rapid
intensification. It is one of nature’s perfect machines. As warm waters feed the convection
swirling around the center, heavy rainfall lowers surface pressures, high pressure aloft evacuates
the inflow, which intensifies the inflow of warm, moist air, which in turn increases the rainfall and
brings about a more rapid fall in central pressure.
C. NAMING OF TYPHOONS
The Philippine Weather Bureau adopted the system in 1963 by setting four groups of
Filipino women’s nickname ending in “ng” from A to Y to name all tropical cyclones occurring
within the Philippine Area of Responsibility (PAR). These four sets of names were then repeated
every four years. In addition, each group was accompanied by an auxiliary list from A to G in the
event that the number of typhoons occurring in a particular year exceeds the number of Filipino
alphabet letters. The first tropical cyclone for the year always starts with the letter A, followed by
B, and so on.
Revised List of Names for Tropical Cyclones within the Philippine Area of
Responsibility
The first tropical cyclone of the year starts with the name beginning in letter A as in
AURING under column 1 for 2005 and so on down the list as one disturbance succeeds another.
The 5th year (2006) will bring us back to column 1 of AURING. In the event that the number of
tropical cyclones within the year exceeds 25, an auxiliary list is used, the first ten of which are
listed under each column.
D. THE PHILIPPINE PUBLIC STORM WARNING SIGNAL
PSWS # 1
METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS:
• A tropical cyclone will affect the locality.
• Winds of 30-60 kph may be expected in at least 36 hours or intermittent rains may be
expected within 36 hours. (When the tropical cyclone develops very close to the locality a
shorter lead time of the occurrence of the winds will be specified in the warning bulletin.)
IMPACT OF THE WINDS:

• Twigs and branches of small trees may be broken.
• Some banana plants may be tilted or downed.
• Some houses of very light materials (nipa and cogon) may be partially unroofed.
• Unless this warning signal is upgraded during the entire existence of the tropical cyclone, only
very light or no damage at all may be sustained by the exposed communities.
• Rice crop, however, may suffer significant damage when it is in its flowering stage.
PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES:
• When the tropical cyclone is strong or is intensifying and is moving closer, this signal may
be upgraded to the next higher level.
• The waves on coastal waters may gradually develop and become bigger and higher.
• The people are advised to listen to the latest severe weather bulletin issued by PAGASA
every six hours. In the meantime, business may be carried out as usual except when flood
occur.
• Disaster preparedness is activated to alert status.
PSWS # 2

• Winds of greater than 60 kph and up to 100 kph may be expected in at least 24 hours.

• Some coconut trees may be tilted with few others broken.
• Few big trees may be uprooted.
• Many banana plants may be downed.
• Rice and corn may be adversely affected.
• Large number of nipa and cogon houses may be partially or totally unroofed.
• Some old galvanized iron roofing may be peeled off.
• In general, the winds may bring light to moderate damage to the exposed communities.
• The sea and coastal waters are dangerous to small sea crafts.
• Special attention should be given to the latest position, the direction and speed of movement
and the intensity of the storm as it may intensify and move towards the locality.
• The general public especially people travelling by sea and air are cautioned to avoid
unnecessary risks.
• Outdoor activities of children should be postponed.
• Secure properties before the signal are upgraded.
• Disaster preparedness agencies / organizations are in action to alert their communities.
PSWS # 3
• Winds of greater than 100 kph up to 185 kph may be expected in at least 18 hours.

• Many coconut trees may be broken or destroyed.
• Almost all banana plants may be downed and a large number of trees may be uprooted.
• Rice and corn crops may suffer heavy losses.
• Majority of all nipa and cogon houses may be unroofed or destroyed and there may be
considerable damage to structures of light to medium construction.
• There may be widespread disruption of electrical power and communication services.
• In general, moderate to heavy damage may be experienced, particularly in the agricultural
and industrial sectors.
• The disturbance is dangerous to the communities threatened/affected.
• The sea and coastal waters will be very dangerous to all sea crafts.
• Travel is very risky especially by sea and air.
• People are advised to seek shelter in strong buildings, evacuate low-lying areas and to stay
away from the coasts and river banks.
• Watch out for the passage of the "eye" of the typhoon indicated by a sudden occurrence of
fair weather immediately after very bad weather with very strong winds coming generally
from the north.
• When the "eye" of the typhoon hit the community do not venture away from the safe
shelter because after one to two hours the worst weather will resume with the very strong
winds coming from the south.
• Classes in all levels should be suspended and children should stay in the safety of strong
buildings.
• Disaster preparedness and response agencies/organizations are in action with appropriate
response to actual emergency.
PSWS # 4
• A very intense typhoon will affect the locality.
• Very strong winds of more than 185 kph may be expected in at least 12 hours.

• Coconut plantation may suffer extensive damage.
• Many large trees may be uprooted.
• Rice and corn plantation may suffer severe losses.
• Most residential and institutional buildings of mixed construction may be severely damaged.
• Electrical power distribution and communication services may be severely disrupted.
• In the overall, damage to affected communities can be very heavy.
• The situation is potentially very destructive to the community.
• All travels and outdoor activities should be cancelled.
• Evacuation to safer shelters should have been completed since it may be too late under this
situation.
• With PSWS #4, the locality is very likely to be hit directly by the eye of the typhoon. As the
eye of the typhoon approaches, the weather will continuously worsen with the winds
increasing to its strongest coming generally from the north. Then a sudden improvement of
the weather with light winds (a lull) will be experienced. This means that the eye of the
typhoon is over the locality. This improved weather may last for one to two hours
depending on the diameter of the eye and the speed of movement. As the eye moves out of
the locality, the worst weather experienced before the lull will suddenly commence. This
time the very strong winds will come generally from the south.
• The disaster coordinating council’s concerned and other disaster response organizations are
now fully responding to emergencies and in full readiness to immediately respond to
possible calamity.
E. REVISED GUIDELINES ON THE SUSPENSION OF CLASSES AND WORK IN THE

GOVERNMENT DURING INCLEMENT WEATHER (Based on DepEd Order No.50, July 19,
2007)
The Department of Education set the rules on the suspension of classes to keep parents
aware and students danger-free in cases of typhoons and other calamities.
• Storm number 1
Classes in pre-school level in all public and private schools will be automatically
suspended.
• Storm signal number 2

Classes in pre-school, elementary and high school in all public and private schools will be
automatically suspended.

Classes in all levels are automatically suspended.

All travel and outdoor activities are cancelled.
F. RESPONSIBLE PHILIPPINE AGENCIES AND NON-GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATIONS

DURING TYPHOON
Disaster-assistance and Preparedness Agencies
• DOST. The Department of Science and Technology (DOST) is the premiere science and
technology body in the country charged with the twin mandate of providing central
direction, leadership and coordination of all scientific and technological activities, and of
formulating policies, programs and projects to support national development.
Hotline: (02) 837-2071

Website: www.dost.gov.ph
• PAGASA. The Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services

Administration (or PAGASA), is a Department of Science and Technology (DOST) national
service institution. It provides public weather forecasts and advisories, warnings for floods,
giant waves and typhoons, meteorological, astronomical, climatological, and other scientific
information and services to protect life and property and support the economy, productivity
and development of the country.
PAGASA monitors tropical storm activity and broadcasts warnings and safety measures every
six or twelve hours within its area of responsibility which is 25°N 120°E, 25°N 135°E, 5°N
135°E, 5°N 115°E, 15°N 115°E, 21°N 120°E and back to 25°N.
Other Information:
Address: Agham Road, Diliman, Quezon City
Website: www.pagasa.dost.com.ph
• NDCC. National Disaster Coordinating Council (NDCC) is under the Department of National
Defense, and it is responsible for the protection and welfare of people in cases of disasters
or emergencies.
Formerly the National Emergency Council, it became the NDCC with the PD 1566 that
provided the NDCC the obligation to organize disaster coordinating councils from the national
to the municipal level, prepare a National Calamities and Disaster Preparedness Plan, conduct
drills and exercises, and gives government units the power to allocate funds for disaster
preparedness activities.
Emergency Hotlines: 9125668, 9111406, 9122665, 911506

Help Hotlines: 7342118, 7342120
• CDP. Center for Disaster Preparedness Foundation, Inc. (CDP) is now serving for ten years,
the CDP started as the Disaster Resource Training Center, registered as an independent
institution in the Philippine Securities and Exchange Commission.
So far, they have made significant contributions, especially with capability building as their
core competency. They have given communities and service providers from the non-
governmental organizations and government units the avenue to participate in trainings,
interactive forums, consultancies, research and publication, networking and advocacy.
Other Agencies and their Hotlines: (Disaster Emergency)

Rescue Operations:
• Philippine National Police CALL 117, (632) 722-9585, 412-3227 OR TEXT 2920
• Philippine Coast Guard (+632-5276136)
• Air Force (+63908-1126976, +632-8535023)
• Metro Manila Development Authority (136)
• Marikina City Rescue (+632-6462436, +632-6462423, +632920-9072902)
• Pasig Rescue Emergency Number (+632-6310099)
• Quezon City Rescue (161)
• San Juan City Hall Command Post (+632-4681697)
• Bureau of Fire Protection Region III (Central Luzon) Hotline: (+63245-9634376)
Civil Society/ Media:

• Philippine National Red Cross (143, +632-5270000)
• Philippine National Red Cross Rizal Chapter operations center hotline: (+632-6350922,
+632-6347824)
• ABS-CBN Typhoon Ondoy Hotline: (+632-4163641)
• Jam 88.3: (+632- 6318803) or SMS at JAM (space) 883 (space) your message to 2968
Rubber Boat, 4×4 Trucks, Chopper Requests

• NCRPO (+632-8383203, +632-8383354
• Private citizens who would like to lend their motor boats for rescue please call emergency
nos: +632-9125668, +632-9111406, +632-9122665, +632-9115061)
• You can also text (+632917-4226800 or +632927-6751981) for rescue dump trucks.
• For those who are able to lend 4×4 trucks for rescue: Please send truck to Greenhills
Shoppng Center Unimart Grocery to await deployment, Tel No. (+632920-9072902)
• Petron & San Miguel Corporation are lending choppers for rescue operations, call/text:
(+632917-8140655) ask for Lydia Ragasa
For IN-KIND DONATIONS, there are many drop-off centers, among them are the
following:
• ABS-CBN SAGIP KAPAMILYA WAREHOUSE at 13 Examiner St., West Triangle QC or at

ABS-CBN Center along Mother Ignacia QC/Scout Bayoran corner Tomas Morato, beside Alex
III, Quezon City. Tel 413-2667 / 416-0387.
• GMA KAPUSO FOUNDATION, INC. – 2nd Floor GMA Kapuso Center, GMA Network Drive
cor. Samar Streets, Diliman, Quezon City. Tel 982.7777 loc. 9901 & 9905.
• ATENEO DE MANILA UNIVERSITY – drop-off at MVP (Manny V. Pangilinan Building)
Lobby. Also at Cervini Hall Lobby at 12nn. For details, please contact 0917 631 2423 or
0917 703 5357.
• DE LA SALLE UNIVERSITY – proceed to South Gate, Taft Avenue, Manila (gate nearest to
McDonalds).
• LA SALLE GREEN HILLS- go to Gate 2 along Ortigas Avenue, Mandaluyong.
• CARITAS MANILA OFFICE at Jesus St., Pandacan Manila near Nagtahan Bridge
(tel.no.5639298/5639308) or Radio Veritas at Veritas Tower West Ave. Corner EDSA (tel no.
9257931-40)
G. ACTIONS OF THE PHILIPPINE GOVERNMENT BEFORE, DURING AND AFTER A

TYPHOON
Before
• Addressing the root causes of vulnerabilities to disasters, strengthening the country’s

institutional capacity for disaster risk reduction and management and building the resilience
of local communities to disasters including climate change impacts
•Community-based planning and preparedness
•Improvement of meteorological monitoring
•Requesting aid grants in preparation of need
•Procuring rubber boats and motorized bancas and other equipment that will be needed
during rescue missions in cases of flood
•Broadcast through television and radio warnings and reminders for people to be prepared
during the typhoon
•Prevention of floods thru prevention of excessive logging – Presidential Decree 705,
revising Presidential Decree No. 389, otherwise known as the Forestry Reform Code of the
Philippines
•Establish evacuation centers anticipating a large population to be accommodated
During
• Transfer residents living near bodies of water to safer zones
• Acquire sufficient goods that can be delivered to the respective residents that are stranded
in their homes due to flood and heavy rains
• Send motor boats or if possible, helicopters to rescue those who are stuck in danger zones
and whose lives are in peril if not rescued immediately
After
• Programs to fix destroyed infrastructures
• Initiating search and rescue missions
• Disseminating food and basic necessities for the refugees of typhoons or floods
• Assessment of damage and estimation of the cost of repair
H. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS BEFORE, DURING AND AFTER A TYPHOON
Before
1. Close and fasten up all windows.

2. Buttress (support) the house to prevent it from falling down.
3. Store enough food, clean water, fuel and medicine.
4. Prepare a good flashlight with new batteries.
5. Listen to the radio for further news.
6. Evacuate to a safer place if you think your house is not strong enough. Bring
your pets and useful animals.
7. Stay away from mountain sides or cliffs. Typhoons usually cause landslides.
8. Stay away from rivers. Typhoons usually cause rivers to swell or water to rise. Strong
water currents can carry you and your animals away.
During
1. Keep your radio on and listen to the latest weather bulletin and announcements.
2. Don’t pay attention to rumors.
3. Stay away from low-lying beaches or other locations which may be swept away by high
tides or storm waves. If your only passage to high ground is over a road likely to be under
water during a severe storm, then leave early.
4. If your house can’t be affected by a high tide and is well-built or anchored, then it is
probably the best place to be during a storm.
5. Board up and securely fasten windows. Makeshift boarding may do more harm than good.
Whenever applicable, anchor the house with strong wires.
6. Get extra food, particularly those that don’t need to be cooked and are easy to prepare.
Remember that electric power may be cut off.
7. If emergency cooking facilities are necessary, be sure they work.
8. Store water as water service may be cut off.
9. Always keep a flashlight handy.
10.Check everything that may be blown away or turn loose. Flying objects are dangerous
during typhoons.
11.If the eye of the typhoon has passed your house, there may be a lull lasting for a few
minutes to half an hour. Stay in a safe place. Make emergency repairs during the lull if
necessary. But remember that the wind will return suddenly from the opposite direction
with even greater violence.
12.Be calm. Your ability to handle an emergency will inspire others and help them.
After
1. You walk out cautiously, asses the damages and then look for basic necessities or aid in
the vicinity.
2. Avoid going out for a picnic or excursion immediately after a typhoon. It is usually calm
after a typhoon. Wait until the typhoon has totally left the place.
3. Listen to radio announcements to know about the typhoon and the weather.
4. Check the roofs or construction of your house. If your roof was damaged, check and fix it.
5. If there is any neighbors injured during the typhoon, bring them to the nearest disaster
coordinating council hospital or medical centers.
I. HISTORICAL TYPHOONS IN THE PHILIPPINES
NAME PERIOD OF DEATHS DAMAGE IN HIGHEST AREAS MOST

OCCURRENCE BILLION WIND SPEED AFFECTED
PESOS IN KPH (Place
Recorded)
PEPENG (Parma) September 30- 492 27.195 120 (PAGASA Northern Luzon,
6 October 11, estimate at Cordillera
2009 Cagayan)
ONDOY (Ketsana September 24- 464 11.121 85 (PAGASANCR,
)7 27, 2009 estimate atCALABARZON,
Aurora) Central Luzon
FRANK (Fengshe June 18-23, 938** 13.321 172 (Roxas) Eastern-Western
n) 3 2008 Visayas, Romblon,
Marinduque,
CALABARZON,
NCR, Central
Luzon
REMING (Duria Novemb 754**** 5.086 320 Bicol,
n) 4 er 26- (Virac) CALABARZO
Decembe N,
r 1, 2006 Marinduque
, Mindoro
MILENYO (Xang Septemb 279 5.9 180 Southern
sane) er 25-30, NCR
2006
ILIANG (Zeb) October 75 5.375 260 Northern

7-18, (Over Luzon
1998 water)
LOLENG (Babs) October 303 6.787 250 Bicol,
15-24, (Virac) Central-
1998 Northern
Luzon
ROSING (Angel October 936 10.829 260 Bicol
a) 2 30- (Virac Region,
Novemb Radar) CALABARZO
er 4, N, NCR
1995
Legend:
1 - Only a Tropical Storm.

2 - The typhoon unusually maintained winds of at least 240 kph for 60 hours, most of it while
over land.
3 - Had a very erratic movement causing numerous forecasting errors catching millions off-
guard at its path. Induced monsoon rains spawned floods in Western and Central Mindanao.
4 - The most powerful typhoon ever recorded by PAGASA, registering a 320-kph wind gust at
Virac Weather Station before the anemometer was damaged. It erased the old record of 275
kph, recorded during the passage of Super Typhoon SENING (Joan) in Oct 13, 1972 at the same
station.
5 - A very large super typhoon with a radius covering the whole Philippines.
6 - Criss-crossed Northern Luzon making initial landfall at Cagayan, then looping back to
landfall in Ilocos Norte, looped back again and entered Cagayan the second time.
7 - Brought record flooding in Antipolo, Cainta, Marikina, Quezon City, Manila, Pasig, and much
of Metro Manila drowning hundreds, stranding millions.
II. FLOOD
A. DEFINITION OF TERM
• Flood is an abnormal progressive rise in the water level of streams or rivers which may result
in overflowing.
• Flash flood is a sudden and extreme volume of water which flows rapidly and causes
inundation and which, because of its nature, is difficult to forecast.
• Flood watch is the designation of the period during which flood monitoring forecasting and
flood warnings are carried out. The principal activities are: flood monitoring, data collection an
d processing, assessment of probability of flooding and dissemination of information to public.
B. CAUSES OF FLOODS
• Heavy Rainfall
• Dam or levee failures
• Torrential rains from cyclones
• Tsunamis
• Storm Surges
• Burst water mains
C. LEVELS OF FLOODING
MINOR FLOODING
• Due to the accumulation of excessive surface runoff.

• Flood waters consigned to the flood plain immediately along a river/channel or in random
low lying and topographically depressed areas.
• Flooding is relatively shallow and there is no perceptive flow of water as when inundation
is rapidly spreading to adjacent areas.
MAJOR FLOODING
• Due to overflowing of rivers and lakes, unexpected and serious breaks in dikes, levees and
other protective structures or uncontrolled releases of dam water .
• Coverage of a wide continuous area and rapid spreading to adjacent areas of relatively
lower elevation.
• Flooding is relatively deep in most parts of the flood-stricken areas. Currents of flowing
flood water will be swift as the flood spreads to other areas.
D. PHASES OF FLOOD WATCH
Alert: Period of intense data collection, monitoring and assessment, when the possibility of
flooding is present, but its probability is relatively low.
Warning: Issued when indications show that water levels will exceed the alert level within 24
hours. The Flood Watch converts to flood warning and the appropriate Advisories are issued.
* Emergency Action: Official announcements are issued before during and after the occurrence
of floods. These are intended to appraise the public in the affected area of the present and
projected flood situation.
Content of Announcements:
• Present and expected situation of the meteorological cause of flooding.

• Present and forecasted hydrological situation.
• Areas likely to be affected.
• Time and severity of flooding
• Precautionary measures recommended.
• Routine announcement of next bulletin.
• Safety precautions to be taken before the flood, when Advisories are issued and during
and after the flood.
E. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS BEFORE, DURING AND AFTER A FLOOD
Before
• Learn to recognize environmental clues such as heavy rains, topography and flood history
of the region.
• Know your elevation above flood stage and the history regarding flooding of your
location.
• Learn first aid and CPR at your local Red Cross chapter or community organization.
• Learn the safest route from your home or business to high, safe ground should you have
to leave in a hurry.
• Develop and practice a 'family escape' plan and identify a meeting place if family
members become separated.
• Make an itemized list of all valuables including furnishings, clothing and other personal
property. Keep the list in a safe place.
• Stockpile emergency supplies of canned food, medicine and first aid supplies and drinking
water. Store drinking water in clean, closed containers.
• Plan what to do with your pets.
• Have a portable radio, flashlights, extra batteries and emergency cooking equipment
available.
• Keep your automobile fueled. If electric power is cut off, gasoline stations may not be able
to pump fuel for several days. Have a small disaster supply kit in the trunk of your car.
• Find out how many feet your property is above and below possible flood levels. When
predicted flood levels are broadcast, you can determine if you may be flooded.
• Keep materials like sandbags, plywood, plastic sheeting and lumber handy for emergency
water-proofing.
• Know the flood warning system in your community and ensure that your family knows the
warnings.
• Learn all you can about the flooding
• Monitor weather conditions
• Keep a portable transistor radio with spare batteries and emergency equipment.
• Store all chemicals away from flood waters.
• Store livestock feed and supplies above expected water levels.
• Be aware of weather conditions that could prompt flooding.
• Listen to radio or TV broadcasts for emergency information and evacuate immediately if
told to do so.
• Secure shelves and water heaters to nearby walls.
• Raise electrical system components.
• Consider installing check valves in your plumbing to prevent floodwater backup.
• Park, lock and leave vehicles at a higher elevation.
• Turn off gas and electricity. Unplug electrical appliances.
• Put dangerous, flammable or explosive liquids in a safe place and close containers
securely.
• Seal important personal, legal and business documents in watertight containers and place
above flood height. Take furniture to upper floors or raise on a sturdy table.
During
• If local officials advise evacuation, do so promptly.

• If directed to a specific location, go there.
• Know where the shelters are located.
• Bring outside possessions inside the house or tie them down securely. This includes lawn
furniture, garbage cans, and other movable objects.
• If there is time, move essential items and furniture to upper floors in the house. Disconnect
electrical appliances that cannot be moved. DO NOT touch them if you are wet or standing in
water.
• If you are told to shut off water, gas, or electrical services before leaving, do so.
• Secure your home: lock all doors and windows.
• Avoid areas subject to flash flooding
• Don't attempt to cross rivers or flowing streams where water is above the knees.
• Beware of water-covered roads and bridges
• Never walk or drive through rushing floodwaters. Even six inches of moving water is
dangerous.
• Avoid rising waters, storm drains and sewers. Move to higher ground.
• Watch out for snakes and small animals that might seek shelter in your home.
• Never enter buildings surrounded by floodwaters.
• Stay away from downed power lines and electrical wires.
• Listen to a portable radio.
• Release animals and poultry.
• Keep children indoors and upstairs.

• If your car stalls, or becomes stuck, abandon it and climb to higher ground or onto the
vehicle's roof.
After
• Be alert for fire hazards such as broken electrical wires.

• If the building has been under water, do not switch on the main, wait for professional
assistance. Never touch electrical switches while wet or standing in water
• Don't use appliances or equipment until they have been cleaned, dried and thoroughly checked
for damage.
• Report utility lines (electricity, water, gas and telephone) to the appropriate authorities.
• Boil all water and don't eat left-over food until it is checked for contamination
• Keep away from disaster areas as your presence may hamper rescue efforts.
• Listen to the radio or TV for instructions from local officials.
• Wait until an area has been declared safe before entering it. Be careful driving, since roads may
be damaged and power lines may be down.
• Before entering a building, check for structural damage. Turn off any outside gas lines at the
meter or tank. Let the building air out to remove foul odors or escaping gas.
• Upon entering the building, use a battery-powered flashlight. DO NOT use an open flame as a
source of light. Gas may be trapped inside.
• When inspecting the building, wear rubber boots and gloves.
• Throw out any medicine or food that has had contact with flood waters.
• Test drinking water for portability. Wells should be pumped out and water tested for drinking.
• If the public water system is declared 'unsafe' by health officials, water for drinking and cooking
should be boiled vigorously for 10 minutes.
• Flooded basements should be drained and cleaned as soon as possible. Structural damage can
occur if drained too quickly. When surrounding waters have subsided, begin draining the
basement in stages, about 1/3 of the water volume each day.
• Check on your neighbours.
• Take photographs of your property, if damaged, for insurance purposes.
How to inspect for gas, electricity, water and sewerage problems in your home:
Gas: If you smell gas or hear blowing and hissing noises, open a window and door and turn off
the gas at the tank. Do not turn off lights or appliances. Get out of the building fast and stay
out. After about an hour of allowing the gas to dissipate through open doors and windows, if
you still smell gas, call the Fire Service at 991. Do not re-enter the building until it has been
checked by a professional.
Electrical Systems: If you smell burning, see sparks or broken and frayed wires switch off the
electricity at the mains panel. Make sure you are wearing dry rubber soled shoes and you are
not standing in water. Proceed with extreme care.
Sewerage and Water Line Damage: If the water lines are damaged, do not drink water
from the tap, use your emergency water supply. Damaged water lines can lead to
contaminated water. To check for damaged sewer lines try flushing your toilet. If it backs up
the line is not good.
III. IMPACT OF TYPHOON AND FLOOD

Physical Impact
• Injuries and deaths due to drowning
• Blunt trauma injuries are not uncommon in floods due to the amount of debris that may be
caught in the moving floodwaters along with the unsuspecting victims. Injuries in this case
resemble projectile injuries and commonly include extremity and torso fractures,
lacerations, and severe bruising.
• Risk of accidental hypothermia
• Respiratory illnesses start to show a substantial increase in the days to weeks after a disaster.
This apparent shift in illness is attributed more to the transmission of communicable diseases such
as influenza or even tuberculosis in crowded temporary shelters.
• It has also been shown that due to the common occurrence of dehydration, malnutrition, break
down of public health safe guards, and stress and anxiety in the aftermath of natural disaster, an
individual is more prone to serious infection from a familiar vector (for example,
waterborne infections, acute or chronic effects of exposure to chemical pollutants released into
floodwaters, vector borne diseases, food shortage, and others). Floods also can increase the risk
of cholera, diarrhea, schistosomiasis, dengue, yellow fever, malaria, Hantavirus, and other
diseases.
Economic and Social Impact

• Floods and storm waters bring nutrients, which are beneficial to the floodplain ecosystems
(wetlands, agricultural lands, and crops, fishery, etc.) and coastal ecosystems (mangroves,
mudflats, reefs, fishery, etc.). They eventually contribute to human well-being by delivering a
range of ecosystem services.
• Flood or flood risk management options can increase the discharge of pollutants and
sediments to the coastal zones.
• Plant life can easily be swept away by floods and severe winds. Even trees cannot withstand the
sheer force of a typhoon's strength indefinitely. Excessive rain can cause plants to drown,
and it also causes soil erosion. Mudslides often take plants down with them, ripping up their
roots and killing the plant.
• When a flood strikes an area, the livestock and crops of the area is greatly affected and
therefore causes a food supply shortage resulting to hunger.
• For marine agriculture when typhoon hits some fishermen loses their boat or sometimes gets
destroyed. While for owners of fish pens, when the water elevates beyond their nets their fishes
can swim out to the sea. This will increase the prices of fishes.
• This can be a decline in tourism, cost of rebuilding infrastructures, a higher demand
for basic commodities but small supply this will cause an increase in price.
• Floodwater can seriously disrupt public and personal transport by cutting off roads and
railway lines, as well as communication links when telephone lines are damaged.
• Buildings and houses residing at unstable ground or living in high areas may experience
damage by mudslide or landslide, causing the house inhabitable and disrupt transportation by
blocking the roads.
Psychological Impact
• Commonly mass evacuation of communities leads to total disruption of an individual’s
personal coping mechanisms. Families and neighborhoods find themselves tossed from their
homes, possibly billeting in massive temporary shelters. As shelters are usually places of last
resort, individuals remain vulnerable to the lack of information and control that are awarded
them. The weight of the situation is compounded by the lack of privacy and even by the isolation
of natural support groups within a specific community.
• In the weeks and months following a disaster event, many patients will suffer from such
psychological disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or general anxiety
disorder (GAD).
• In many instances victims and survivors complain of some of the following symptoms: night
terrors, sudden phobias, grief, depression, guilt, insomnia, loss of appetite or
flashbacks and hallucinations.
IV. NURSING RESPONSIBILITIES
D-isseminate information on the prevention and control of environment hazards.

I-nterpret health laws and regulations.

S-erve yourself of self-survival.
A-ccept directions and take orders from an organized authority.
S-erve the best of the most.
T-each the meaning of warning signs.
E-xercise leadership.
R-efer to appropriate agencies.
• Atleast one registered nurse must be present at any kind of emergency and disaster.
• Determine magnitude of event.
• Establish nursing care priorities and plan for health care supervision.
• Evaluate health care needs.
• Provide medical treatment like cleaning wounds, providing medications, and monitor the sick
persons.
• Assess and arrange storage of supplies, equipments, and medications for the victims and check
routinely for any need of restocking.
• Identify potential problems and trends in the shelter.
• Establish lines of communication with the health service officer and health care team.
• Provide health teaching:
-Wear boots to prevent soaking of feet to the flood water.
- Wash feet immediately with soap and water if feet got soak in flood water.
VOLCANIC ERUPTION
A. WHAT IS VOLCANIC ERUPTION
Definition of volcanic eruption
-Volcanic eruption is the sudden occurrence of a violent discharge of steam and
volcanic material. When the earth's plates shift and magma is forced up through the
earth and basically out of a hill.
Advantages and Disadvantages

a. Advantages
• Rocks produced from volcanic pressure, form most of the ocean floor and continents
• Volcanic ash and lava also form rich soil, while hot rocks heat underground water
• Volcanic ash also serves as a natural resource for construction and industry
• Lava and tuffs have enough strength for high buildings, stone walls, are lightweight,
resistant to weathering, and good insulators
• Great tourist attraction
• Great source of geothermal energy
• Volcanic rocks are rich in nutrients needed by plants
b. Disadvantages
• Pollution on air
• Destruction of life and properties
• Causes substantial changes in the climate
• Low global temperatures
• Large quantities of gases produced from the eruption react with atmospheric water
thus producing acid rain which destroy crops and kill all living things
• Poisonous gases damage respiratory systems of people and lifestocks, and
contaminate water sources and vegetation.
B. What causes volcanic eruption

Theories associated to volcanic eruption
a. First theory: The buoyancy and the pressure of the gas within the earth’s crust
cause the volcano to erupt. Magma is formed when the upper mantle of the earth
melts. A volcano is erupted when the magma (the hot liquid) rises upwards by the
pressure of gas that is dissolved in it.
b. Second theory: Magma contains dissolved substances such as water, sulfur
dioxide and carbon dioxide. The solubility of the gases is high as the pressure
increases. The solubility of water decreases as the magma moves closer to the
earth’s surface and eventually separates from the magma.
c. Third theory: A volcano erupts when new magma is injected into a chamber that
is already brimming with magma of similar or different compositions
Causes of volcanic eruption
The buoyancy and the pressure of the gas within the earth’s crust cause the volcano to erupt.
Magma is formed when the upper mantle of the earth melts. A volcano is erupted when the
magma (the hot liquid) rises upwards by the pressure of gas that is dissolved in it. This is one of
the three predominant theories.
According to the second theory, magma contains dissolved substances such as water, sulfur
dioxide and carbon dioxide. The solubility of the gases is high as the pressure increases. The
solubility of water decreases as the magma moves closer to the earth’s surface and eventually
separates from the magma. When the ratio of the gases becomes more in magma it causes the
magma to disintegrate into pyroclasts, a combination of partially molten and solid fragments,
and the volcano erupts explosively.
The third theory says that a volcano erupts when new magma is injected into a chamber that is
already brimming with magma of similar or different compositions. The eruption occurs when the
magma moves upwards due to the injection of new magma.
Process of volcanic eruption
Increasing pressure on the magma

chamber deep below the Earth’s surface
Pressure causes the magma from the

chamber to be forced upward through a
series of tubes or conduits
It is thrusts through the vents on the

volcano, resulting an eruption
Factors:
Volume of the Magma
Amount of Gas
How much silica is in the magma itself
C. Instruments and methods of determining volcanic eruption
1. Satellites
Orbiting satellites monitor volcanoes from space, providing vital information and signs of
possible eruption. Satellites use cameras to provide images and photos. They also provide
information from special sensors that can detect heat, sulfur dioxide and even tiny changes in
the Earth surface's shape. All of this information can offer clues to as to whether an eruption is
imminent or the volcano is dormant.
2. Seismographs
Seismographs measure the movement of the planet's crust. Volcanic eruptions are closely
related to the seismic activities that also cause earthquakes and tremors, so seismographs are
also often used to monitor volcanoes. As the tectonic plates scrape and slide against each other,
or move apart, they cause vibrations and tension. A violent seismic reading is often a precursor
to an eruption.
3. Tiltmeters
One of the key instruments used to monitor volcanic activity is a tiltmeter. Similar to a
spirit level, tiltmeters are positioned around a volcano. A small container of liquid shows how
much the ground moves. The tiltmeters are connected to computers that monitor the ongoing
changes in the landscape.
Changes in the landscape and deformations at ground level are often a predictor of volcanic
activity. Magma movements beneath the ground can cause visible bulging and hollows to form.
These changes can offer vital clues.
4. Hydrology Instruments
Hydrology is the study of water flows and ground water. Hydrologists use pressure
sensors, water detectors, maps and the naked eye to gather data.
Measuring the hydrology on volcanoes has two purposes. Monitoring water changes can provide
clues about the activity of a volcano. A sudden change could predict a volcanic eruption.
Hydrology also examines the paths that water takes as it flows down a volcano's side.
Understanding how water flows can help us understand how lava might flow. This can help
emergency services decide where and when to evacuate if an eruption occurs.
5. Gas Trapping Bottles

Measuring gas emissions around volcanoes can also provide useful information about a
volcano. The instruments used to do this are typically trapping bottles wherein gas is pumped
into containers and then analyzed in a lab. As magma moves towards the surface of the earth,
the reducing pressure releases gas. The two most abundant gasses are sulfur dioxide and carbon
dioxide, and if levels of these gases increase, it shows that magma is rising to the surface and an
eruption is more likely.
D. Manifestations of volcanic eruption

1. Scientific manifestations of volcanic eruption
Large, explosive volcanic eruptions inject water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur
dioxide (SO2), hydrogen chloride (HCl), hydrogen fluoride (HF) and ash (pulverized rock
and pumice) into the stratosphere to heights of 16–32 kilometres (10–20 mi) above the
Earth's surface. The most significant impacts from these injections come from the
conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfuric acid(H2SO4), which condenses rapidly in the
stratosphere to form fine sulfate aerosols. The aerosols increase the Earth's albedo—its
reflection of radiation from the Sun back into space - and thus cool the Earth's lower
atmosphere or troposphere; however, they also absorb heat radiated up from the Earth,
thereby warming the stratosphere.
2. Non-scientific manifestations of volcanic eruption
Non-Scientific Precursors for a volcanic eruption
• Localized landslides, rock falls and landslides from the summit area not attributable to
heavy rains
• Increase in the temperature of hot springs, wells (e.g. Bulusan and Canlaon) and crater
lake (e.g. Taal) near the volcano
• Drying up of springs/wells around the volcano
• Development of new thermal areas and/or reactivation of old ones;appearance of

solfataras.
• Migration of animals from higher areas of the volcano to lower areas
• Noticeable increase in the extent of drying up of vegetation around the volcano's upper
slopes
• Ground swells (or inflation), ground tilt and ground fissuring due to magma intrusion
• Crater glow due to presence of magma at or near the crater
• Increased steaming activity; change in color of steam emission from white to gray due to
entrained ash
• Increase in the frequency of volcanic quakes with rumbling sounds; occurrence of volcanic
tremors
• Dark cloud formation from the top of the volcano
• Bird migration due to land tremors
• Sense of impending eruption with the presence of crows and other animals that are
related to myths and folktales
• Creation of unusual animal and land noises
• Surfacing of aquatic lifeforms due to increased temperature of the crust
E. Active volcanoes in the Philippines

1. Babuyan Claro in Cagayan
2. Banahaw in Quezon
3. Biliran in Biliran
4. Binubulauan in Kalinga
5. Bud Dajo in Sulu
6. Bulusan in Sorsogon
7. Cagua in Cagayan
8. Camiguin de Babuyanes in Cagayan
9. Dequey in Batanes
10.Didicas in Cagayan
11.Hibok-Hibok in Camiguin
12.Iraya in Batanes
13.Iriga in Camarines Sur
14.Jolo Group in Sulu
15.Kanla-on in Negros Area
16.Leonard Kniaseff in Davao del Norte
17.Makaturing in Lanao del Sur

18.Matumtum in South Cotabato
19.Mayon in Albay
20.Musuan in Bukidnon
21.Parker in Cotabato
22.Pinatubo in Zambales, Tarlac, and Pampanga
23.Ragang in Lanao del Sur
24.San Pablo Volcanic Field in Laguna
25.Smith in Cagyan
26.Taal in Batangas
F. Types of volcanic eruptions

27. Hawaiian Eruptions
-Hawaiian eruptions are neither explosive nor destructive. The lava thrown out is low in
gas content and it flows down slowly. Sometimes the volcanoes throw up a fire fountain
where bright lava is sprayed into the air for several hours or few minutes. However, the
most common form is the lava lake where the lava forms craters or depressions.
28. Strombolian Eruptions

-Though these eruptions are not dangerous, they are more impressive than Hawaiian
eruptions. There are regular eruptions where the small amounts of lava are exuded into
the air followed by booming sounds. The Strombolian eruptions produce small quantities
of ashy tephra.
29.Plinian Eruptions
-This was the eruption that not only destroyed but also buried Pompeii and Herculaneum.
These eruptions are caused by magma, which has high gas content and has high
viscosity. The lava is spewed as high as 50 km in the air. This eruption lasts for days.
Plinian eruptions throw out large quantity of tephra, which is heaped on one side, this
depends on the direction of the wind. Here the lava flows quickly and will destroy
everything that it comes across.
Definition of terms:
Ash fall
- A layer of volcanic ash that falls from an erupted ash cloud.
Cinder cone
- A small, steep-sided volcano made of pyroclastic material. A cinder cone is an

accumulation of loose volcanic material that erupts as a liquid, and cools into cinders in
the air, falling to the ground in a heap.
Composite volcano
- A large, steep-sided volcano made of alternating sequences of lava and pyroclastic debris.
Sometimes called a stratovolcano.
Convection current
- The motion of a fluid that rises as it is heated and sinks as it cools, moving in a circular
path.
Felsic
- A term applied to light-colored igneous rocks, such as rhyolite, that are rich in silica. Felsic
rocks are rich in the minerals feldspar and quartz.
Fissure
- A crack through which lava erupts onto Earth's surface
Hot spot
- An upwelling of magma from beneath the earth's crust, caused by a disturbance at the
boundary between the solid mantle and the liquid outer core. This upwelling is not related
to the convection currents associated with oceanic ridges, although some hot spots do
occur there.
Lava
- Molten rock erupted onto Earth's surface.
Mafic
- A term applied to dark-colored igneous rocks, such as basalt, that arepoor in silica and
contain large amounts of the iron and magnesium.
Magma
- Molten rock beneath Earth's surface.
Oceanic ridge system
- A long (40,000 mi; 64,000 km) crack in the earth's crust where new ocean crust is
continuously forming, causing ocean basins to grow wider.
Pyroclastic flow
- A fast moving body of pyroclastic material from an erupting volcano. It moves as a fluid, in
some cases covering thousands of square kilometers.
Pyroclastic material
- Volcanic debris formed by solidification of erupted lava in air; includes dust, ash, cinders,
and blocks of rock.
Shield volcano
- A broad, low profile volcano consisting of layers of basaltic rock, typically formed in the
middle of oceanic plates or on continental rifts.
Silica
- Any of the mineral forms of silicon dioxide.
Subduction zone
- A boundary between tectonic plates in which a dense oceanic plate is forced beneath a
less dense continental plate.
Viscosity
- The internal friction within a fluid that makes it resist flow.
Volatile
- Readily able to form a vapor at a relatively low temperature.
G. AGENCIES THAT DETERMINE OCCURRENCE OF VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
1. The Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) is a service

institute of the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) that is principally mandated to
mitigate disasters that may arise from volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunami and other
related geotectonic phenomena.
HISTORY
1951 – The violent eruption of Mt. Hibok-hibok created the need for an institution
dedicated to the studying and monitoring of active volcanoes in the Philippines.
1952 – The Commission on Volcanology or COMVOL was created through Republic Act No.
766 to primarily protect life and property from volcanic eruptions and to provide relief and
aid for the victims of such eruption. The COMVOLs first order of business was to create five
monitoring stations near the country's five most active volcanoes.
1960s – The commission conducted geothermal energy exploration to help with the
country's energy needs, indentifying a number of areas for potential geothermal energy
harvesting which led to the development of such sites as the Tiwi geothermal area where
an energy plant and a salt-making plant were established.
March 17, 1982 – Executive Order No. 784 was issued whose provision called for the
reorganization of the National Science Development Board (NSDB) and its agencies into
the National Science and Technology Authority (NSTA), which included the reorganization
of the Commission on Volcanology into the Philippine Institute of Volcanology or PHIVOLC.
September 17, 1984 – seismology, the science of earthquakes, was transferred
from PAGASA to PHIVOLC. With the added duties, the PHIVOLC was renamed to the
Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology or PHIVOLCS.
1987 – Executive Order No. 128 was enacted, calling for the reorganization of the NSTA
into the Department of Science and Technology (DOST), and PHIVOLCS was put under the
Service Institutions of the department.
FUNCTIONS
Provisions in the Executive Order No. 128, mandates PHIVOLCS the following specific
functions:
1. Predict the occurrence of volcanic eruptions and earthquakes and their geotectonic
phenomena;
2. Determine how eruptions and earthquakes shall occur and also areas likely to be
affected;
3. Exploit the positive aspects of volcanoes and volcanic terrain in the promotion of
the socio-economic development efforts of the government;
4. Generate sufficient data for forecasting volcanic eruptions and earthquakes;
5. Formulate appropriate disaster-preparedness and mitigation plans; and
6. Mitigate hazards of volcanic activities through appropriate detection, forecast and
warning system.
H. RESCUE / EVACUATION
• In a phased evacuation, when there is sufficient time between the official evacuation order
and the onset of destructive eruption, one may assume that each family possessing its own
vehicle or boat will look after itself and any neighbors for whom it has space and has made a
specific commitment. All other evacuees will be collected by public transport from pre-
arrange pick-up points. All private and public vehicle drivers will be briefed on which escape
roads to use and when to leave. The public transport will continue to make return trips as
long as roads remain open or until all evacuees and as much property as possible have been
removed. In the event of an unexpectedly rapid escalation of destructive activity, transport
will become increasingly difficult to control (due to attempts of people to scramble on to the
nearest available truck or bus), and traffic movement along the escape routes out of urban
areas may become impossible because of the large number of people leaving on foot. In this
case, the plan will have to be abandoned in favor of a "crash" plan allowing any vehicles
returning to the hazard zone to collect fleeing pedestrians at ad hoc pick up and turning
points (preferably under police or civil defense control) along the escape route.
• During or after an evacuation, some people known to be living or working in a hazard zone
may fail to appear at any of the safe transit points or in a refuge zone and it may be
necessary to organize searches for them. There may also be people isolated in areas which
are not exposed to any danger but to which the access routes are blocked by pyroclastic
flows, mudflows, or lava flows. There may be need for aerial and/or marine reconnaissance
missions as soon as conditions are favorable, for food supply or rescue. It will be necessary to
plan what equipment will be available and how such missions will be carried out.
• How to prepare
 Be prepared either to shelter or to evacuate.

 Develop an evacuation plan and a sheltering plan for yourself, your family, and others in
your household.
 Review the plans and make sure that everyone understands them. If you haven’t already
done so, put together an emergency supply kit. Supplies should include the following:
Flashlight and extra batteries, First aid kit and manual, Emergency food and water, Manual
(nonelectric) can opener, Essential medicines, Sturdy shoes, Respiratory (breathing)
protection, Eye protection (goggles), Battery-powered radio
• If you are told to evacuate
Follow authorities’ instructions if they tell you to leave the area. Though it may seem safe to stay
at home and wait out an eruption, doing so could be very dangerous. Volcanoes spew hot,
dangerous gases, ash, lava, and rock that are powerfully destructive.
• Preparing to evacuate
 Tune in the radio or television for volcano updates.

 Listen for disaster sirens and warning signals.
 Review your emergency plan and gather your emergency supplies. Be sure to pack
at least a 1-week supply of prescription medications.
 Prepare an emergency kit for your vehicle with food, flares, booster cables, maps,
tools, a first aid kit, a fire extinguisher, sleeping bags, a flashlight, batteries, etc.
 Fill your vehicle’s gas tank.
 If no vehicle is available, make arrangements with friends or family for
transportation, or follow authorities’ instructions on where to obtain transportation.
 Place vehicles under cover, if at all possible.
 Put livestock in an enclosed area. Plan ahead to take pets with you, but be aware
that many emergency shelters cannot accept animals.
 Fill your clean water containers.
 Fill sinks and bathtubs with water as an extra supply for washing.
 Adjust the thermostat on refrigerators and freezers to the coolest possible
temperature. If the power goes out, food will stay cooler longer.
• As you evacuate
 Take only essential items with you, including at least a 1-week supply of
prescription medications.
 If you have time, turn off the gas, electricity, and water.
 Disconnect appliances to reduce the likelihood of electrical shock when power is
restored.
 Make sure your automobile’s emergency kit is ready.
 Follow designated evacuation routes—others may be blocked—and expect heavy
traffic and delays.
If you are told to take shelter where you are

 Keep listening to your radio or television until you are told all is safe or you are told
to evacuate. Local authorities may evacuate specific areas at greatest risk in your
community.
 Close and lock all windows and outside doors.
 Turn off all heating and air conditioning systems and fans.
 Close the fireplace damper.
 Organize your emergency supplies and make sure household members know where
the supplies are.
 Make sure the radio is working.
 Go to an interior room without windows that is above ground level.
 Bring your pets with you, and be sure to bring additional food and water supplies for
them.
I. SURVIVING VOLCANIC ACTIVITY / SURVIVAL TECHNIQUES

1. Before Volcanic Activity
• Learn about your community warning systems and emergency plans.
• Be prepared for the hazards that can accompany volcanoes:

-Mudflows and flash floods
-Landslides and rockfalls
-Earthquakes
-Ashfall and acid rain
-Tsunamis
• Make evacuation plans.
If you live in a known volcanic hazard area, plan a route out and have a backup route in
mind.
• Develop an emergency communication plan.
In case family members are separated from one another during a volcanic eruption (a real
possibility during the day when adults are at work and children are at school), have a plan
for getting back together.
• Ask an out-of-state relative or friend to serve as the "family contact," because
after a disaster, it's often easier to call long distance. Make sure everyone knows the
name, address, and phone number of the contact person.
• Have disaster supplies on hand:
-Flashlight and extra batteries
-First aid kit and manual
-Emergency food and water
-Non-electric can opener
-Essential medicines
-Dust mask
-Sturdy shoes
• Get a pair of goggles and a throw-away breathing mask for each member of the
household in case of ashfall.
• Lava is the centerpiece of the eruption. It is also the most destructive material the volcano
will produce during an eruption. It is composed of very hot mud that may instantly burn
down any material. Avoid contact with the lava.
• After the eruption, wait for volcanologists' advice on when you can safely get
back to your homes.
2. During Volcanic Activity
• Follow the evacuation order issued by authorities.
• Avoid areas downwind and river valleys downstream of the volcano.
• If caught indoors:
-Close all windows, doors, and dampers.
-Put all machinery inside a garage or barn.
-Bring animals and livestock into closed shelters.
• If trapped outdoors:
-Seek shelter indoors.
-If caught in a rockfall, roll into a ball to protect your head.
-If caught near a stream, be aware of mudflows. Move upslope, especially if you hear the
roar of a mudflow.
-Close all windows and doors to keep ash out. Seal up drafts. Do what you can to keep
ash out.
-Seek higher ground - flash floods, mud, and poisonous gasses will accumulate in low-
lying areas.
-Put on long pants, long-sleeved shirt, and hat.
-Wear a dust mask or wetted handkerchief to help filter ash.
• Protect yourself during ashfall:
-Wear long-sleeved shirts and long pants.
-Use goggles to protect your eyes.
-Use a dust mask or hold a damp cloth over your face to help breathing.
-Keep car or truck engines off.
• Stay out of the area defined as a restricted zone by government officials.
Effects of a volcanic eruption can be experienced many miles from a volcano. Mudflows
and flash flooding, wildland fires, and even deadly hot ashflow can reach you even if you
cannot see the volcano during an eruption. Avoid river valleys and low lying areas. Trying
to watch an erupting volcano up close is a deadly idea.
• If you see the water level of a stream begin to rise, quickly move to high
ground. If a mudflow is approaching or passes a bridge, stay away from the bridge.
• Listen to a battery-operated radio or television for the latest emergency
information.
3. After Volcanic Activity
• If possible, stay away from volcanic ashfall areas.
• When outside:
-Cover your mouth and nose. Volcanic ash can irritate your respiratory system.
-Wear goggles to protect your eyes.
-Keep skin covered to avoid irritation from contact with ash.
• Clear roofs of ashfall:
Ashfall is very heavy and can cause buildings to collapse. Exercise great caution when
working on a roof.
• Avoid driving in heavy ashfall.
Driving will stir up more ash that can clog engines and stall vehicles.
• If you have a respiratory ailment, avoid contact with any amount of ash. Stay
indoors until local health officials advise it is safe to go outside.
• Remember to help our neighbors who may require special assistance -- infants,
elderly people, and people with disabilities.
J. GENERAL PRINCIPLES DURING AN ASH FALL
• Keep ash out of buildings, machinery, vehicles, downspouts, water supplies, and
wastewater systems (for example, storm drains) as much as possible. The most
effective method to prevent ash-induced damage to machinery is to shut down, close off
or seal equipment until ash is removed from the immediate environment, but this may not
be practical in all cases, especially for critical facilities.
• Minimize exposure to airborne ash by using dust or filter masks (or a wet cloth,
for example a handkerchief) and minimizing travel.
• Coordinate clean-up activities with neighbors and community-wide operations
(learn the clean-up guidelines and instructions of your local community and leaders).
• Stay informed of volcanic activity in your area, especially during a period of unrest, and
know what to expect, including the type of eruptions that can occur and how much
warning is possible for ash fall in your area once an explosive eruption occurs. Learn
about evacuation procedures, if any, in your area.
• Prepare for an emergency by having critical provisions and supplies needed to
support your family, business, or community for at least several days. For
example, food, water, medicine, and shelter, dust masks and other personal protection
equipment, spare filters and parts for machinery and vehicles.
• Develop and test a contingency plan that can be used in a variety of
emergencies, but not necessarily focused on volcanoes.
• Provide information frequently and directly to the public about volcanic ash,
including instructions for participating in clean-up operations.
K. NURSING RESPONSIBILITIES BEFORE AN IMPENDING VOLCANIC ERUPTION
Goal of Care:
(1) Establish connections with community experts and local emergency responders such
as counseling agencies, hospital personnel, law enforcement officials, fire departments,
media outlets, etc. and maintain corresponding contact information.
(2) Inform and educate people on the attitude and management of such disaster.
Basic Principles in planning for a Disaster
• N- ursing Plans should be integrated and coordinated
• U- pdate physical and Psychological preaparedness
• R- esponsible for Organizing, Teaching and Supervision
• S- timulate Community Participation
• E- xercise Competence
Roles and Responsibilities of a Nurse during the disaster
• D- isseminate information on the prevention and control of

environmental hazards
• I- nterpret health laws and regulations that are protocol during the
disaster
• S- erve the best of the MOST
• A- ccepts directions and take orders from an organized authority
• S- erve people but don’t forget about yourself
• T- each the meaning of warning signals
• E- xercise leadership
• R- efer to appropriate agencies

Equipment and supply list for establishing communication during the disaster
• Cell phones and extra batteries
• Portable battery-powered radio with extra batteries
• Contact information — home and cell phone numbers, addresses, etc.
o Community experts — counseling agencies, hospital personnel, etc.
o Emergency responders — law enforcement officials, fire departments, etc.
o Media outlets
o District-level crisis response team members
Miscellaneous
• First aid supplies
• Flashlights with extra batteries
• Pens, pencils, notepads
Planning to Meet the Disaster Health Needs and Problems

• Provide immediate and appropriate treatment
• Proper handling and positioning
• Immediate evacuation to nearest medical facility
• Provide psychological support
Problem: DEATH
• Objectives:
Provide care of the dead
Provide supportive care to the bereaved family
Proper identification and disposal
Notification of relatives
Spiritual blessing to the dead
Proper mark of the grave’s site must be done
Problem: EPIDEMICs
• Interventions:
Initiate preventive measures (isolation, immunization, environmental sanitation)
Treatment of cases
Record and report known cases to proper authorities
Accomplishment of terminal
Disinfections
L. WHAT IS LAHAR?
Lava is the centerpiece of the eruption. It is also the most destructive material the
volcano will produce during an eruption. It is composed of very hot mud that may instantly
burn down any material.

ABC Notes - Fire Earthquake Typhoon Volcanic Eruption

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ABC Notes - Fire Earthquake Typhoon Volcanic Eruption

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Marijune L.

Tiamzon ACUTE BIOLOGIC CRISIS 1

II. DISASTER NURSING MANAGEMENT

Fire caused by human/machine errors are considered as manmade fires, e.g.

C. Causal/ Contributing factors

IV. WHAT TO DO BEFORE A FIRE

a. Escaping the Fire

• Never use gasoline, benzine, naptha, or similar flammable liquids indoors.

• Be careful when using alternative heating sources.

d. Matches and Smoking

• Have the electrical wiring in your residence checked by an electrician.

V. WHAT TO DO DURING A FIRE

If your clothes catch on fire, you should:

To escape a fire, you should:

Hot Door Cool Door

VI. WHAT TO DO AFTER A FIRE

VII. FIRE DISASTER

Specific aspects of a fire disaster, briefly summarized as follows:

a. Thermal agent disaster, burn disaster

VIII. THE PLAN FOR BURN DISASTER

b. Specific and rapid health assistance response on site

The behaviour of the rescuers in immediate care can be summarized as follows:

ii. Medical first aid.

1. Immediate triage of all victims 6. Analgesic therapy

iii. Organized relief.

1. Burn casualty triage

A second level of triage may be performed in a decentralized, safer area, where

The planning of burn disaster management must include the following:

d. Selective evacuation of casualties from the disaster area

I. Quality of triage already done (and continuing) on the spot;

IX. BURN VICTIMS

Division and classification of burns

Burns are thus divided into the following three categories:

There is another classification of burns:

Treatment of burn patients in the Emergency Department

1. Checking of respiratory passages

3. Record of vital signs

4. Record of the patient’s case-history (information from the patient directly or

5. Relief of pain, and administration of painkillers or intravenous morphine1,27

6. Prevention of shock and anti-shock therapy

7. Placement of a urocyst catheter.

8. Placement of a Levin rhinogastric tube

9. Quantitative evaluation of the burned surface

10.Qualitative evaluation of the burned surface

13.Check of patient’s psychological state

2. Types of Earthquake and Their Causes

Source: http://earthquakecauses.com/, http://www.britannica.com/

ii. Long Period Earthquake

ii. Richter Scale

iii. Mercalli Intensity Scale

4. Signs of Earthquake Occurrence

iii. Seismo-electromagnetic precursor

ii. Human precursor

b. Landslides and Avalanches

Tidal waves are harmless unless accompanied by storm conditions or on unusual

c. Internal Waves/ Underwater Waves

d. Storm Waves/ Sea Surges

• Turn on your radio or TV to hear if there is a tsunami warning

- Tsunami Tips for Boaters

- Family Disaster Plan

- What Should Go In a Family Disaster Kit

ii. Building Safety after a Tsunami Strikes