Measuring earth resistance
5 Avoiding hazards
E. Hering, Dresden (Germany)
Earth resistance is a key parameter in determining the efficiency of earthing
systems. In this article we look at the measurement of earth resistance.
1 A few fundamentals
1.1 Earth resistance and
earth impedance
The efficiency of an earthing system is princi-
pally determined by its impedance ZE. As can
be seen from figure ➊, the earth impedance
can be expressed as in equation (1):
Z E = RE2 + X E2 (1)
RE = RD + RM + RC (2)
As shown in equation (2), the earth resistance
RE is the sum of the dissipation resistance RD,
the resistance of the metal conductor that ser-
ves as the earth electrode RM and the resistance
of the earthing conductor RC, which runs be-
tween the main earthing busbar and the earth
electrode. The dissipation resistance RD is the
resistance between the earth electrode and the
surrounding soil. The reactance of the earthing
system XE can be expressed as:
UM
RE = (3)
I the specifications in IEC 61557-1:2007 [4]. In
with
XM reactance of the metallic earth electrode
XC reactance of the earthing conductor.
For AC supply current the reactance of the earth-
ing conductor is only significant in the case of
extended horizontal earthing strips or long earth
rods. In all other cases, the difference between
earth impedance and earth resistance is so
small that frequently no distinction is made be-
tween these two quantities. The relevant indus-
trial standards also treat earth impedance and
earth resistance as identical.
As earthing measurements are carried out using
an AC supply, it is actually the earth impedan-
ce that is measured. If the measurement fre-
quency is greater than 50 Hz, a slightly larger
earth impedance is displayed. However, over-
estimating the earth impedance is not a pro-
blem, as it errs on the side of safety.
1.2 Requirements for
earthing measurements
Earthing measurements are necessary when-
ever compliance with a specified earth resis-
tance or a particular earth impedance is requi-
red, as is the case in the following earthing sys-
tems:
• Protective earth for TT and IT earthing sys-
tems in low-voltage installations ([1], sec-
tions 411.5 and 411.6; [2]);
• Joint earthing system for high-voltage pro-
tective earthing and functional earthing in
transformer substations;
• Earthing system for the neutral earthing reac-
tor of a medium-voltage distribution system.
In the case of lightning protection systems,
earthing measurements must be made even
when there is no requirement to comply with a
specific value. The results of repeat tests must
be compared with those of earlier measure-
ments.
1.3 Standards for
measuring instruments
The standards contain the requirements that
have to be met by the manufacturers of mea-
suring equipment. For users, these standards
serve only informational purposes.
In low-voltage systems earthing measurements
must be made using equipment that complies
with the VDE 0413 standards (VDE: Verband
der Elektrotechnik Elektronik Informationstech-
nik e.V./ engl.: Association for Electrical, Elect-
ronic & Information Technologies) (see [3],
sec. 61.1). All equipment must comply with
addition, equipment must also comply with the
following standards depending on the type of
device or measuring method for which it is used:
• IEC 61557-5:2007 Equipment for measu-
ring resistance to earth [5]
• IEC 61557-6:2007 Equipment for testing,
measuring or monitoring protective measures
involving residual current devices [6]
• IEC 61557-10:2007 Combined measuring
equipment [7].
Equipment manufactured in accordance with
earlier editions of the VDE 0413 series of stan-
dards can of course also be used.
1.4 Selecting the right
measuring equipment
It is not enough for users to simply follow the
(frequently unclear) instructions provided by
the manufacturer, they need to be aware of and
understand the measuring method they want
to apply. Measuring instruments that do not
make it clear which measuring method is being
applied should not be used.
Before purchasing equipment, users should re-
quest technical descriptions of the devices of in-
terest as well as their performance data and, if
possible, instruction manuals, and should as-
sess the equipment on the basis of this docu-
mentation.
1.
and measuring errors
The process of measurement and any accom-
panying procedures (e.g. breaking standard
connections and making non-standard con-
nections) must not pose a safety hazard ([3],
sec. 61.1.3). The magnitude of the test volta-
ge or the test current must be limited (see secti-
ons 3.1 and 4.1). Before breaking a connecti-
on that is required for electric shock prevention,
the entire power installation must be discon-
nected from the supply and locked out to pre-
vent it being switched on again.
Any measurement that involves breaking con-
nections (e.g. opening the inspection joint of a
lightning protection system) must never be car-
ried out during a storm or whenever a storm
could be expected. Failure to comply could be
hazardous, particularly for the person perfor-
ming the operation. After the measurement has
been completed, any connections that were
broken must be properly restored.
If the test current is split so that part of it runs
parallel to the earth electrode being measured,
the earth resistance displayed by the meter will
be too small. The person conducting the mea-
surement must therefore be aware of everything
that is connected to the earth electrode under
test [8]. Measurements must only be carried
out by competent persons.
1.6 Taking the effects of
weather into account
The specific resistance of soil decreases with in-
creasing temperature and increasing soil mois-
ture levels. Whereas these effects are of minor
consequence for foundation earth electrodes in
buildings with a basement or for long (vertical)
rod electrodes, they have to be taken into ac-
count in the case of horizontal surface earth
electrodes.
Measurements made during cold, dry weather
remain unaffected, but measurement data re-
corded in warm weather or after a rain shower
have to be adjusted upward.
ZE
XM XC
XE
ϕ
RD RM RC
RE
➊ Vector diagram of impedance in an
earthing system
Rd dissipation resistance; RE resistance of
the earthing system (earth resistance);
RM resistance of the metal conductor that
acts as the earth electrode; RC resistance of
the earthing conductor (e.g. connection lug,
cable); XE reactance of the earthing system;
XM reactance of the metal conductor that
acts as the earth electrode; XC reactance of
the earthing conductor; ZE earth impedance;
ϕ impedance angle.
1
1.7 Assessing
measurement results
Earth resistance meters are not error free. Mea-
surement errors can occur even if the conditi-
ons specified in the relevant standards and in-
strument instruction manuals are complied
with and even in the absence of interference ef-
fects. The magnitude of an instrument’s opera-
ting error is listed on its technical specification
sheet or in its instruction manual. In those me-
thods of measuring earth resistance that draw
current directly from the power source (see
sections 2.4 and 4), additional measurement
uncertainty can be caused by random current
and voltage fluctuations in the supply during
the measurement.
Examples of possible operator errors include:
• failure to take account of connections detri-
mental to the measurement process
• connecting the instrument leads incorrectly
or selecting the wrong setting on the selector
switch of the instrument
• inserting the auxiliary earth electrode or
probe in the wrong location
• meter reading errors
• failure to implement measures to reduce sys-
tematic measurement errors.
Results from first-time measurements should
be compared with the project specifications, re-
sults of repeat tests should be compared with
those of earlier measurements. If significant dif-
ferences are apparent, the possible causes of
the discrepancy should be determined. The in-
fluence of weather on the measurement results
and how this can be taken into account is dis-
cussed in section 1.6.
1.8 Test report
Measuring earth resistance is only one of seve-
ral tests that have to be performed on earthing
systems [9]. In general, the results from all the
tests are contained in a single test report. The
measurements performed and any accompany-
ing action that is taken must be described pre-
cisely so that they can be reproduced at a later
date. Information that must be provided inclu-
des:
• the measurement method used
• the type of measuring instrument used
• the positions of any selector switches, if
relevant
• details of any connections that were broken
or made for the purposes of the measure-
ment.
The results of the measurement must be stated
clearly and unambiguously. This also applies to
any weather-related adjustments of the results
that may have been made.
The test report is required by
• [3], section 61.1.6 concerning earthing sys-
tems in low-voltage networks
• [10], annex E, section E.7.2.5 concerning
lightning protection systems
• both standards apply if the earthing system
serves both purposes.
Overview of measurement
2 methods for RE
2.1 Principles
There is a wide degree of variation in the inter-
nal circuitry of the measuring instruments used
and the layout and arrangement of the external
measuring circuits. However, a common featu-
re of all the methods is that they determine the
earth impedance by measuring the voltage
across the earthing system for a known test cur-
rent. Leads that carry the test current outside of
the instrument are shown in red in the dia-
grams.
Known measurement methods are listed in
table ➊. The underlying circuit principles are
shown in figures À to Õ. The unusually long
names given here to the various methods ensu-
re that the methods can be distinguished unam-
biguously.
Although there are clear differences between
the individual measurement methods, no one
particular method can be said to be ideal. Each
method has its own particular disadvantages
such as limited applicability, electric shock ha-
zard, larger measurement errors or requiring
greater time and effort to complete. The vario-
us advantages and disadvantages of the indivi-
dual measurement techniques are described in
more detail in sections 3 and 4. All of the me-
thods discussed must only be carried out by
competent persons exercising due care and at-
tention.
In those methods that do not draw current
directly from the supply (columns  1 to 6 in
table  ➊), the measurement frequency used
will be at least 5 Hz above or below the fre-
quencies 16.7 Hz, 50 Hz and integer multi-
ples thereof. This prevents interference from
supply frequency currents (‘interference cur-
rents’) that can falsify measurement results.
In those methods that do draw current directly
from the supply (columns 7 to 9 in table ➊),
it is of course essential that the supply frequen-
cy and measuring frequency are identical. This
means that the interference effects mentioned
above cannot be ruled out when such methods
are used. However, these methods are simpler
to perform and offer advantages in terms of their
applicability.

Table ➊ Overview of earth resistance measuring methods

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Designation based on internal circuitry
Balanced-bridge methods Current-voltage methods
Distinction based on whether method draws current directly from supplyv)
yes no
Distinction based on use of probe and/or auxiliary electrodew)
probe and probe, no no probe, no probe and probe, no no probe, no probe PEN or neutral no probex)
auxiliary auxiliary auxiliary auxiliary auxiliary auxiliary conductor in-
electrode electrode electrodex) electrode electrode electrodex), y) stead of probe
(‘stakeless
method’)
Figure
2 3b)z) 3c) 3a) 3b) 3c) 4a) 4b) 4c)
Detailed description in section
2.2 3.2 3.3 3.4 4.3 4.4 4.5
Detailed schematic of measurement method
5 6 7 11 12 13
v) For current-voltage techniques, this distiction is included in the method name.
w) All methods include this distinction as part of the method name.
x) Measures resistance of conductor loop via earth return path.
y) An earth resistance meter does not need to be inserted into the earthing conductor if a clamp-on resistance meter is placed around the earthing
conductor.
z) In the case of balance-bridge methods, figure only applies to the exterior circuit.

2
 L1 L1
L2 L2
L3 L3
Earth resistance meter
UM PEN PEN
RE = –––
I

Earth resistance meter REC REC REC

∼ ∼ ∼
PSAC PSAC PSAC
tr = I2 : I1 = 0.1; 1; 10; 100
I UM I UM I UM
I1 A V A V A V
I2 R2
E ES S H E ES S H E ES S H
CT
U2 N

REC UM
∼ RE RF RE RE = ––– RF RE RE < Rloop
REC I
PSAC UM
Rloop = –––
U1 I
I1 Probe
I3 = 0 Probe Functional Earth Functional Earth
I3 = 0 I1 Earth Auxiliary earth electrode earth electrode
E electrode earth electrode electrode
ES S H electrode
a) b) c)

RE
à Current-voltage methods that do not draw current directly from the power supply
a) with probe and auxiliary electrode; b) with probe, but without an auxiliary electrode;
c) no probe, no auxiliary electrode (measures resistance of conductor loop via earth return path).
Earth Auxiliary I test current; Rloop loop resistance; UM test voltage.
electrode Probe earth
electrode

À The balanced-bridge method

REC rectifier; I1 test (or measuring) current; L1
I2 Reference current; I3 current whose mag- L2
L3
nitude is zero when bridge is balanced;
PEN
C capacitor; N null detector; RE earth resis- UM or N
tance being measured; R2 reference resis- RE = ––– UM UM
I RE = ––– RE = –––
tance; CT current transformer; U1 Voltage Earth I I
across earth electrode under test; U2 refe- resistance
rence voltage; tr transformation ratio of the meter
CT; PSAC AC power supply.
L L L

2.2 The balanced-bridge method UM

The balanced-bridge method as described by
Behrend is one of the techniques for measuring
earth resistance that does not involve drawing U0
current directly from supply. Earth resistance UM I UM I UM I
meters based on this method are no longer ma- V A V A V A
nufactured, as other more user-friendly instru-
ments have now been developed for the same S E S E S E
sorts of applications. These new meters use the
so-called current-voltage method, which also
UE
does not involve current being drawn from the
RF RE RF RE RF RE
supply. Nevertheless the balanced-bridge me-
thod is described here because it is of funda-
mental importance to the development of earth
resistance measurement techniques and be- Probe Earth Functional Earth Functional Earth
cause meters based on this method are still in Functional electrode earth electrode earth electrode
use. earth electrode electrode
electrode U0 – UM
The measurement circuit for the balanced- Rloop < ––––––––
a) b) c) I
bridge method is shown in figure À. The me- RE < Rloop
thod involves driving an auxiliary earth elec- UE < U0 – UM
trode1) and a probe2) temporarily into the soil.
When the earth meter is in its balanced state,
there is no current flowing in the probe. The re- Õ Current-voltage methods that draw current directly from the power supply
sistance to earth of the probe has therefore no a) with probe; b) using PEN conductor or neutral conductor instead of probe;
influence on the measurement result; it simply c) no probe (measures resistance of conductor loop via earth return path);
lowers measurement sensitivity. Information on U0 conductor-to-earth voltage
the alignment and separation of the auxiliary

3
earth electrode and the probe is provided in constant-current generator, the earth resistance
section 3. can be displayed directly on the voltage meter.
The AC power source PSAC is located between When the balanced-bridge method was first de- UM
RE = –––
the connection point for the earth electrode un- veloped, the only exterior circuit known was I
that shown in figures À and Ãa). It was the-
Earth resistance meter
der test (socket  E) and that for the auxiliary
earth electrode (socket H). The AC source is refore usual to consider the circuitry inside the
connected in series with the primary winding of meter and the exterior circuit as a single entity. REC
∼
a current transformer CT. Connected to the se- However, as indicated in columns 2 and 3 in
condary winding of the current transformer is a table À, the same meter can be used for mea- PSAC
variable voltage divider. The setting chosen for surements with the exterior circuits shown in fi- I UM
the left part of the divider R2 (‘reference resis- gures Ãb) and Ãc). Equally, the earth resis- A V
tance’) is displayed on the scale on the voltage tance meters used for the current-voltage me-
divider’s control unit. A null detector N with a thods that do not draw current directly from the E ES S H Auxiliary
rectifier REC in series is located between the va- supply can be used like the meters designed Earth earth
riable tap point of the voltage divider and the with the balanced-bridge circuit. The internal electrode Probe electrode
connection point for the probe (socket S). The circuits can therefore be freely combined with
rectifier is driven by the AC power source. A ca- the exterior circuits.
pacitor C prevents any DC current from flowing RE
across the probe. One end of the voltage divider 2.4 Measurement methods with
is connected to the earth electrode being mea- current from the supply
sured via the instrument sockets ES and E. The These methods can only be used in networks
transformation ratio tr of the current transfor- with a direct connection to earth. As shown in 0.2 s 0.2 s
mer can be switched to achieve the required figure  Õ, the measurement involves drawing s
measurement range. the test current from the phase conductor of the
RE'
When balanced, the current I3 in the probe is supply system. The meters used in this type of approximately
zero. The same current I1 therefore flows in the measurement are primarily designed for testing flat section
auxiliary earth electrode and in the earth elec- electrical safety systems involving residual cur-
trode under test. Additionally, the voltages U2

RE'1

RE'2
rent devices. The meters are generally con-

(‘reference voltage’) and U1 are of the same
size. The voltage U1 corresponds to the earth
electrode voltage that drives the test current I1
in the earth resistance RE of the test object E,
whereas U2 is the voltage drop that maintains
the current I2 (‘reference current’) in the refe-
rence resistor R2. The potential drops obey
Ohm’s law as expressed by the equations
U1 = I1 · RE and U2 = I2 · R2. If the transforma-
tion ratio of the current transformer tr = 1:1,
then I2 = I1 and the value of the earth resis-
tance RE is equal to the selected reference re-
sistance R2. The earth resistance can therefore
be read off the voltage divider scale mentioned
above. If another transformation ratio is used,
this must be multiplied by the value of the re-
ference resistance R2, i. e. RE = tr · R2.
2.3 Other measurement methods
without supply current
Another group of methods for measuring earth
resistance that do not draw current directly
from the supply are the so-called current-volta-
ge techniques illustrated in figure Ã. The earth
resistance RE is determined from the voltage
UM that appears across the earth electrode and
across the sockets ES and S, and the measu-
red current I.
UM
RE = (4)
I
Figure à simply illustrates the principle of the
measurement and shows only a small part of
the complex circuitry within the earth resis-
tance meter. Usually, the voltage UM and cur-
rent I are not shown separately and the meter
only displays a digital reading of the earth re-
sistance RE. If the AC supply source PSAC is a
nected to the supply via a flexible power lead
and an earthed safety plug.
Current-voltage method that
3 draws no supply current
3.1 Earth resistance meters
The four connection sockets are labelled as
shown in figure Œ. Sockets for the supply
current path and for current measurement:
• E – Earth electrode (test object)
• H – Auxiliary earth electrode1)
Sockets for the voltage measurement path:
• ES – Earth electrode (or the probe located
close to the earth electrode when measuring
the soil resistivity)
• S – Probe2)
Normally when measuring the resistance to
earth, the sockets E and ES are connected to
one another via a removable link or via a con-
tact strip within the meter’s selector switch as
this ensures that the earth electrode under test
is connected to both the current and voltage
measurement paths. If, in addition, a jumper is
placed between sockets H and S, the earth re-
sistance meter can be used as a simple ohm-
meter.
The frequency of the AC supply PSAC is at
least 5  Hz above or below the frequencies
16.7 Hz and 50 Hz and any integer multiples
thereof. Typically, the supply frequency is in the
range 41–140 Hz, though in some meters a
higher frequency is used. Some earth resistance
meters also offer the option of selecting the fre-
quency. A number of meters with automatic fre-
quency control (AFC) automatically switch to
that frequency offering the lowest level of inter-
ference.
RE'
Distance
ΠCurrent-voltage methods that do not
draw current directly from the power sup-
ply and that use a probe and an auxiliary
earth electrode
I test current; RE earth resistance being
measured; RE´ measured earth resistance;
UM test voltage
To protect against electric shocks, the open-cir-
cuit test voltage generated by the meter must
not exceed 50 V (r.m.s.) and 70 V (peak). In
the case of earth resistance meters used on
agricultural sites, these values must be halved.
Alternatively, the short-circuit current must not
exceed 3.5 mA r.m.s. and a peak value of
5  mA (see [5], sec. 4.5). If neither of these
conditions are met, the meter must switch off
automatically.
The meter is powered either by a battery, a
group of primary cells or a hand-driven genera-
tor, though the latter method is now rare. The
meter must indicate whether the end-point vol-
tage of the power supply is sufficient to main-
tain proper instrument function (see [4],
sec. 4.3).
When earth resistance is measured by a me-
thod that does not involve current being drawn
directly from the supply, the earth resistance RE
is computed as the quotient of the measured
voltage UM that appears across the earth elect-
rode (and across the meter sockets ES and S)
and the measured current I (that flows through
sockets E and H). Figure Œ only indicates the
basic principle of the complex circuitry within

4
the meter. Usually, the voltage UM and current
I are not shown separately and the meter only
displays a digital reading of the earth resistance
RE. If the AC supply source is a constant-cur-
rent generator, there is no need to measure the
current and calculate the quotient. In this case
a voltage meter can be calibrated to display the
earth resistance directly.
Most meters are equipped with a switch for se-
lecting the type of measuring circuit, the mea-
surement frequency and/or the measurement
range, and for switching the power on and off.
Most meters also have a button that is used to
initiate measurement. The earth resistance me-
ter must also indicate that the resistance of
the auxiliary earth electrode and the probe are
within the specified limits (see [5], sec. 4.4).
However, it is not advisable to rely too heavily
on a warning signal, because by the time a
warning signal has been issued, the limit may
have been exceeded by a significant amount.
User-friendly devices offer additional functions
such as:
• warning signal or automatic cut-out if too
great an interference voltage is detected
• warning signal or disabling of measurement
function if test current is too small
• display of test current (for monitoring purpo-
ses only when measurements made with a
constant-current generator)
• automatic measurement range selection
• display hold function
• data storage for transmitting or printing mea-
surement results.
3.2 Methods using a probe and an
auxiliary earth electrode
3.2.1 Principle
As shown in figure Œ, the earth electrode un-
der test, an auxiliary earth electrode and the
probe are connected to the earth resistance me-
ter. The test current I flows through the earth
electrode, the soil and the auxiliary earth elect-
rode. The voltage UM that appears across the
earth resistance RE also appears across the me-
ter sockets ES and S. The earth resistance is
displayed as the value of UM divided by I.
3.2.2 Earth electrode (test object)
If socket E is connected to the beginning of the
earthing conductor (at the main earthing termi-
nal), the earthing conductor will be included in
the measurement of the earth resistance. If, on
the other hand, socket E is connected directly
to the earth electrode, the resistance of the eart-
hing conductor will not be included in the mea-
surement. The difference, however, is usually
slight.
The resistance of the measuring leads will be in-
cluded in the measurement. This will result in
an overestimation of the earth resistance and
thus yield a value that errs on the side of safety.
To reduce the magnitude of the error, it is ex-
pedient to position the earth resistance meter
close to the point of connection and to use a
short measuring lead. The resistance of the
measuring lead can of course be measured and
this value subtracted from the value displayed
by the earth resistance meter. If the effect of the
measuring lead’s resistance is to be avoided at
all costs, the jumper linking sockets E and the
ES must be removed and each socket con-
nected to the earthing system by its own mea-
suring lead.
The earth electrode under test must not be con-
nected to any other earth electrodes as this
would falsify the result of the measurement. In
the TN earthing systems found in consumer in-
stallations, the earthing conductor must be dis-
connected from the main earthing busbar as the
latter is connected to the PEN conductor of the
supply network. This is not required in TT sys-
tems as the main earthing busbar is not con-
nected to the neutral conductor of the power
supply network. If, nevertheless, the earthing
conductor is disconnected, the entire system
must be de-energized beforehand and locked
out to prevent it being switched on again.
3.2.3 Auxiliary electrode1)
The auxiliary earth electrode should be positio-
ned as far away as possible from the earth elect-
rode under test, so as to minimize the degree of
overlap between the potential gradient areas
(‘spheres of influence’) surrounding the two
electrodes. The larger the electrodes, the farther
apart they must be. As a rough guide, the mi-
nimum distance apart can be taken to be three
times the depth of a rod earth electrode or the
average diameter of a ring earth electrode. The
figure of 40 m that is found in the documenta-
tion provided by some manufacturers can only
be considered to be a rough average value.
Whether the chosen distance is appropriate will
be shown when the correct alignment and po-
sitioning of the electrodes is carried out (see
sec. 3.2.4).
The greater the resistivity of the soil, the longer
the auxiliary electrode needs to be and the dee-
per it needs to be driven into the ground. If the
resistance of the auxiliary earth electrode is too
large, measurement errors can arise, because,
for example, the constant current normally ge-
nerated by the AC supply cannot then flow. In
such cases, it can prove useful to saturate the
area of ground being used for the measurement
with water.
3.2.4 Probe2)
As the internal resistance of the voltage measu-
rement path is very large, the resistance of the
probe and therefore the size of the probe is of
minor importance. The preferred location of the
probe is on the straight line between the earth
electrode and the auxiliary earth electrode at a
position where it has minimum interaction with
the spheres of influence of the two electrodes
(see diagram in figure Œ).
If one were to carry out a series of measure-
ments with different distances between the
earth electrode and the probe the results would
form a curve whose ends are relatively steep
while the intermediate section of the curve is
flatter. If the distance between the earth elect-
rode and the auxiliary electrode is large enough,
the curve will have an approximately horizontal
central section in which the measured resis-
tance to earth is essentially independent of
electrode separation.
This central section must be determined by at
least three measurements. The midpoint of the
central section is not midway between the earth
electrode and the auxiliary earth electrode, but
lies closer to the auxiliary earth electrode as the
spatial extent of the spheres of influence asso-
ciated with the two earth electrodes differ. In
general, the optimum separation between the
earth electrode and the probe is about two
thirds of the distance between the earth elec-
trode and the auxiliary earth electrode3).
3.2.5 Limitations of method
If no portion of the resistance vs. distance cur-
ve is approximately horizontal, then the dis-
tance between the earth electrode under test
and the auxiliary earth electrode is too small.
If the curve exhibits an unusual profile, buried
metal installations (e. g. water pipes) are very
probably influencing the measurement. In
such conditions it is not possible to achieve
usable results from the measurement. Measu-
rement may be possible if the electrodes can
be laid out perpendicular to their original di-
rection or perpendicular to the longitudinal
axis of the buried metal installation or so that
they run away from and not above the buried
metal installation.
It is also not possible to achieve reliable results
if the earth electrode under test is surrounded
by other earth electrodes, for example in areas
with a high density of buildings. Furthermore
measurement is impossible whenever the au-
xiliary earth electrode and the probe cannot
be positioned in the right locations. In all such
cases, another measurement technique must
be selected.
3.3 Method using a probe but no
auxiliary earth electrode
3.3.1 Principle
As shown in figure œ, the functional earth of
the supply network acts as a replacement for
the auxiliary earth electrode. It is extremely
1) In some publications the auxiliary electrode is
also referred to as the outer test electrode, or cur-
rent test stake.
2) In some publications the probe is also referred to
as the inner test electrode, or voltage test stake.
3) Some manufacturers state that the distance be-
tween the earth electrode and the probe should
be half the distance between the earth electrode
and the auxiliary earth electrode. That is incorrect.
Other companies recommend placing the probe at
a distance from the earth electrode that is always
62 % of the separation between the earth and
the auxiliary earth electrode. This method is thus
sometimes referred to as the 62 % method. The
62 % mark generally gives a good approximation
of the correct location. But the optimum position
must always be determined by moving the probe
to neighbouring positions.
5
important to ensure that the connection is not
accidentally made to one of the phase con-
ductors. L1 L1
L2 L2
In a TN system, the H socket of the meter has L3 L3
to be connected (for instance, via the earthing PEN PEN
contact of a plug) to the protective earth (PE) PEN PEN
conductor, which itself has been branched off
MEB PE N MEB PE N
the PEN conductor. The meter socket E is con-
nected to the earthing conductor, which has to Earth resistance meter Earth resistance meter
be disconnected from the main earthing busbar.
Supply networks configured with the TT earth- REC REC
ing system have a neutral conductor instead of ∼ ∼
the PEN conductor. This has to be treated as a PSAC PSAC
live conductor even though it is connected to a I I
UM UM
functional earth. Applying this method of mea-
A V A V
suring earth resistance to a TT system would
therefore involve connecting the earth resis-
tance meter to the neutral conductor. The me- E ES S H E ES S H
thod is therefore not approved for use with TT
systems.
EC EC
3.3.2 Problems in the TN system UM
Rloop < RE
The method does not function in a TN system RF RE RE = ––– RF RE UM
I Rloop = –––
if the electrode being measured is strongly cou- I
pled or if it is connected via a metal conductor
to another earth electrode that itself is con- Functional Earth Probe Functional Earth
nected to the PEN conductor. This would result earth electrode earth electrode
electrode electrode
in the test current flowing in the wrong path so
that the display on the earth resistance meter
would be smaller than the true value of the re- œ Current-voltage methods that do not – Current-voltage methods that do not
sistance to earth. This is discussed in more de- draw current directly from the power sup- draw current directly from the power
tail in section 3.4.2. ply and that use a probe but no auxiliary supply and that use neither a probe nor
earth electrode an auxiliary earth electrode (resistance
3.4 Method without a probe and EC earthing conductor; MEB main earthing of conductor loop via earth return path)
an auxiliary earth electrode busbar; RB resistance to earth of the functio- Rloop loop resistance.
(‘stakeless method’) nal earth electrode

3.4.1 Principle
This method (illustrated in figure –) is an
earth-loop resistance measurement because it
involves measuring the resistance of a con-
ductor loop via an earth return path. The S and
H sockets of the earth resistance meter are con-
nected together. The advantage of this method
is that neither an auxiliary earth electrode nor a
probe need to be used.
In a TN system the earthing conductor (EC) is
disconnected from the main earthing busbar
(MEB) and the earth resistance meter is inser-
ted between them. This method is not suitable
for measurements on a consumer installations
with a TT earthing system.
The resistance measurement displayed on the
meter includes the resistance to earth of the
functional earth and the resistance of the
PEN conductor. If they were accurately known,
these values could be subtracted from the re-
sistance displayed on the meter. However, they
are difficult to determine, because the functio-
nal earth in a TN system comprises not only the
functional earth electrode shown in figure –,
it is also connected to numerous earths in the
consumer installations of neighbouring buil-
dings. The error that is introduced by measu-
ring these additional resistances results in an
overestimation of the earth resistance, yielding
a value that errs on the side of safety.
3.4.2 Problems in TN systems
The problem mentioned earlier in secton 3.3.2
can also arise when measuring earth resistance
without an auxiliary earth electrode and without
a probe. Some examples of configurations whe-
re problems can arise are shown in figure —.
Temporary remedial measures include:
• Disconnecting the metal connection between
the earth electrodes as shown in figure —b).
• Disconnecting the second earth electrode
from the PEN conductor, if permitted by the
owner. The residual influence of the second
earth electrode on the earth resistance mea-
surement is not a disadvantage, as it acts to
improve the performance of the first earth
electrode.
More details can be found in reference [8].
3.5 Stakeless methods (no probe,
no auxiliary earth electrode)
using a clamp-on ohmmeter
This is a variation on the measurement method
described in section 3.4. This technique differs
from that shown in figure – in that instead of
inserting an earth resistance meter into the eart-
hing conductor, a clamp-on ohmmeter (COM)
is placed around the earthing conductor (see fi-
gure “). The clamp-on ohmmeter contains
both a current-to-voltage transformer (a voltage
inducing clamp, VIC) and a current transformer
(a current measuring clamp CMC). Models
available include:
• Chauvin Arnoux Earth Clamps C.A  6410,
C.A 6412 or C.A 64154);
• Fluke Earth Ground Clamp Meter 16305).
The meter displays the resistance calculated as
the quotient of the voltage induced by the VIC
in the earthing conductor and the resulting test
current registered by the CMC. In this case the
resistance is the loop resistance Rloop, or more
precisely the loop impedance (see section 
3.4.1).
Another solution (no separate diagram provi-
ded) involves clamping two split-core current
transformers around the earthing conductor,
one of which functions like the voltage-inducing
clamp VIC while the other corresponds to the
current measuring clamp CMC that measures
4) Induced voltage: approx. 60 mV; frequency:
2403 Hz; inner diameter of clamp jaw: 32 mm.
Data provided without warranty.
5) Induced voltage: approx.  30 mV; frequency:
1667 Hz; inner diameter of clamp jaw: 23 mm.
Data provided without warranty.
6) On its own, the expression ‘selective earth mea-
surement’ is ambiguous, as other earth resistance
measurement techniques are also selective, e.g.
those presented in sections  3.4, 3.5 and 4.6.

6
 L1 L1 L1
L2 L2 L2
L3 L3 L3
PEN PEN PEN
PEN

MEB
E ES S H E ES S H PE N
EC
IV IV
I
I = IE1 + Icpl I = IE1 + Icpl CMC COM
IE1 < Icpl IE1 < 0 for
I RM < RE1 I Icpl < I UM VIC Rloop
RM ⪡ RE1

Icpl EC

Icpl E2 E2
RF RE RE < Rloop
Rcpl

RE1 RE1
RE2 RE2
IE1 Functional Earth
IE2 IE12 = 0 IE2 = 0
earth electrode
electrode

— Cases involving a TN system in which the method shown in fig. – is not suitable “ Method as in figure  – but with a
a) Small distance and therefore small coupling resistance Rcpl between the earth electrode under clamp-on ohmmeter rather than an
test E1 and a second earth electrode E2 that is connected to the PEN conductor. b) Metallic earth resistance meter
connection to a second earth electrode that is itself connected to the PEN conductor. EC earthing conductor; VIC voltage-induc-
Icpl current causing measurement error; RE1 earth resistance being measured; RM earth resis- ing clamp; CMC current measuring clamp;
tance displayed on meter. COM clamp-on ohmmeter.

the test current. The clamps are connected to a

special earth resistance meter (Fluke Earth
Ground Tester 1623 or 1625). Depending on Earth resistance meter Earth resistance meter Earthed conductor
e. g. counterpoise
which of the Fluke meters is used, either EI- E ES S H UM E ES S H
RE = –––
1623 or EI-1625 ‘selective/stakeless clamp I
set’ is required. The advantage in both cases is UM
RE1 = –––
that the earthing conductor does not need to be I IE1
I
disconnected, making measurement safer and
Other earth
quicker. The problem discussed in section electrodes
IP
3.4.2 can also arise in these cases. I
I
If this method is used to make measurements IP
on consumer installations, they must be desig- IE Lattice-type EC IE
ned with a TN earthing system. The method is CMC pylon
suitable for measuring the resistance to earth of
EC SCT IE1 IE2 IE3 IE4
a pylon in an overhead power transmission line
if the clamps can be fitted around the earthing
conductor. RE RE1 RE2 RE3 RE4

3.6 Selective earth resistance

measurements using a probe, Auxiliary Auxiliary
an auxiliary earth electrode Test Other Probe earth Test object Probe earth
and a clamp-on ohmmeter object earth electrode (pyton stubs) electrode
The earth resistance measurement described in a) electrodes b)
this section6) is used if the earth electrode un-
der test cannot or should not be disconnected
from other earth electrodes to which it is wired ” Selective earth resistance measurements using a probe, an auxiliary earth
in parallel. This method is based on the techni- electrode and split-core current transformers
que using a probe and auxiliary earth electrode a) Test object whose earthing conductor can be clamped by a split-core current transformer;
that is discussed in section 3.2, but in this va- b) Pylon whose legs can be clamped by a split-core current transformer near the foundation
riant (see figure ”a)) a special earth resistance of the pylon
meter (Fluke 1623 or 1625) and an additional IE part of test current flowing through the earth electrode under test to the auxiliary earth
electrode; IE1 to IE4 parts of IE flowing in the pylon legs and stubs; IP portion of the test
clamp-on current transformer (CMC) are requi-
current flowing to the auxiliary earth electrode via the other parallel earth electrodes (current
red. The current measuring clamp CMC is clam- path through soil not shown in part b) of figure).
ped around the earthing conductor EC con-

7
 L1 L1
L2 L2
L3 L3
PEN N
RCD
UM UM
RE = ––– RE = ––– PE
I N PE I N
nected to the earth electrode under test and
MEB MEB
connected to a multi-pole socket on the earth Earth Earth
resistance meter. When the meter is connected resistance resistance
in this way and the rotary selector switch has meter meter
been set appropriately, IP, the portion of the test L L
current I flowing via the other parallel earth
electrodes, has no effect on measurement result
so that the branch current IE recorded by cur-
rent measuring clamp CMC is solely responsi-
ble for determining the resistance to earth RE
displayed by the meter.
Figure  ”b) shows the measurement circuit
UM I UM I
V A V A
used when dealing with a steel-lattice electrici- EC
ty pylon that cannot be electrically discon- S E S E
nected from the earthed conductor (e. g. coun-
terpoise, PEN conductor or neutral conductor).
EC
As the pylon structure serves as the earthing
RF RE RF RE
conductor EC, it is clearly not possible to clamp
a CMC around the earthing conductor as in fi-
gure ”a). In this case, measurements are ma-
Functional Probe Earth Functional Probe Earth
de by consecutively clamping a splitcore trans- earth electrode earth electrode
former SCT (Fluke EI-162BN7)) around the four a) electrode b) electrode
pylon legs that are connected to the four pylon
stubs that act as earth electrodes. The earth re-
sistance meter displays the resistances RE1 to Current-voltage methods that draw current directly from the power supply and
RE4 consecutively. The resulting earth resis- that use a probe
tance RE of the four mast feet, which are con- a) Installation with TN system; b) Installation with TT system
nected to one another through the steel lattice EC earthing conductor; RCD residual current device; I test current; MEB Main earthing busbar;
structure, can be calculated by equation (5): RF resistance of functional earth; RE earth resistance being measured; UM test voltage

1
RE =
1 1 1 1 (5)
+ + +
RE1 RE2 RE3 RE4 L1 L1
L2 L2
L3 L3
PEN N
Measurement methods that
4 draw current from supply UM
RE = –––
UM
RE = –––
I
RCD

I N PE N PE
4.1 Measuring equipment MEB MEB
The meters used for this type of measurement Earth Earth
resistance resistance
are designed primarily for testing electrical meter meter
safety systems that make use of residual cur-
L L
rent devices. To ensure the simplest and safest
connection to the power supply, the meters are
typically equipped with a flexible power cable
and an earthed safety plug. The meters also
have a socket S for the probe (see figures 
EC
and 13 ). The socket E is used to connect
the meter to the earth electrode under test un- UM I UM I
less one of the cores (protective earth core) of V A V A
the flexible power cable and the earth contacts
S E E
on the plug are used for this purpose. As the test S
meters are classified as Class II equipment (see
ref.  [4], sec.  4.5), the core and the plug’s EC
earth contact do not serve as protection against
shock hazards. RF RE RF RE

The meters do not have their own power sour-

ce unless this is needed for some other type of
Functional Earth Functional Earth
measurement. Some meters may have an addi- earth electrode earth electrode
tional connector socket for a current measuring a) electrode b) electrode
clamp.

7) The jaws of the split-core transformer are dimen-
sioned for large rectangular-section conductors
such as the legs of high-voltage pylons.
12 Current-voltage methods that draw current directly from the power supply and
that use the PEN or neutral conductor instead of a probe
a) Installation with TN system;
b) Installation with TT system

8
 L1 L1
L2 L2
L3 L3
PEN N
U0 – UM U0 – UM
Rloop < –––––––– Rloop < –––––––– RCD
I I
RE < Rloop RE < Rloop
N PE N PE Figures  to 14 show the basic principles of the
UE < U0 – UM UE < U0 – UM
MEB complicated circuitry inside these meters. In
Earth L Earth most of these meters, the actual measurement
resistance resistance
meter meter
process (including any gradual increase in the
MEB test current that may be involved) is carried out
L L automatically. Rather than displaying the mea-
UM UM
sured voltage and current separately, the resis-
tance to earth is computed and displayed digi-
tally on the meter.
U0 U0
A selector switch enables the type of measure-
EC ment, measurement technique, measurement
UM I UM I circuit, parameter range and/or measurement
V A V A sequence to be chosen. Most meters are fitted
with a ‘START’ button to initiate the measure-
E E
S S ment process. User-friendly devices offer addi-
tional functions such as:
EC UE UE • Multiple measurements with display of ave-
RF RE RF RE rage result
• Smoothing function
• Display hold function
Functional Earth Functional Earth • Data storage for transmitting or printing mea-
earth electrode earth electrode
a) electrode b) electrode surement results.
To provide protection against electric shock, the
meter must switch off automatically as soon as
13 Current-voltage methods that draw current directly from the power supply and it causes a fault voltage greater than 50 V in
that do not use a probe the earthing system being measured. If a varia-
a) Installation with TN system; b) Installation with TT system ble resistor is used to increase the test current,
Rloop loop resistance; U0 conductor-to-earth voltage; UE voltage across tested earth electrode the current must not exceed 3.5 mA at the be-
ginning of the measurement (see ref.  [6],
L1 L1
sec. 4.7). Measurements in which the test cur-
L2 L2 rent is increased gradually and measurements
L3 L3 in which the current is only allowed to flow at
N N
maximum strength for a short period are both
UM RCD
UM RE = ––– common.
RE = ––– I
I UE = UM The difficulty associated with drawing current
N N PE
MEB directly from the power supply is that the mea-
Earth Earth surement is made at the supply frequency and
resistance resistance
meter meter interference currents that originate in the power
supply or that are carried via earth can easily in-
L L MEB
troduce measurement errors. The larger the test
current, the less effect these sources of interfe-
rence will have. It is therefore expedient to work
with a large test current. However, a large test
current can itself be problematic when the me-
ter is connected behind a residual current devi-
UM UM
V I V I ce, as it can cause the RCD to trigger. This can
E E
be avoided by using one of the following proce-
A A dures:
• Ensuring that the magnitude of the test cur-
S E S E rent is only half that of the rated residual cur-
rent IΔN of the RCD.
I IP I IP
• Connecting the meter in front of the RCD or
IE IE to a circuit that is not equipped with an RCD.
CMC CMC
EC EC
• According to the manufacturer Chauvin
Arnoux the patented ‘ALT system’ used in its
RF RE RF RE
C.A 6115 N and C.A 6456 Earth Clamps
enables these devices to make earth resis-
tance measurements using a larger test cur-
Functional Probe Earth Other Functional Probe Earth Other rent even if connected behind a 30 mA RCD.
earth electrode earth earth electrode earth Whenever interference effects may play a role,
electrode electrodes electrode electrodes
several measurements should be conducted
and the results compared with one another.
14 Selective earth resistance measurement methods that draw current directly from
the power supply and that use a probe and a clamp-on ammeter 4.2 Connections to power supply
a) Installation with TN system; b) Installation with TT system and earth electrode
IE portion of test current flowing to the earth electrode under test; IF portion of test current The meter is typically connected to the power
flowing to the other earth electrodes; CMC current measuring clamp supply via its earthed safety plug. If the plug is

9
inserted incorrectly, no hazard arises but no
measurement is possible. Although not shown
in the figures, the internal circuitry of most of
the meters only functions if the meter is con-
nected to the phase conductor and to the neu-
tral conductor.
The test current can induce accidental trigger-
ing of an upstream RCD. This may need to be
taken into account when connecting the meter
(see discussion in section 4.1 above).
Depending on the type of meter used, the earth
electrode to be measured is
• either connected directly to socket E of the
meter (see fig. Õ in section 2)
• or (in most cases) is connected to the meter
via the plug’s earth contact as shown in fig-
ures  to 14 .
Connections between the earth electrode
under test and other earth electrodes would
yield erroneous results. It is for this reason that
when measurements are made on consumer in-
stallations with a TN earthing system, the earth-
ing conductor EC has to be separated from the
main earthing busbar MEB (see figures a) to
14 a)) as the latter is connected via the PEN
conductor of the service cable and the supply
network to other earth electrodes. Disconnec-
tion is not required in a TT system as the main
earthing busbar is not linked to the neutral line
of the supply network and the connection can
be made as shown in figures  b) to 14 b).
4.3 Methods using a probe
This method is the most accurate of the tech-
niques that draw current directly from the sup-
ply provided that the probe can be inserted in-
to the soil at a suitable location. A schematic of
the measurement set-up is shown in figure  .
The probe has to be located so that it is outside
the sphere of influence of the earth electrode.
The voltage UM between the sockets E and S
generates the test current I in the earth elec-
trode.
4.4 Method using the PEN con-
ductor or neutral conductor
instead of a probe
This measuring techniques can be used when-
ever it is not possible to insert a probe into the
ground at the right location. In this method (see
figure 12 ) the probe is replaced by connecting
socket S of the meter to the PEN or PE con-
ductor in a TN system or to the neutral con-
ductor in a TT system. Caution! The neutral
conductor must be treated as if it is live, even
though it is earthed.
The value displayed by the meter includes the
resistance to earth of the functional earth elec-
trode. This will overestimate the resistance of
the earth electrode and thus yield a value that
errs on the side of safety.
The voltages generated by operating currents
and by fault currents in the functional earth or
in the PEN conductor or neutral conductor of
the power supply system can result in erro-
neous measurement results. The accuracy of
this technique is therefore lower than that
10
achievable using the method described in References
section 4.3. [1] IEC 60364-4-41:205 Erection of power installa-
tions with nominal voltages up to 1000 V – Part
4-41: Protection for safety – Protection against
4.5 Method without a probe electric shock.
This method (illustrated schematically in fig- [2] Hering, E.: Schutzerder des TT-Systems (engl.:
ure ) involves measuring the resistance of a Protective earthing in the TT system). Elektro-
praktiker, Berlin 59 (2005) 5, p. 370-373.
conductor loop via an earth return path. In this [3] IEC 60364-6:2006-02 Low-voltage electrical in-
method, the voltage across the test object (UE) stallations – Part 6: Verification.
is not measured directly. It is determined as the [4] IEC 61557-1:2007 Equipment for testing, mea-
difference between the potential drop between suring or monitoring of protective measures –
Part 1: General requirements.
the phase conductor and earth when the test re-
[5] IEC 61557-5:2007 Equipment for testing, mea-
sistance is switched off (U0) and that when the suring or monitoring of protective measures –
test current I is flowing (UM). The resistance val- Part 5: Resistance to earth.
ue measured includes the resistances of the [6] IEC 61557-6:2007 Equipment for testing, mea-
functional earth, the transformer and the phase suring or monitoring of protective measures –
Part 6: Effectiveness of residual current devices
conductor. This will result in an overestimation (RCD) in TT, TN and IT systems.
of the earth resistance and thus yield a value [7] IEC 61557-10:2000 Equipment for testing,
that errs on the side of safety. measuring or monitoring of protective measures
This method is particularly attractive as it can – Part 10: Combined measuring equipment for
testing, measuring or monitoring of protective
be performed with a minimum of effort. But it measures.
suffers from the weakness that supply load fluc- [8] Hering, E.: Probleme mit einem der Erdungs-
tuations that happen to occur simultaneously meßverfahren beim TN-System (engl.: Problems
while the measurement is being made will with an earth resistance measurement technique
in a TN system). Elektropraktiker, Berlin 53
cause significant additional measurement er- (1999) 9, p. 820-822.
rors. To limit these errors, it is therefore expe- [9] Hering, E.: Durchgangsprüfungen an Erdungsan-
dient to work with a large test current. It is also lagen [Continuity testing in earthing systems].
advisable to perform numerous measurements, Elektropraktiker, Berlin 59 (2005) 11, p. 888-
891 und in diesem Sonderdruck.
to reject any extreme values recorded and to
[10]DIN EN 62305-3 (VDE 0185-305-3):2006-10:
compute the mean value from the remaining Protection against lightning – Part 3: Physical da-
measurement data. mage to structures and life hazard.
4.6 Selective earth resistance
measurements using a probe
and a clamp-on ammeter
The method selective earth resistance meas-
urement8) is used if, for the purposes of the
measurement, the earth electrode under test
cannot or should not be disconnected from oth-
er earth electrodes to which it is wired in paral-
lel. It is based on the method using a probe dis-
cussed in section 4.3, but in this variant (see
figure 14 ) a special earth resistance meter
(Chauvin Arnoux C.A. 6115N or C.A. 6456)
and an additional current measuring clamp
CMC are required. The current measuring
clamp is connected to a multipole socket on the
meter and the clamp jaws are placed around
the earthing conductor EC connected to the
earth electrode under test.
If the meter is connected in this way and if the
rotary selector switch set appropriately, IP, the
portion of the measuring current I flowing via
the other parallel earth electrodes, has no effect
on measurement result so that the branch cur-
rent IE recorded by the current measuring clamp
CMC is solely responsible for determining the
resistance to earth RE displayed by the meter.
8) On its own, the expression ‘selective earth mea-
surement’ is ambiguous, as other earth resistance
measurement techniques are also selective, e. g.
those presented in sections  3.4, 3.5 and 3.6.
Continuity testing
in earthing systems
E. Hering, Dresden (Germany)
Continuity tests are carried out to verify that conductors, in this case metal
conductors, are unbroken. This article describes the extent to which continuity
testing in earthing systems is required and possible and also discusses the test
equipment that can be used. In terms of continuity there is no significant diffe-
rence between the initial test and repeat tests, despite the fact that they are
treated separately in the relevant standards.
Reasons for and limits of
1 continuity testing
1.1 Earthing conductor and
main earthing busbar
The earthing system must be connected to the
main earthing busbar (MEB) of the electrical in-
stallation. This is necessary
a) to provide protection against electric shock
([1], sec. 441.3.1; [2], sec. 542.1.2)
b) to provide a connection to earth for overvol-
tage protection devices even if the building is
not equipped with a lightning protection sys-
tem ([3], figures A.1 to A.5)
c) in buildings with a lightning protection sys-
tem ([4], sections 5.4.1, 6.2.1, 6.2.5 and
E.6.2)
d) in buildings with an antenna requiring light-
ning protection
e) for foundation earth electrodes ([5], secti-
ons 4 and 5.4).
The conductor between the main earthing
busbar and the earthing system is an earthing
conductor and/or an equipotential bonding con-
ductor (protective bonding conductor and/or
lightning protection bonding conductor).
The continuity of this conductor must be tested
([6], section 612.2; [4], section E.7.2.4; [5],
section 7).
1.2 Ring earth electrodes
Continuity testing on ring earth electrodes is ad-
visable for the following reasons:
a) Earth resistance measurements, which are
required by the applicable standards but are
not dealt with in this article, are unable to de-
tect any break in the ring. While any discon-
tinuity will not lead to an increase in the re-
sistance to earth, it can have a significant de-
trimental effect on the efficiency of the
voltage protection, as the surge currents are
forced to flow via another path.
b) Repeated continuity testing on older ring
earth electrodes can, if carried out in the form
of resistance measurements, identify reducti-
ons in the conductor cross-section (as a re-
sult of corrosion) by registering an increased
resistance.
In order for continuity testing to be possible, a
buried ring earth electrode must have at least
two soil entry points, while a foundation earth
electrode must be equipped with at least two
connection points. The more of these hook-up
points there are available, the easier it is to car-
ry out continuity testing.
In reinforced concrete foundations, it is not pos-
sible to detect a break in the ring of the foun-
dation earth electrode. This is not dangerous,
however, as the break is effectively bridged by
the steel reinforcing bars within the foundation.
In this case, continuity testing can only serve to
verify that the connection between the con-
nection points and the ring is intact.
1.3 Linear earth electrodes
Continuity testing is not possible with vertical
earth rods and elongated horizontal earth elect-
rodes (star or crow’s foot configurations) as the-
se electrodes only have a single soil entry point.
If there is a break in the earth electrode near to
where it enters the soil, this may be detectable
as increased earth resistance.
2 Hazard avoidance
The process of measurement and any accom-
panying procedures (e.g. breaking standard
connections and making non-standard con-
nections) must not pose a safety hazard. If the
earth electrode also functions as the protective
earthing of a TT or IT earthing system as detai-
led in [1], its connection to the MEB may only
be broken if the electrical installation has been
disconnected from the power source or power
generator.
Tests that involve breaking connections (e.g.
opening the inspection joint of a lightning pro-
tection system) must never be carried out du-
ring a storm or whenever a storm could ex-
pected. Failure to comply could be hazardous,
particularly for the person doing the testing.
For safety reasons, the use of voltages greater
than 25 V should be avoided. Small voltages
are anyway advisable for continuity testing (see
[6], sec. 612.2). The testing and measuring
equipment used must comply with the specifi-
cations in the relevant standard (see ref. [7]).
Resistance measurements are typically carried
out using equipment that conforms with the
specifications in reference [8]. However, earth
resistance meters that meet the requirements in
reference [9] can also be used.
3 Test methods
3.1 Principles
The person carrying out the test must be
aware of all connections between the earthing
system and other electrical and non-electrical
installations. Examples of the latter include
pipe systems or metallic structural components
of a building. An unknown connection can fal-
sify the test results. The continuity test can be
carried out most simply if the conductor under
test can be disconnected at least on one side.
This assumes, however, that the broken con-
nection can be reliably re-stored after testing.
To facilitate continuity testing on lightning pro-
tection systems, it is normal to open the in-
spection joints at the soil entry points or con-
nection terminals.
Figure  ➊ illustrates test circuits that can be
used when no other conductor is connected in
parallel to the test object. The continuity tester
shown in figure ➊a) consists of at least a power
source and an indicator, e.g. a lamp. To in-
crease the test current, a resistance can be con-
11
 PS PS
G G
PLC PLC CAM2
TC TC
CAM CAM
a) b) mV VM
À Continuity testing circuits that mea-
sure the current in a conductor that has
another conductor connected to it in
parallel
a) Without determining the resistance of the
conductor
b) Resistance of conductor determined by
making an additional voltage measurement
PLC conductor connected in parallel (can
also be a second test conductor)
VM low-voltage voltmeter
CAM position of clamp-on ammeter
CAM2 second position of clamp-on ammeter
when PLC is a second test conductor
nected in parallel to the indicator. According to
the recommendation in reference  [6], sec-
tion 612.2, the power source should generate
an open circuit voltage of between 4 and 24 V
and the test current should be at least 0.2 A.
Some continuity testers produce an acoustic
signal if the resistance measured exceeds a
user-adjustable limit.
In figure  ➊b) the resistance is determined
using a milliohmmeter. The advantage of the
four-wire connection shown is that the result of
the measurement is not affected by the resis-
tances of the measuring leads. If a bridge is in-
stalled between the connection sockets 1 and
2 or between sockets 3 and 4 or if the meter
only has two sockets and only two measuring
leads are used, the resistances of the leads
must be subtracted from the resistance value
displayed by the meter. In order to measure the
resistance of the leads their ends are connected
together. Instead of using a milliohmmeter an
earth resistance meter can be used as shown in
figure ➊c) provided that the meter has a resis-
tance measuring range down to 0.1 Ω, or low-
er if possible. The remarks made about the me-
ter connections in figure ➊b) apply here anal-
ogously.
As indicated in figure ➊d), the resistance can
also be measured by means of a clamp-on ohm-
meter such as the Earth Clamp1) C.A 6410
manufactured by Chauvin Arnoux. The resist-
ance of the measuring lead needed to close the
circuit must be subtracted from the resistance
value displayed by the meter. If one or more
conductors are connected in parallel to the test
object, the same procedures discussed with re-
gard to figure À can be used. A power source
is connected to the ends of the conductor under
test. In figure Àa) continuity is verified when
12
1 2 1 2
3 CT 3 CT
a) b)
CT
c)
à Examples of continuity tests when ring
earth electrode is open
a) Testing connections 1 and 3 and the left secti-
on of the ring
b) Testing connections 2 and 3 and the right
section of the ring
c) Testing the entire ring earth electrode
a current is detected by a clamp-on ammeter
that is clamped around the conductor under
test TC. If, as shown in figure Àb), a voltmeter
for measuring small voltages is connected
across the conductor under test, the resistance
of the conductor can be determined by dividing
the measured voltage by the measured current.
Continuity testing is carried out preferentially
with alternating current, e.g. from a transformer
or from an earth resistance meter. If a DC
source is used, then a special type of clamp-on
ammeter is required that contains a current
sensor based on the Hall effect instead of a cur-
rent transformer.
3.2 Continuity testing in ring earth
electrodes that can be opened
This section describes examples of continuity
tests performed on ring-shaped foundation
earth electrodes. Many of these tests can also
be carried out in the same way on buried ring
earth electrodes.
As already mentioned in section 1.2, the ease
of performing a continuity test and the reliabil-
ity of the results obtained depends on the num-
ber and arrangement of connection points or
soil entry points. Being able to open the ring
earth electrode considerably simplifies continu-
ity testing. These factors should be taken into
account when planning the earthing system.
The test circuits shown in figures à to Œ can
only be used if the ring can be opened at least
one location. Foundation earth electrodes can
be opened when there are two adjacent, flush-
floor connection points that are linked conduc-
tively to one another via a bridging strip that
closes the ring. Buried ring earth electrodes
may have an inspection joint located in an un-
derfloor inspection box.
1 2 1 2
CA2
CA1
G G
3 PS 3 PS
a) b)
I2 I2 – I3 = I4 – I1
1 2
CA2 CA4 I3
CA1
G CA3
I1 I
PS I4 4 3
c)
Õ Examples of continuity tests when ring
earth electrode has not been opened
a) Analogous to fig. Ãa);
b) Analogous to fig. Ãb);
c) Four tests on a foundation earth electrode
with a cross connector and four connection
points
I measured current; I1 to I4 partial currents;
CA1 to CA4 positions of clamp-on ammeter
Figure Ã shows the ring opened for testing. In
the test circuits shown in figure Õ continuity
is verified by detecting current in the relevant
parts of the ring by means of a clamp-on am-
meter at the bridging strip or the underfloor in-
spection joint. In the test scenario shown in fig-
ure Œ, the resistance of the ring is measured
at the bridging strip or the underfloor inspection
joint using a clamp-on ohmmeter (see ‘Earth
Clamp’ in section 3.1).
3.3 Continuity testing in ring
earth systems that cannot be
opened
If the ring earth electrode has at least four con-
nection points, a break in ring continuity can be
identified by sequentially measuring the resist-
ance between two neighbouring connection
points. The small resistances of the conductors
that run between the point of connection of the
meter leads and the ring have to be subtracted
from the resistance displayed on the ohmmeter.
Although the soil and, in the case of a founda-
tion earth electrode, also the concrete are con-
nected in parallel to the metal conductor, they
have no significant effect on the measurement
result because their resistivity is very much
greater than that of steel.
If the ring is uninterrupted, the resistance mea-
sured is that of a parallel circuit comprising the
1) The semicircular jaws of the clamp contain two
transformers. The purpose of one is to induce a
voltage in the conductor, the other measures the
resulting current. The clamp is closed when the
jaws have been placed around the conductor. The
display on the clamp meter displays a resistance
value computed by dividing the value of the indu-
ced voltage by the current flowing in the con-
ductor.

COM
ΠContinuity testing using a clamp-on
ohmmeter positioned at the point COM
mΩ OM
Discontinuity
œ Verifying a discontinuity as an in-
creased resistance resulting from the
longer current path
section of the earth ring enclosed by the mea-
suring leads and the series circuit that makes
up the remaining part of the ring. If the earth
ring electrode is broken at some point between
the measuring leads (see figure œ), the resis-
tance measured is that of the remaining part of
the ring. If the measurement is made on one
part of the ring, the resistance of that part alone
is measured.
Example calculation 1
The ring earth electrode has four connection
points. Those parts of the ring located between
the connection points have the resistances
R1…R4. If the ring is unbroken, the resistance
RO (‘O’ is used here to symbolize the intact
earth ring electrode) measured across the two
connection points that enclose the part of the
ring with the resistance R1 is given by:
1
RE =
1 1 1 1 (1)
+ + +
RE1 RE2 RE3 RE4
However, if the part of the ring with the resist-
ance R1 is broken, the resistance RC measured
across those same connection points (‘C’ is
used here to symbolize a ring with a continuity
break) will now be given by equation (2).
RC = R2 + R3 + R4 (2)
Example calculation 2
Situation as in example calculation 1 but each
of the four sections of the ring has the same re-
sistance RP.
RP = R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 (3)
If the ring is unbroken, the resistance measured References
across any pair of neighbouring connection [1] IEC 60364-4-41:2005 Erection of power instal-
lations with nominal voltages up to 1000 V – Part
points is expressed by equation (4): 4-41: Protection for safety – Protection against
Ro = RP
(3 R ) = 3 R
P (4)
electric shock.
[2] DIN VDE 0100-540 (VDE 0100-540):2007-06
(4 R ) 4
P
P
– Low-voltage electrical installations – Part 5-54:
Selection and erection of electrical equipment –
Earthing arrangements, protective conductors and
If the ring is broken (i.e. open), the resistance protective bonding conductors.
RC measured across the two connection points [3] Prestandard DIN V VDE V 0100-534 (VDE V
enclosing the break will be: 0100-534):1999-04 Electrical installations of
buildings – Part 5-34: Selection and erection of
equipment – Devices for protection against over-
RC = 3 RP (5) voltages.
[4] EN 62305-3:2006 Protection against lightning –
Part 3: Physical damage to structures and life ha-
Rc = 3 (43)R o= 4Ro (6) zard (IEC 62305-3:2006).
[5] DIN 18014:2007-09 Foundation earth electro-
des.
If the measurement is therefore made across [6] IEC 60364-6:2006-02 Low-voltage electrical in-
those connection points enclosing the disconti- stallations – Part 6: Verification.
nuity, the resistance measured will be three [7] EN 61557-1:2007 Equipment for testing, mea-
suring or monitoring of protective measures – Part
times the resistance of the partial resistance RP 1: General requirements (equivalent to IEC
and four times the resistance that would be 61557-1).
measured if the ring were unbroken. [8] EN 61557-4:2007 Equipment for testing, mea-
If the number of connection points is greater suring or monitoring of protective measures – Part
4: Resistance of earth connection and equipoten-
than four, the same computational methodolo- tial bonding (equivalent to IEC 61557-4).
gy can be used with the exception that equa- [9] EN 61557-5:2007 Equipment for testing, mea-
tions (1) and (2) would then contain addition- suring or monitoring of protective measures – Part
al terms for the additional sections of the ring, 5: Resistance to earth (equivalent to IEC 61557-
5).
and the factors in equations (4) and (5) would
be larger.
If the earth ring electrode has only two connec-
tion points, it may be possible to carry out test-
ing in accordance with figure  Àb) (see sec-
tion 3.1). However, this would require being
able to clamp a clamp-on ammeter around the
two parts of the ring that are connected in par-
allel to the power source. If this is to be at-
tempted on a buried ring earth electrode, the
clamp can, for instance, be located on each
side of a soil entry point. If the measurement is
an initial measurement, then the earthing chan-
nel in the relevant areas must not be backfilled
until the measurement has been made. If the
measurement is a repeat measurement, it can
be carried out, for example, when material has
to be removed from the earthing channel in or-
der to check on the state of corrosion of the
earth electrode.
4 Test report
Continuity testing is only one of several tests
that have to be performed on earthing systems.
In general, the results from all the tests are con-
tained in a single test report.
The tests performed and any accompanying ac-
tion that is taken must be described precisely
so that they can be reproduced at a later date.
All test and measurement results must be stat-
ed clearly and precisely. If the earth electrode
serves as a lightning protection earth electrode,
the test report must comply with the specifica-
tions in reference [4], sec. E.7.2.5.
13