•

\,

I.
.~:.. ~ .i."

-~'~f.hF-·
,

..

_,.

Al..L

DRAWING

STEMS FROM ONE OR. MORE OF TBiESEFORMS

r--~~~~---. ----............ -.---".~--.

·.io~-:_Io;;fi."TIh.. __

~-':--'~~""_~IIiI'!._~

.~

,-

, ~'r

CYLIND~ECA.L
~

r~-----:.,~----···----·----·~-~· ~.
~

l
!
!
~ ~

CONICAL

~ 1

..

PY.R.AMIDAl.

I~: _- .,"_.

_.

, .. ~

.Ad. is:reaB.y having ns chance, The urge to ,dd'liY seems te ha vetaken bold of many more tbollils3i~Ws~oda. t1~an.ever bdio1'le. It has: spread y aeross the nation. y.Vllil!emallt)..3!ll.8iJJ.i1:ter ecsted.ln art as a pastime or hobby. others W'OIl1 M g]acUy choose it as: a means of 1ivdihood. if they were
l

U nJortlinate~y. the ,fundamenta)s of ,an appurooch to ,ju;lt hsve not usually been so c~early defined
lOll" p:r!iictmca'~ $,tudy as, ha,ve 1~llloseolf some otber creative iiI.ctivilt les, Cemmerelal art is Oil <XI'liIl,para,~
Ilively new' pro,.~essfQn. I-lO\"'-e'VI€t
ll

t:l~e

leaders

ta

the field are' beginning

to cOlllltrihute t~me and

aCC01ll!:-

convinced thattbe:i:r ability was ,ufficient 'to provtde a:ny real bope of success, 111(n~ will always be a certain amount of confus~oo abo!!.]! Wb:fl't Is '~n~,@nt natlve ahi]ity 01' in drawing ~md what is knowledge 0.£ ~he craft. Too oIt.en. krww~edg:e is construed as taleDt. On the oth,er hand, cIra\ving !tbat h.t.Ckseonsteuetive b,oi\vledge Wli seldem sl[lcc~sful as drawing:. The truth is th:at we do not see the 'tal,!!nt until the means 01 bringm,g nfo.:rr11 has been: dervoioped. Tha:t :mea]l)~ a reasonably accurate :analysis and is understanding of the laws of nm,t;ltTe as theJt a:p-

thought to its teaching.

Success in tl1.ecreative .fields is ahvays

cli:sUn.'Ctive:ne.f;S" somethil1lgtbat singles one out M: 1)..11 incli v,~dua] ~.nd filetshlm apaxt from
})y

panled

the cro\'l!'IdLOne artist can he as successfu~ as another in his use o~ basic knowledge, w'itbout l-epeatllllg:anothel;DJr~iSfs performance. .If them is any \vay that one mall .in. the CI:'a~tcan. .re~dly

help another ~ ~t is by incr,easiog his knowle dge

l

of the craft, ~'lse.H.; ot n

'm ~b.e padicuIar

qualities

of the men's (lw.nw()(k. The knowledge of our Ci1ift m'U!i~ peeled, as .~~ to ~l~,e be is: seie:nc()s and
ether
t@i:!l.dl

ply to m.an·s vision,

Drawing; is vision 011l. paper. More thnn that. it ~sin:dividl.uaJ. viSion; Uedl!lp wi.th Individual perceplti,on, ill~e'llecst. observatjon, cllaract~u't phtlesophy;. and a h.ost ,of other qualities ,aU com~ng fro,m one source. It C31D!l10t. and 'to 'be suooessful ihould. not~be :anyttill,i;o,g e])'01. Dra wing is very
cmose]y related ~o 'tile other l~reatL'V,e arts, all .of W:hlcll are ()utCfO~lp:ing:s of 8 desi1: e to express
l

prO'£eli:s[{ms~ each of us absorbing

is;

and in.

turn con.h;ibu,ting. It

difficult for a. m.an to' work as an example, But I am ce'rtailfl that In this book, Jor
wi rhout !n;e~el'llting lus own there lIS much. matcriQW \:Vh.id~the stuB

example,

detlt can 31>P'Wy eo his own '\\~ol'k wallOut re6erenoe ~'O any partk:ilJllar s~yJe Or t'cdullqUe,ofn"!!in:e. S UppOS(il! WIC tin \Ie two d.r'a'wlngsbefore ~US. One

appeaifs:;the other does not. '11.~is(me iis good, the

other bad, Why?' mbcJievlll' I ca:np(;IIiut out under]y jng: reasons that are perfectly m derstauda hle, Strangely mlough"the reasons are usually not found W'!l art books or taught ,ill classes. The respofise 'to dtawlng lS l'(l~Qt,@d.'to the CllloUons nnd
experience ()If the 'imlhrlallla~. and is \vl1otely aparlt. so £9'1i' 's I know .ffOnil tJrullre~u;:hing: 'Of art. a 'Y'€It .1 do not. bc:liav'e a.lit can gOI "'ey,, far U!lfIil~

in,djvidl.~l)Jl.emotion,

to,

make the other fellow

conscious of our inner fee]ing,s. e want himto lis,ten or look. and! we want his appreciation of wllat we have to ,of[er.. Perhaps we' wish to reeeive admh:-aUonfor our p3iriticu1nl'I,Ii.OC'omp]i~h-

'i\'

mcnts. P,erhaps we have a message we deem '''"OIit:hy of others" a~ite._fI!t['OOl.Pedl;a,ps, we see in, s~C:b,~!Il ,elOJitt a;1ii!.e.njoy,a:Me means ·of l:nMti:ng o_sel'l/es:,:U!$efu.~~ orpro,vi.ding: oUIi;'selves; with the
we nrltult admeve Ul some way. We whO' choose art as ommedium l(liE exF,re;s;... sion. shonld reallze that it has eertaln fundamentals from which we progress, just as there ate fURdam.e:ntmls of li~nlrturo, drama, or music.
101_' .1' ["IveJHiloClut II • '.

'bat

the artist bas .roIJ.Iu~sort of an.l)lndc'FStaod.ing: of' tJljl;l response. An artist can go all Ius life wUhout rea1tz_~ng:wby his work Idoies,not ~ppe<lt .E"(iin successfulartists may not r;ea.Uy know wby dwb: work does appeill; though. theyth:ank l~eaven It does. 11

THE FUNDAMENTALS
does not aJppea~,\\N';: must: mcog~1b:e a eertam ability that is devdoped .in ,every normal individual from ear Iy childhood through ad nIt Me. The term "h~t,e:nig,ellt pereeptson m think comes as c~ose a~~ bJ' desed,b111g this faclJ]ley. It is visioa any coordinated with the brain, It is a sense ,or ri,ght., ness developed by contact, At some time or other. our brains accept certain effects o appearan.ces as truth, and abide by these decisions. \,Ve learn to distinguish one appearance Irom another." in size or Fl'opo'1'ti,on. in colot, ,and in ItextUl'e. All the senses combine to give 'Us inteUigent PeI'ceJ?"' Han. \V e have a Sell se ,Qif space or depth, even if we lrn,CJwnothing: of the science of perspective. \Ve are quickly aware 01' dlstortion or deformity, smee the nppear,~nce' duesnm comcide 'with what e: 'perienc{l has taught us is n (Jl'f!I'U'!J 0:1: truth01."
n

TOo U1lr1del'.stand wbya. drawmg does

to' life its elf .lnteUigell'lt pu:oep,Uon finds mdy truth convincing. l''he l(ty~
your work just as lit does

man does ,not'need to

knOIW

knOll)

anyt'h'J:ng
Q;,'

al

art to

ti;hether 11elike~ ymu' wtl'rk

not, "We ~n

ful.'oOTl1 isn~g:ist,er,ed in the niind, even

if

we

know nothing of anatomy and. proportio.n, so that we reccgnize a face immediately, thougb we could Il0t even. give aguod verbal description of it Otllt sense of propol[t;ion ten~us that this: is a child find that a mjdget. orthis a. puppy and. that a smaU do,g. Ip~eTJ[ge'nt pereepdonmeludes a feeling for bulk and cont<)l.n-. "Ve know a swan flVfili a goose, or a goose froma duck. This trait
]$

as 'w'eU d~Wl]'oped

hl

those who look at €!i:rtU

it

In arHs~$, We all as Urldivf.duals have subconsciously accepted certain effects oJ JIght. 'We know when appearances: are consistent \!liTith day]igli1lt~artificia] ]jght. twjlight. 01: hliigllt sunlight. Such pereepnon is part 'Of nature" The minute the speetator sees ehange of proportion, dis'~QFtWQn .•change 'Of form, color, 01' itex,tUU'e,he realizes l;iIul't ~~ometlling is 'wrong. 'Th~ cleverest W!E]1Utl tion wm 110t fool him, Tile dummy in the depar.tment store window is a dummy to. everyone. We know .Iesh from wax by the dEeds that have previously been registered in our
]S

minds.
We m"tists cannot ignore tbisinteUig ent perc!!lIlHon and ,e"'pect b) secure U'l'lIOIUg@n't response, or even favorable response, ~o oW' work Malee up yourmindthaJf:;-'Olllt a udienee win If(~d: to

use' 011 ~ theaJrguments" alibis, and defenses in th.e wor Idi we can e."tplain oursel ves hoarse: but we caanot aieN somethtng so' deeplyimbedded in human 'c1_m~dou.~ne."is.If what we S9!y ill p:dnt is untrue, In color values Or elect. the spectator feels it, and there is nothing we can do to convince him othllin'1lis~. fsychologk~l response goes sHU furthe.l'.lEvery P]!CfU:rB s~lol.lld ba,ve some reason For eli~s'L'ence" some P UJrpose behind it' It we can make tl~e spectator feel that ]?uwposewehave succeeded further in captming his interest. Not only is 6\ ,ery man Iivillg~mong nature's eIfec1ts) he is also Uvirtg experiences, Life is not only what he sees bUit wbat he feels. SllpplemenUng. in our drawing an emotion that Is illreadyw.ilhill him secures rLu:~hef response. Y·ou.can feel emotion oJ.1]ywi~lfdn yo,urse1 f" I,l"ud ~uly emot~ontha.t is In your work must rome from y(}u. You oan be sure th:lft most of the emotions you Ieelare also pIiesent in others. That lis \"dlY we live through a movie OIF a I)hwwnh the characters. Toa con., sidcrabl,e d-·gree. We Hke or dislike a perfon1l1Qnee .~ blSOfat as It hu appealed to 001" individm!l emotions, FOil: 'tIle san:l'!J.@ reasoa \'\re~]k:e Oor di:sHk~ ~ piece of art \,,1'hellJdra whlg is: o011vinci.ng Ito the mtelltgen t perc pHon of the specta.tor because of its dghtness of fOl-m. texture. spacq,. and]ighting. and at th same time appeals b) bms emotions, the artist can d~pcnd upon ,3,. favorable l'~ponS(l. Drill.\"dng should Il{)t l) e taught by teaching spectalized or fndiv:~d.ualtechniques. 'What should be tau.gbt is dle way to get the Iorm.thecentours, and the values, regardless: of maratertsms, How Jim lones, handles 3 pencil has little to do wid! your main problem, How be handles Ugbt on form and ,COl tom's is '\ivhat to look for, in.case he interests you .. J{owover, 'i:f J too Jones Is good. YOIil can be quUe c-ertain. he goesfo:r his tnformaUOll: to the one best source - Hfeli.ts!e]f. He has 12

THE FUNDA1\.1ENTALS p!robab~J employed a model Or used a camera

secure .hltdHgent informaHoll. He h>l5psfak~ ing to a olinnnunl, uswng his ilillagin~tion only wlil.lm he has; no oth@Ji"way of gettil g ~t result, There are eerram basic elements 0.£ good dl:1I.Wing without which no ill'awtng call renny 1~ sueces8'fu~.I beli eve these dam eats can be taught. So far. I have been unable to 511lld b::xtbook of a drawing which defines the relatiom.hip of IWOpm·Hon ,lQInd perspeetlve to the Shld!y of ]1ghtana. shadow, Since these dements are so thoroughly il1l~elrdlependent,tllis book"whidh presel ts them that 'Nay; should meet Oli real need. For those who have an ul'lde'rst~nd.i\ng: ,olf nalure's laws,. p]usvlSfou, Ithe gr,eat,est teacher is nature itself. If the artist has the technique (if depkUn,g the construction <IUd. C01~tOlJ.US of an objeot set ~n space, plus U:n.,eknowledge cf how light opeI'utcs on the forms live consider basic, hebas a.ctf1"lirOO the springboal'd to his own individual expression, which, after all, is of grS;ilJller valu€ d'lfil'l~lJlJ)~tllwnglse, e Suppose Vi e ask ourselves \!\ihat a good dra.wi!lg is? Let 11[1Sthink first Qif the qua]rties tJiUlt make 1.11:';' a good. dJnlw~ng; these PO,]ut out the dep~I'I~mel'!lM Our C1imJt.Allything of we d['aw is dnnensional. It has height, breadth~ and 'thkk:= nesi.. There ~sa ratio between the three din: ensions, which we call lPffOpOlfUOOO"J!, Then all the parts within I~he slilbjEH::t have rattos to one another, and if these m-ecorrect they add up to make the Qver-all dimensions correct. A dra'iN:ing oaneotbe good ifi t .i!} l'l,ot in pllOp~lrtlon, so Iet USCfl,U. WOI,m'Uon the nnm bar on e element S ll1C€ the Pl'Dpodions exist in the thing we wW!lh to draw even before we ]}ave dra.\,,'IIli it; let us consider how we shall place it wi t!h in the bO'uud:al!'~c:~ ou~·pape.r surface, Let 1JJ;, think oJ of the l)!ape.l: as representing open sp~\(::e. within 'which we w ish t,OI place ,the subject, 'We want it tn settle uicelywithiu the area in whIcb it is most ~~f~~,ing, ]nd at th€l S<U'IIJif3 Nme Imost con~ vincing. ,\\fe look carefuHyat the subject to select a vicwpoint.\iV'6 l11!~y cut it. Finder-.~ rectangUl]~'U' opening, In a card that is in prop or~Q'

Han toour dmwjng alfe<ii- to sf:,.~ just where ~he

sllIbj0-ot should go. now big or small should 'it te, hQlV,I close or far away,. and where? Let us eall
Ithis element pll1c(:!llu:J1t_

\Vlhen a vlewpoin t h as been selected and a" ~)l<l!(:e'l1llent decided upon, 'W(~ ,stliirt to draw. The third elemen It pops 'i.ilp.W" 'il l1HOt draw an ob~
~eetwithoutt "u~I''$pecave.Since perspective is the

~ r..s.l' main problem, that adses, jt Is the fh:stthiug the (il!ltist sh'Qiu~d learn, Am lm(lersta~')djns o~ 'i~ should preced 01' be a part of ,every art-school h'nining,,, No dmwfng is real drawing unless it is related to an eye level 01' horizon, with the relationship Ull.del'stood byt he ,ilJrIUst. The subj,ec~ of perspective cannot be covered ,completely in thisbook, but I sl all ntteml)t to give the stockin-trade knowledge of lit Ithat 1 believe is, indispensable, I suggtlSt, however, ~h.< y,O(u get othef at books> and, while yon are leamiTlg.leal.'ll. as much about it as possible, since It msone ,of the most
ilmpurtnnt elements of sueeesslu] dl'aW~llg.

Suppose we understand the pe:rs(lective and. get it C."O:I,T 'ct. What now? 1.11l order to set. up convincing, form .itl theeBoot of light, halftone" and shadow, we must selmrnte the threemto piau(Jcq" Throughl:he effe(~t of light 01') planes we amve at the solid apl)e~u'luce of the [onn. \Ve look first Ior areas, Or planes of full ]ighit:, then, as the

form. turns a\\lay from the light, we find dlehalftone areas '0:1" Fh1i.n®s. 1J(~y(md th~ haU~one planes '\NI'} find the areas th;)lltare in shadow, the shadow p]anes." \Vnldn thashadow we find reflected: fight. wbkh., Ithough a part of the shado\'v, still defines fOHn. After deflnil,g the phno$,. we come to another element of (;'00(\ drawing, wlueh we may eRU p'alted'u. 'When we (~(~lr with values.we become in vc:[ved in the tonal ru:.range:rnt.."Il t of a dl'awt!]:g:. Pattern is a.notht:r aspect 'of C-O:n1]po5ition. Placerm l,"Iit relates Ilo compcsidon in terms 'of line; patt:eml;-eIB,tcs to it in terms of tonal areas. Here is where Cnl~lH\fenes$ gets Us .Gl1'stdHllnce., \V,e can arrange the l)aI terns of a ,subj eel; not .shllply accept aU patterns as the {l3tmer,ilI. does, ~:Jilt11lie S "lPaU:eI'lIS, may be eood or had in 'Our

13

THE FUNDAMENTALS
opinton and wIthin

~lJ:R.Qe~imits, Ev,eI-Y drawing is an artist's problem ill spacing and ,afrange4nent of the patterns o:f tone. Composition is an abstruet element. Only at ltttle of con'lposit]on ean be tau ght. There are bocks on, the S1.l bjeet worthy OIf hard! s~lldy, Add.
om- particular some
[0 Y0l.li:l'

do the thing convincing]y,

We have an idea" we

library.

Howevee,

oomposleion )"lost oj us
IHih11l

seems ~o be more or less instincUve.

would rather make ow' own ;,lLrr~tngemen'ts

be tQ,]d1. how to make them, The 'best wa.y to arrive at pattern or c()[il"Ipasil:iolll is ti) make sm ifl.1lsketches. wh:h:::h we call
dll~mhnaiI sketehes,
four tQll1eS~ILIU twlyou

~fi:likethem up of three or

getthe

feel of the

8U! hject,

These

may well precede

ill essentlally

Dra.wing tll}1e (lIther. Now,

d€Sign,.'tJld

any aetna] drawing, design Is

of

have made sketches. and \\'e U"~!stnow proceed with 'OUI' dr,awing. '[he next important element ]S cml$!l'Uction,. Now we must collect photographs, make sl(et,ches and studtes, hunt up clippings. go to any aVl,lUa'b'te source for correct information. If we c.m ~fford it,. we get a mode] for J?hotog;r3lph s Or studtes, There is another element !-;'O dosely r~Ifl:ted. b) eonstraetion that it must 'be considered at the same 'time; si:nc@..,,\~ecannot m.ch~eve the one withon t the other. 111is ws contour, Construction is Oom~erI ed \lllith thebuIk. 01' the mass 'from the inside O~1.t.Cont(lil,lli;WS the outer edge of the mass ]11 space. COtls1tru.ctlon Is based on iewpoint and
perspectl V~" the appearance of an object may be ,difFe:rent Irom everyang;~e,. Therefore 'we must tls~~hli:sh an eye level to

,drawing" One will ahvays, be the outgrowth

,if YQ1l] ha ve no,t already noticed it, we

an construction

,:o.'bkih werelate

OIf good drawing. all starting with the letter P. These are: propcrtlon, placement •. perspective, p~9iJles> and p~tb~m" Let us caU them the :five Ps.
have listed . five elements But these are not the only conslderattons of good drawing, Awhile back we were consideri'nglhe e:m.otkl!nalqualities\ddcll. evru:r good. dnl,\\;jng should have. If the suhjeet ,~sin.'llilbnate. Ithe emotlneal qualit~e's He ill the way i'l: is

,audl.contour, No subject can be dr~ wn correctly to lii'lore than one ,eye level. this,

is because it is fmpossible to ~oQokt any object a from two posltions atthe same tlme, Fcu!' ~Ms

reason, the infomlati.ooll we have must be ad[usred to fit the pJro:b[em. Two,cUppings or 't\'lrQ. photoglltapbs (If the same subject wiU seldom ha Voe the s amfl eye l€ve~> or - and this is 'vitally
important - tile sam e source or kind!. of .Ugbt. Th,e ideal fnformatton, of OOlU"S,e, is secured by having aWl pads of the :subject before you at once .• in ~h@sajme Hghting~ frou,] one viewpoint of eye or camera. Be:gi:rm,ers especially should work this WOil.y. Tb,a,tis wby sUnM,c. art-school ,IX)ses, and eutdoor scenes are the best s,u1bJec~s from \v:!II:i to. leam to see :aud ~o draw, Bl]t we i.'ch still need the fundllime!CItal~l1£'Ortrult]oi!li. or bow to dnmf them. The :Sitl!ldelll t who ~.oes to <1.11. art class knowing scm eth:ing of proportion :;md J? erspective and .how to achieve them. wiUp ass bis fellow students by Ieaps and. hounds, and when he leaves school hjs work ;\viU ga iJi acceptance much faster than theirs will, Without a knowledge

wm

presented. If' it is a, landsc~p~]t ill ay be the mood of th~ da v, or the freslmess and. eharm of , handHn,g. In a still life it may be th'e appeal of the sub~eotro1nUBt, dl,e IJe'anty of iliJ~ ,ohj€)cts themselves, in afignre subject, I:lii.eemotion may
be revealed ill tb.e ttCitlCl:1l ()~~ expr,essioo of the 6 gures, or in. tile story theytell. Bdon~: beg,hm Wl'l:g to ,araw. close your eyes a:nd. ,try to see the subject. TMnl{ of what wouldbe bappening. 'Think of the basic idea or purpose of the effort. All this may be called the C(J11Cep~

:tiocn oJ the ~ubject. Again we need. to make ~~mnbnail sketches, even scribbles, Ul1tU. OUI' 5ubjecthe,gins to take shape, Remembering thaI: sense of: l:igh.m€Ss which we rna y expect in tlu)$6 who win look. at Of judg1e OI.IDI' efforrs, we now need infolJll1Jin~ioT!. in order to

of perspective

and

dIe

iooghting of the bnslc forms, O,~" some Idea 'of measuring and proportion, the ;~l.l:UiSit be-cen-nes a. slave to photostats, projectofS.Clr any other

14

Think 10'£ your paper a's: I,epr~5~nUng,open :space, not asa tWCHlimeIil8~cm3il surface, h~t as: i( ,its edges were~he 'bOlUn,dldes of an. ,open, wm.diow. YQ~look at all of life arnd na.tme ,through this pap0r wind'i)'w,

,e'ilthe:r eo set $atm~s, ,iniI() this space ,that exists belor,e yO'1!.I.ot~oglvea i'ee'J~Dg ,oj'aJ.cluaUty to fonus \!!I'hich, you, create, froID a k:now]ed.,ge of th,e ~I,WVS namre, We study of
AUlmlipt

i~
I~

y__

e.

l
I

:Iila,ti!ll\e100:e.ieds

and

8ilit

th.em

down.

This; il:1ivoi]yes d~m,en,siiG'n,eOAlto~. vi'e:wpoiill:~ (m,~arningper-

s.peclov,e), and lighting. Only throu:~ ~ig4t,which produces all tOl~e~ color, and a.ppce:rance, can we pr odilll.1cea true ilnage o[~ife.
l

llle®.Uyto chaw", we canlnot thi~k o:n]y of :!l1JlJ, y 5ling~e :aspoot of drawlllg~ such as: IOOnitOUT. WitJi)'01[lt ,the ,other ,ess'entialls" but must seek ~o unify alltipects into ,Ii oorn,pl€!te ,a,Dld org,anized 'l!VhQ~e.
l

15

THUMBNAIL

R.OUCHS

'Thehaibit: of seffin.g, ,down yout .mental conoeption. of a !!ubjeclt m mima:tur,e :foughs ean play a row! imlpO.nlUlt parrt in your development as: an :msst. The bes.t way is to shut: Y'DUff eyes
16

and .try to, V:biU8i,li:re what Is taking place; as it woldd 'be in life. y,o~ have no. detail to ,gQ by~so just ngg,e:s~: the, :matenal ThJnk some kind iof

light It wEU ,come.

or

THE FUNDAMENTALS
meehanicaJ means tha'l: will substiht~e for the

knowledgehe

lacks. If he traces

Of

projects

pho-

tographs instt::a.d of drawlfl:g Ili~ subIiGC~~ the result wt]] show' up inbis, WQd" , SUdl an Ol.rHst \\V,iUseklom [each 'l he lron,t rauk, unless hls wo:rk has oitlilel: qualiHes ~ita{soroehow ll'llaike uben,er than tl'lewQrk of ,other phctogr,aph CQP)'i:s'~s. If a dra.wlmg;is to 'be indi"ic'h.t~l ana dyna:anie. the artistnll1S't use the eamera On Iy ~o provide ¥QJlI10tnillg to draw from" as he would, draw from, a model The camera does not see in the same pe:r~ sll'ectiive ,or pr(lportior! ~S: dO' t~e hvo 'hIiIDL'li'U10, ,eyes,. Beil1Jiga :dave to t:he camerausus ny~ea,'I8s the stamp ,oJ the p'botOgi',;'i, phie OD a roan· S\:\110,ik If you use phObJigrapns, !i'luare tih em ,off and draw, bu~ always draw, don't traee, I onceknew of an artistwhQ was askecl to do ;:Ii, subject away from home, when a'nl ills copying pn:ropb,emaita was baek Iill hts studio. Fer 'OMe he was .£orwd. to chaw. H,e WE!lllttbrO'IItg,h torture before 'he ha,dfiuished. The ,draw:ing never was g()od. He had n ever rea]j~c:,cl how m~H:ih he c1e~ pended upon his ,cl'utche.;;. He went back home and sft~d.eddrawing Inearnest, Theslsve te the ,camera never l-enUyknowsh,ow bad be l'enUy is or what his WOili'k '[:liCks" '~li1ti:l be cain see Ithe dif~, Ierenee of r~ea] dtnwin:g on his own ar~,w~ng beard, The way he '\ve,rkl"l is a man's oll,vnbustness, but it: sho'UM be pounded into the novice t)l,a~.bJrS greatest hope ~i~,ut .his own go~}d,free,. h..md drawing. When. by dillt of harril ,eilooo-t. 'W'E! 5JUooe~1b1 getting consttucUrul.~nd oont01;rli;, there ,issomething else, do:se.ty related t~, 'both. which, we must be C011stant]y ,thwnking of.. That is c1~QJ"~ (I,oter. rChm~)"c~eris the thing,that distinguishes one object 01' persoll from an)' Ot]lCl'. Usage brings 'challi"acter to an ,object~ exp eJ1'i,enoe blin,g~ it ~o man, ChaLractcl' IS ~lwayl,ll s~lIilgu']at'ii,ty.Pic't,odally. chMaCrer wsa foon ~lat belongs '~OthWs s~bjoot and no other. It is form in aparUCUh\,r pb,e<;un.der parthnd,af Hghul1g conditions,j f'rOllll 81, particular 'Vlewpoint,.wit!J'l particular ·eff·ect:.M t ]s something hnmediaoo; cfI.ught as jf at <l. glance - th~ set of tbe f'eab:u'es at th3Jtmometl't It:he look
J,

,of the ey ,[);the lnouth. the planes 'of the bee ~n tha~ Hghtil'~' all h<llv:il1g ~o do with etrcum.shllll!ces; then and there ..Here is 'WhClIC the camera tau catch vallllab~e' jn£O'rnl~ticm;, But belowe the camera ,d~cks,.tIle emoHrro. and nppe:rl.l~ances all lfi.·m~tbepresent - f'e:lrw~tMn. the aJrti:s:t. flltd. t:r·flU~
~)O~(;d. the t,o

model, or exis'til1gill\ ~h,emodel and

liecoguiud and caught: 1by thlC ",r[wst TheIl,. through the whole eff01"t, the artist f,eels the thmng be wants Ito express" the 'tMng rlHlt makes him wal~t te soy sOI:nething \\/idl hts penciilol" 'brush. Sud} fee'~~ng 'haS1J;, way of gettw.g mtcltbe kchlfdca~ elilpression. the handling of the med~.Ullil.. Somebmes the artis~ is 'ID!O~ 'C'V1@D cO'nscio'1IJS of it,. but u :stiUcontributes to the SllOC~..sS of the work, sUn:pJ:y beea use the J~elll'lg, is,a]so conveyed to the spectator. The sJudy of do~iI1Ill~g.1(1).dl',9:p C"1f)" does J1l~lcb ~oa{ld ehae Iclm', the ~l:ands.tll~eshoes. The geesture, inoo:rr(!.ct sf~lJcing and d~':liw~ng, ees Its: d part.. }\nd yet g,~sture is really c;,."Om}'uuetiou and contour, planesand value's" A p()l'tral~ sket:cll. is about onehundr,ed, per CeJ.11t clnu'Qcter. which means :)l(lcura:te sjJfM~cingf featur'es~ p~ane.s, find o ,contour Gh~u~lcter,cannot be achievoo witllioot <lI1,'t~leelemsn,u of :good draw ililig. He'oJ' pr-c-.Sen-, tation ,of cJI,a~"rJcter ,lifts the artist to the tOt' (If his 'P"'('J'fefJSf()"I1c" FinaU)' we have the most important element o:faM~ wh~c'b is cCI'nsistency .. COdlsistency embr~ces much, Consisteacy is :r~a]ly bllltb as reoogrd"lJed by thili;t intelligent pettq:dion \VEl h.II!VC, mrtist and Jayman alike. C'OID8;i!itmlcy~teehuica,U.y, ,[!I1e9Jl'lS tll9:t lighting" l»opQlritlon~ pe:tspeo tive: are so baru:1le:Cll that all elements belong to one parUcu~ar subject :and no other. There is a consistency of purpose, when dlil.i1&tSp~es.'1i home tha:t purpose. There Is n technic.al eeasis t~JJ:CY ,of ~~i\t1llie,n:t> so. Itha:.t all parts of the $ubj'l')ct, seem to, be dOliiLeby the ssme hand, in the same it~d~vidua]l:'V9iY. I do 11ot~anfthalt i;l~~ su:r(aJc:es: should be handled as if made 'Cl'f the same J:1'Ia.t€:d~l.~~or wid,. the ~,rumleklnd, of strokes:, bot tbat all parts have a tlfl'ity 0'£ approach. and vision w.hich ,org:a:m21es the su,omed in~.o as:ingl,e
j

an
a

an

17

TH iE, F'IVE P'S

],'

P'R'oPORTION Tb.e ~eedirnet'!.Sioiilis

2
. ,

PLACE·MENT A :positio!l in space

~I

fJ)

P'EE.SPECflV'E Rel!aticns.nipofviewpomtt'il'

subject

4:
. .
,

PLANES SwfBl,ceap(i~anceas

de6nfHl iby tight and S1!Ht-

dow

"

": ..

:.. !

"

:._

'.~",

_ ""4t

.18

CONCEPTION A rough indicaticm ,of an id.ea

rr
. ,

'CONSTR UCTION

~, aUem.pt to, es~a!b'~is'b tTh1l,e .fo:rllltS ,(lIom.e or .from bas.ic knowledge

2
,
, . .

CONTOUR
The Hmits of .fol'ms b1 spaee, :i).oOGifdiug to Vi'flWp((m~

CHARAiC:T:E,R The spe:cl£i.cq u3ili'ties of i'Odividual units o.f yODt

subJeee

in

li,gnt.

CONSIST.ENCY All (he essentials lof eonstruedoa, 1liig:h~liD.g.<TIJl!d. pa:Uern" orgawUid as a unit

5
-

THE FUNDAM.JENTALS
e:li:pIrHssion. . €l' us see the nrt$st

himself ,oorning througlTl his work ~ his f'eeling about it. his: ira}" in doing it IFrMs is achie'i1cd. rhe work will

never be cons.ide.red illdt;)!ti<m. foli'" it is not' an imitation. cWh·11 we thinl~ o~ eonslsteney, then let us: ~hlnt of the ullity of all dIe s]e'lnel1t,s brought to:g,eH~eif in~o ene whole eiffo'rt. Tbe !iwUst won't go '''''lIong when he can. see ll'lle h'ig truths, or wh a,ll he feeh to he the hmg tru'tll.!i. If .he looks fo~' th bwg planes; the bi:g, ~igh~s and sbadows~ the b:i:g values andrcl~tiO!llship5', he will do a bet~er job. Onecan "asw)y ,g t ~.ostin ;)I. lot of hula truths ,*itho-ut sillcing the big ones, The ~.eafcompared to the bunk and mass of 'the tree i~seU is the d:i.lerence between big truths and IDiule (lIIlE!S, or between big v1ision ,arnd ,ey,esight. Now let us hlee stock ,o.f' ~~ these el,emnnts. n Y.ou mav have l"eil,liz'ed d':lat we have now added ,t~veIilllO[·e. aWW be!i:mllil e. with C dl~S time'. l11e:v are caneeptiorr, eOllls~rl!.lc1tion.oQint:oyr. clu.l:ra:c'ler. l'tnd consistency, So we have five :pIS and .!flNie; C' s ....w hich should help you remem ber them, 'They ~~'eilllll:strate,lon plllges 18 and. 19. Rep,eat theaames of these elereen ts 'over and over in your l'nind lmUl you memorize t'tl,elll'l" for ~~l'ey will ii]W,;l.,ySbe the guiding Jights ~o successf u] dli"awing. We w.Ulnot suceeedwlth them eV'efft.imc', ner wiU e:ve1r1 sL~g:]le drm'\"Ij:ing be slJ.ccesSifu]~ but \'Ve can look 3& each dr~l.\Ylng to see in hew rn~lny of the.~e elements the work C'Juali:fies. A ,]:rawing f~dJs hcause of fad~Iil('e in one Of more of the elemer ts; au.:.1yzffig it te 6ndl. the source of faih,)J:"e points It:Q 'D~ 'efta!.'s a.nd, d:ilIk=l1llUes. Concenh:atiug 0.11 these elemeuts kee-ps uS O.!Il.our t'O~s. and lil:tle by little O'u~·W(lrII: ' hnprov6s. In o~ur ~ntenigeillt perception we .18 ve a ,guid(~ to vWsIJa.1~gbt and "!fOng as good. as r our sense ,of moral :ri,g~'t. orwroIlg -~,)fr!.'baps better, We can, he taken in much moreeasily t1tl~O~lgh O~lJ' ears than t1~m'ug:lll Our eyes, Have dl'r,;: ,cOlU11g,e ,tomldieve wn what you see, as }fOU see :it. and. to, d~aw it dU'l.t \V;iJ;)', even if' Jim Jones sees th~l1gii ,;m()dl,er way. 'That is v';h,at makes each of you an artist Art is ,certainly a mat,j." --

an

!lite. book. Lhave p]aoed perspective first, because I believe it is easier to learn 'to handle ]iu('! ~d~.1I:l,e hefOI'€: ge'tUng int,o< the oompJ[c~,tioill.'i of IJTh(llllCS sndtones, \\th'eh are meanjng~ess '\~ith.out di:men:s,~on and pcr~pcetfve. In ,art schools. a s" bi-eel ~s usuaUy 'set up hefore US; Imd ~1Ij'{~ siimp]y have to ,(Iraw wh~u Ii"' there, But WhOll. we are out on ;():IJIl: own> Itbe subjccit is,lI'su;)IUy nottbere.it is, not too hard to drawa cube that is set ~1P'beWore us. ]But\'!~Uli.t we nl'tls t leam h; ito draw an :iInSlgiT1L9JILY ,cube at any ,eye level, to fit into any set of circumstances, rt e lmportance of th i:S;wn~n be Ul derstood wh 'n YOll knmv tj~at a Jnr~O;St al!l)' obj-ect may be. <:lrawn iti perspectlve Irom a. cube or Mock. since thaJ.t represents the over-al] three dimensions of a.nyIt]dt,! we draw, Even n sphere; :B:~s ompaet 1)' into e the cube. Theeu be or blodk ma y he' thoug,ht of as 'L he box ~hat will fit around nl,1J)rt~dlllg .in :the nniverse. KnowiJ;1:g dl.e proper way to draw ,the bloekleads 1.1iS rigbt in at the fll'Oflt door of perspective. The buiidblg is the outside of the box. The: wntcri()J' ist'he h~s~de, andw:e mustk:uo,w .Ii:!owto give It d.imensioi1~ndl~~eas""rement. when those are needed. They usually are needed, j.f only to. keep the figul",es 011 th~ 0001', ill propor\o U(n!ll to t.he '\van:!!~ doors, ilIind.fl1rni:::ihin~'i., 'VVhen b'lliWding,s and figur,es IQDCIilIt in ~he .s,alJlIl~ SU~)j,cct, we need dimension and scale. It is simpleto 1)111.00 ~ figure ~It;JIlY a given spot On the 90o(f Gil:'gl:fiund pbwt'i,. in correct pf0'PC~l'tion 'ttl other Gg;'l.ll'e.". but over and over even high-ranking alttists fan ~o a.chi(;"'Ve tII.is, and tU~e result I-s,a bad. [oh, ,(,!,s even. John Doe can see. Wben diff,erent eye levels appeal' in a drawing, the ,artist has proiba.My faHed to reconcile the' in~ consistencies In thev1CUFious pieces of ropy frmrn. 'ilihich he ]s wO'tkwu o .He ii11ay~ 110~ e""V\e11.be aware r.t of the inconslsteney ~ hurt the people who, see his w-o.l"k havean uneasy feeUn,g d'l.at. ,something, is wrong. though t]l.,ey do not kno,\,.'wbait. V.~h(tn ;S lI'ight the f,u'b:Eie reaU), cluck. over a t1 in,g. When it is wrong. th¢;!J am usually jus,t si~eni
ililorg<'u
ill

j:;..;ingthe material

wm

an

E,VERY DBAWING

HAS .A HOR.lZON

Anything we draw; no, luaUer what: it is~ :l<S affected by t}'!!e eye level and vIewpoInt fmn'll Which. we draw jt. 'Tille ,ey'c level rus,~'h_ehodwll. ' €If the :pwhue. It may b;e3Jbeve @irbe~O'W'the p.~o-

:kuow 'how to fels,te ,an ~O'nns ,md their contours te an eye level In :aphmograph. everyth~ng j!s l'\e~a,'ted the cameea lens in the same way~ but 'k> ,UnJJ\') ·a.1;IUslt aanot dBpru:lid upon the camera. lie e
must 'know perspective,

l:urcptane' @'rmay
.

I~S;

it n~ any poin,t.W,e must

-

21

THE FUNDA:i\IIENTALS
The sllIIcee.sdu] artist must keepth.e'J.l:'II dueling. I p·l'Sm:liaW~}' believe an utwst CAn ,de,:oelop' a sQ:undincl.ividuality in his l;v.ol[k o·Ji;lIy if he~:Jl!OW5 how p rspeeeive, .light, and shadow truly afFe<:t the basic forms, Then it Is not too diflcult 'to peTclf:live tbe rel.1Uooship of ~U odl~r fo,rms to the basic oaes, The artist must l."JlIOW the difer€:llce in ~be ql1ali ty !Of diil'U5i€~lligh~ al:ld, d.ir~ct ligflt and not m:iix the ~~V'o' within the' same subject. S6 many <li.1~lis:t'sget imtQ~v·ed in ti'i,ek-y teehniq Ue5, 'whjch arewell and good if ,3J1Ie'liSie.is: in order but can cover up just so many sins and no more, Technique aiO!l,e will 'not ~'!t\Hsfy dlnt iintel1igeflt perception o£ [ohn Doe; s,l.IIndiiwe \:I,';aI'1't hilll t,o write to d.lIe magazines and say that ~"(!ctmodeli.'IIg can. ruin a mall"s ehences
that the Urne saved may be

sofa:s:t

s:pe:ntpoulldin;g side"valks.. When ,I.t pa,htting G'l dmwing stan ds as a great tldl1g dOl\v" through fl.e year8,wi~h g:enemUol'l aft.er genera:t.ic~n ,of new 81") eChi.tors~ I be~~.ievetheJ.~[g, a positive' reason, which means more than the name sl,gl ed on the canvas, Those R~"listswere g,feat because they Cfl.Mtl!so elose to· the till! (11'of vlsiou, because theyhad g!l'ea:tunden;bm (jling of nature and her ways:. Til) stand 'before a 'r,(lmz na~s .wsanexperienee. It i!'; life" brou,ght down through the years to you. The worn an. in ,tbe white eap and. friUed CO~klr]S a :~:i.v:i.ng character. and we see her bdOO'e us just as I=JI[a~ssawher. She almost speaks. Thl'OU,g.h his: vb;](m and mastery we are 'hviug jn:l!.thll13: before we were horn, There ilS notbing,,,,e dOIDOt c.o'mpre:hend. No, eXll,laiflations are needed. ';VenJeed know no'lh~n.g 'Qif~ut h)· Feel ;luul ,aplPl.'eci~:t:e t1.'le grmiltn€lSs: of the work, I cannot hdiecV1ethat Franz H!iI:]s ever be outmoded, His works

he thinks olU'\'lork Is g,ood~ WI!;! can"t depel,'IId an

technique. P'Orl'lJ'liis form, and ill any' parl'lclid<!l.'l

lig~'ti:ng ,e\ferypl:~me illil a. pictul'C ll1!l1Slt hlJlve Us rd!!.itiv<e value, or the whole faU~ 'to ,convince.
The wrong val ue means plane is not whatwt that the angle ,of the

should

be, ,and therefore

contours: are

wm

dle

[()l'l'TI

is incorrect

whetheethe

will be lfl~S~r.Jitpi~ccs; ru~ong as there

are, people

right

()T 110t.

Let us consider Jor a moment what made the gr~'al f'lfHsts,great" III O~~1"Iostevery ease tbey were '(i'Ulsters of form. wh_ich means tllat ~ey h~.d. to be ~a;shrrs: of ligbt en form. Ltgh't Hnd!. form were )jUJ dif(,(_..;n;:nt then. The artist ,of the past had no cUpll~ngs 011' eameras .. 'They had to

to see them and ~be:paint and canvas hold together.

No m~n can s!!:lc~slli1ny draw or paint a head

unttil he can render ttlli.esurf.ace of a spher,e !in
light roun U hie CilIin~t lee,] tll~ W'eIIilUO.l'iI:!ii~ipl 'M the ded forms of the head to the sphere 'Gregg,

the rendering will net have so,lldi'ty. In ,the ma-

st'lJ.dy they learned b·uths. which are still staring us 5n the

,face; but l'vhiclb. 'we do not know 0.1' see, because we thhik an F.2 lens is gob. g to take th~' who]€: heavy bUSiness off our sbou,Iders. \.'If,e ;~ctu.uEy

find out £ron~·~if,e. observationand By

dl ~J.i book \1V1e :apply the ]tgbt 'Oll basic fO!;"1'f.list·o tll'li: figure and. tIl.e' head, Foj 1lI.I.i:tdc:lfun, \V~ even give solidity to comte drawings. It is
terial In pO;'ls.ih to n'i~}.r;e' Ie even a oomic seem to e!'ljst in .Wightand sl'u\Clm!l. with notmng but ilU~btina!tion

ha.v:e hve~lt)' ~jJ.'nes H\i~ opp orhlJ'~ilty llO! produce liliiasteFf~eces that they h:l!.d. \V,c are not holJ~.ered w,itb maki:ug materials, or ske~ches~ or studies £rmlll life. The trrn'th is we ~.I'e .~ not ust
ere neither crdtSlTl!oll nor contributors. The only le,gUirll®lt'eeXC'llse the artist .of ~oc1ay has -Sl.~.d1. it'S WOl'Il thln ,_ is lack of botfuel~ed.We

to work fro:rn.

The tlrae that you spendpra.c'tieiog on esseati:l.\]swUl not bewasted, Suppose you ~v,er'e asked

dr,()Jwa, set:wesof eolumns.spaeed !UJ,feet apart~ set on cubes m,easm-ing5 f~~etea,chwlJ\\y~.witb

bJ!

some figures standing at the second and :liftl}.

oolumns, and the bases g..E eight 'co~umns going back in the dtstanceThis ~sve.lty S,inlp~e 'if Y,Otl k'lOW p.!i'spective.W1-ilich '!ffiuld tak,e ~he most tiiI1l1E!. boo]~un~ '(I,P s~l(~ha. buUd~ng"t;!l,ke ~)bOk)-

time, But where islack 'of Ithne biking 'Us?

To know is the S!lU'e"s~ 'way in the 'world. 'to save time. .kn <1ll!"I'"()l" ~n f~'1fSpll:~clti.ve n use 1llp nJlio:re: '00 tilne Ithan fnl)tadislt has, Bad pWa:-o,e:5 ~lldi.peoit~
.22

gr-;;rphs~ ,dcw'emoF' !Ums:;.~~e

print8~ m1d setthe

EVERY URAWING

I.S A fR.OBLEM

OF DIMENSIONS
Ii -lki,il,ckfeN ,Gr~f'

w- ahdik
,M I.DPou'fr ...

.If cOlHl'ar.r.f~n
.
I.·_/L . 'Jd _,DI._

lllitltlk;»tidcl/teipAt t/lHc/wtdlk. ItCt2Jl J,e6cakl

k~ _L

)'otHio/A-1h ietfld
Be EipUK}'vtirll

~7fA'4CtHf~PtelMt(lC/lt

at'~

A-C2tulJ(kr/A?titfflH~j'tr~

llted.ran?irfi#Utt

aJltc?kdnZlDVtf;;alJl

If' t1IfdahtWt.
idtifU

,/ih;,

aftWctlJii/dCtnf(lk~. /iHt/fJ)iMre &efC1~-fzII oe mock/or Co/'f

Sl.DE-O:F'~TH:E-LEAD STROKES

v'~J;,. l
"

~, P(Je~
,24

THE FUNDAMENTALS
ru~IH;)fflbly 011'1a. proj ctor, Or ]U.\it to sit down ~md drnw lit? A_most (L'lily,.lilick of knowledge of imp~~ptm;pective can hack away ar au ,(]Ir{-is,t's, (Iinl!le.
Theamount
<l!f metlon and tim' other p,'rsQn tc

the~a.yman ~gntiI it

ws:

beillllllUfuHy

drawn or l)1<dut(ldi. 'We have no mock

whieh .1 'l,l\(m save

by knol'it"~ng hO\J\' to so],,(=) your probl"I:JfIS

rm' e,;,;;-

eeeds :lmy Stl.·" .illgby the OC)fOfcct(lr. Thtl' UI,OI'(. YO'Ill lean on you~r crutches, tl 0 more YOWl sll-eng,th. ebbs; and soon }"OiU en mol g t nh:mg \""it~IQut them, No artl st 'C'3n cv'c~·sa V,C IUme by not bC'i1 g able t(l do forhimli:e]t the things his camera dm~.~ for him, Nev,er .let that camera get beyond, being a source of infclI:m41lti(in. ':0 11)5 ln the world is a roc:ll dr'<lftsuuu~: that skU! belon gs liu ~he artist himseU Une tlra"\'i:ng andpainUng ael.uaUy simp1ify and stress the basic rd.llkms'hip' of the forrns. The leg (w torso is actullHy better ~1S:a cylind:riC<lI shape, \vitb [ust enough an~'to1fllly to make it eon= vinel n,g. th::l n as a photogra ph ~c rep~ ica ·or eo'ery hump and bump of the m\ISCWeS on it. '\~',e must learn ~o SU~) ortHna.b3 HI'IlH::h ofwha.l: the lens sees. We are reaUy conecmed H10re with light and sb.'l.Jd,ow ~mabulk .ot' II'HUiS th.an with \!i;'hat the came ... ell g1vc us. J[Jiloto,gl'tlp)lS with several l l.igI'ilI~ sourc s, '\!iMchis ~hc way most comlil'ilercinl photographs are mad ; defy every prillcipl ef good. dnnvi ng. There ls !flO anth cnti.c form hl them; it has boon. broken up 10 menn]llg~ess light and shadow, n.nd good dn~\\finghi e!:lsenti~lny a
a-

plus all th,s 'thim!'s In natuse, we have the man-made thwn,gs that have become a par~ ofm()d]el'u life. \Ve ha ve thousands and thous l'mdis o£el'ects,.w many worth setting down. so m~lny worthy 0,£

'Or

mnt,erffial

an

study. Th arUslts of

tod~}' '-\lj'li

a~lh~v'e ha,d. t'heh'

ycstcnla.y b cfmr,e roo, lmlg. Some of you students wi]] h ~ in their places. yo~!win be Uiviug ~ntll:e same 5unLi,ght 'lh.ey U\l~d in; 'wiH~ all of nature now YO'm's instead of theirs. You ,,"vi.n Jive iJlmong, new U.lnH,:.'Sand. laces, bu t \vuh the same kinds of P Oi)~C' dO'iol! ~md til. inl in g, n~~lJI::hthe same rh:ill(tS. To "lPPC<:ll to those people Y{nU win have to g:JY them credit for intelligence, or awarel1!3SSof [if an.d. mllm' '. Crudity and distortion wiU not be .my more <~:p:prcchlted fifty ye~[':':; h 'nt' th3.n ~hcy .n'C now, If you can achieve truth, 11)0L~rllli can discredit you. 1 cnnnot believe that art devctd of fl,1nda.mentals, Sh'uctmaiknowhu:Tge. and. somesort (i,f beauty, een endure, Sil C~ we as huma.nbeings cam l.lIolUdio 0 the \\<isc tl mn lhre \~fit~lmlhu:c Oil.~~d her ~aws; 'f \"f(lilldt.'t' art C;;UThdo otherw lse, I bel leve that du;~artis'ts of the [utWfle k I:l:O'W m nch more about nature ~h.. we do; and tha t an nH~know 1 d,ge will lead to gl:ea~et art. Inereasing ul.wdc!r,bl1uHuO' has ~ed to the pdJllcipEes we

ir

wm

shl~Ctncn( of IQI)'.m. I should Hke Ibhe }'otlng. art~:St;l as :hc . It;uts

use new,

Let

\IS aUThCk ,the materia]

bcfoJl'€:

us

\\""Owking.on the rna teria 1 in this book; 'to eonsider, befnte discmmting what nature has to o.ff'l',

Wlit! lhl.: fed~1I Ithat adiUUon3iI g lwin g on lly added p~J\'!i'(;'lr.

1:1 owlcdge can

what i:t would be hke tcbe blind. l'Mnk what Ught ~Uldfonn n~.'lny n'1.I.::nn to us, Thines that
seem. so c:omlnonph~,ce3ire ~'e~ f ~h;ings of be1ll,u!ly,. U

Strijln~r·Jy ,enough ,,,,II1"n they are well (hr:.lwn

,the), seem even more b 'muUluL for th,ey have been set apart .from the endless muh:lpHcity of
uilItm:e.A, good.cll:';]lw:ing, o~

thjng can be rnore ·lIltel'~lil'iJg than the thlill_g itself. (or jlt con' ntrates ,ilJUenHon on aspects which tbell;jlYllll;;liH 1,mbnMywou1,(llilQt see, Flowers in a vaseare
fi

beantifu'l,but seenwith the painter'~~ vlsion they can be even more beautifu], A head is just au-

Th c~c j,~ ] j tele En..hou pend] technique t lhu.t C>1.1'l b t~ught. ]Butit may be' a ]l:elp to the student to l'i~HJ~~I"Stnl:ld $().'iTlC of ~h,,!th~n g.s h~:ipcl1'lcn do. I have .a~w<\y fa oredi soft pencii ~md.do. not ~ f~c;l to use d i1I(~ent gndes lO'rh;~'I'dne sses within th ~ same dnl'i;ving. I like a lvge lead, sharpened to <lIi. Ioug poh!.t, capable of sbmdfng oO'ilsid "1J'~tb,~e l'l,rcssure. Thcpuint :mny be ]aid m,-arb" n~l.t On the 'oal)er ~)\t .1.'IIoldino' t:hci:JcncU .It" LIL,~ iii. undo .. the hand Hllilld IlJ~iI g the arm and wr.iist rather than the nng~rs for the stroke. Tb 'lip of 'til e point ma y be' used I or ~illes> such as Olll[~

'wm

.rI

25

'~/t.,

,J/itce

ckliHe'/orM,aJe ~4vdr care~ltY'{o/uz,I/k'/tfH.

04 ,/t'r/d,C'aH.

~ea.rcfLi9'k;,kal1~
,aad .riadow'.

ike ,.ra~ceJ;j€,ofti-tt; I/t£

doer

Of

if iro.rebacroJ.f

THE FUNDAME~rTALS
llines or contours, and the :Bat side for shading or compass work ingto wlll suffice., Any ruler scale. will do when

gnys. For the dfect. see pag~ ,24.'The dxawings in this 'book were d.oM with the Eagle Pencil Gom.p:t,ny's Frmsmacolor Bhdc 89'5 Ito obtain good
blacks fo}' reproduction, since a.U (lots on a ltne

Theproblems

'Of' ltghnn g on Iorm can best be

If you must work

solved by working, [rom li~e.

cut must be black DilJ,er'l;:'nt papel's give rliHeren't effects.. The pap(3',l' used f"Oil' thcs,e- drawmgs was CoquiUe
Board, a grniny (laper .repl'QclucHon. meantfQ{ this kind of

-ai~ 'I~'ipht, mw arti6dallhtht ~ on ~ \i'OUlr :s.ub;e.ct will e ~ I give you the effect yonwan t. However, keepthe

light ,s~lTIph.·", using one source, Draw anyth[r1g you wish for practice - some oIdi. shoes, some pott ry, some vegetables, fruits" pots and pans,

bottles, bnc-a-brae, toys, books, dells, anything

pend~s} cra.yolls, charis dnnving in

There are alsoearbon

coal,

,anything you want-Drawing

any medium j select the 011 e you hke b res~"You 'can buy Iarge pads of Jayout bond paper, which is not too thin and trausparent. Get a bo.x olF kneaded ruhh91"" or the fl,l~:s,t[c'Itype of eraser, The pencils I ha e us~l dO.1 orerase readily, lFO for awhlle it mi;ght be best ~o sttek to dIe regubr graphite OJ lead pencils, My only ~:tlg:g'estion as to the technica I use
~'lIepenc~l Is to

at It 18 all Iorrn wilrh light on ffit3J·nd all present interesting: problems. To keep yOllill' ]?1:'acHce from getting: too borling. perhaps one' evening at peI"Slr)edive can be fml-

a.n.

life or copying someof the drawings in this book. Tl"Y

krwed an'v,ening of drawing from

by

tTy to avoid scratch y ~ small, alll,d.

0'

draw real people - some memher o.f YOUI' (amily wtll pose :f():ryou, Spen.d an evenlug wlth comics -.~t.ey are £'00 to 00.
There
S~V

O'l'lce mn a. \1vhiIeto

]8

plene of material

an about: YOll. Do not

try tOo make masterpieces, just sincere smdtcs ..

YOIU

thin-bned strokes for your grays Ol.l'ld!Wacks. They persl!'i't in I,aoking amm.tewdsh and fussy or 1urry instead of suggestln g an area of tone, ToO dothe pers!pec..1i¥,eproblems, y.ouwiU need a fnirly\v.id.e (lrawingboard, a T square, and a
triangle. You need (lot get:
a;,

work [or .Water comparison. is to

Tc Jearn to draw draw,

draw and draw and

Note; If

yO'll

\"Ilish to ,copy any o( the

yOllllnay

drawrngs
SQ, How-

complete

set of

shown here, for practice,

do

drawing instnrment5

ualess you ~lIltend to jnk in

your drawing'S. A pair of cUvldel'g: and a penon

ever, since the book is copyrighted, no part 0:£ :i.t may becop.ied fo,t reproduction 'CiT' slle.

(
.

'

~
I

?lr.e/"e' if Aidc£:J{erjZ;:(3clt~e' tit everrlhtl!1 lkai aie COt II

ever:
cViZaJ;

larf€ orJmt2II.

The pages of tJlis book that are tlevoted to PM~:I?€>cliv,e sh.ould.l1ot be eOl'lsidered a ,side isSf!.ul:by al;"lyonew h€l is: se:ri.ously i'ntel."e.s,t,ed in, drawing. It In.l)' be' hard to see die ccnnectlon between 1)lanes and. vanish.ing points and the khild. of dir3f;,iI,I'ing y,au ~'Y:i;sJ'i, do. But there, '[.'5 a to' der.nit:e eonuection, fo~' anyt hing, you dm"" is re~ated.w, ,3; hOl'lizol1 ~nct vanisJun! pOhllis,. eVEn1 though it is IilO~ :alwaysneccssfll'Y 'to draw them. If YQU iililte:nd. Ito R'JJa::ke:a. ~ivill;g at dr~,w~ng"by means leam these things now. and do not I'll ave tbem hotherin,g you a.nd your vl!ork f,or~be rest ,of yOllll" ute. Even. if you ar drawing on~y as a ho1b:];,), ~hG knowIDedg:e w iUefia b1e y,o:ut<c) do ~ much better work. Remenl) bel' that anything can be drawn within the cube or block. EV,eI'II though you don't draw the ,il,ctual block! you mu~tfecl the pel'spectivereJa:uanship ()f the Rgur6 or obJed as it would be withil\l. a bleek .. Experilue:nt with leal dj'aw~n,g by drawing a thing .~rst.'witb blocks. See bow 11:luchmor,e 1'001 eenstructiea you I:ertinto :it. Yon win '~ate:r ee the s tie-up,be:twee'll ligh.tin,g, ~nd perspective, which

an

dents are to underestimate the need. of practicing scales, Bo:th f oundatlous aee :necessa.ry. I~ drawing, the ,eye is as: illlportalllil,lls; is; theear in music. M usiclans \II!I1Oplay only by ear ate never us accorliIJPU~hed 05 those who (:,iln also read musie, SIrnihlfty, an ~.rll'ist ean ,dr.~w by ey,e ~l{lln,e~ hrj;t't he \:o.dll never draw as well as o:ue'lvho kuows Fundamei tal pe(spectiv:e. The handicap is, UIll'l~ce$Sary it emU~F ease, Sit 00 the knoi\i\·ledge ms a\,<lm~able~\!Vh"y 'to :strugg,le aIDo~~g ~:ry \\~i~b.ou:t ? n The ,dillic~dUes!(lif not know il\g9l~e alwllJs l'lliiucb gr'e~ter IthantheeHort of [(r.u;n~lll,g. The prob]e.ns in thls section are not d'lud·;s p]~y,They l'equ~l~e con:si!d~:[';fible appJication, But the, time and e,iJort requlred to d1.igest t1t~s ma-

t·erial thorouglly wmpay d~vidends thl"ougiho1i.Jt your whole career. Alt'h(n,g:h luany of the lfflport:aot princl,ples s[;r~presc:,:n~cdhere, spal:e aibvieus Iy does not permit c:olflpleb:coverag~ in a book of this krir~tt.and. I cannot possibly answer
personal let:tlim!l on prohIems .o.fpeIspecltive. I uil:ge, you. 'the;l'elore~ ~o 'supp leu.'ilen~ tltis 'hook willl. some goo d ~e1(t!.i n perspcettve, A. simple o one to understand i~ PefSfJec.Uve 3-I,aae' E'(J:8g by Ernes't Noi~il)lg; you will find ethers in boobsteres and art s'~or~s.N,Q subject: Is :Mor-e' worllry 'Of dLU~ alflist's st!il.dly.

Me

much more ,d08i~ly relaeed

dUIDtlile3vt!:l"ag.c

artist re.ibrzes.
Art s'~llIde'ntl'!i,are as :Fronlll: 'to' lun(telfiestwlil'!aJrelhe

vallue of tile Shldy ,~Jperspecdve8ls: music sta-

29

Let usstad with the: beginning of aU good dn~.w.tng,p!I'oportion and d:imellsion. The square with
Its equal dimensions is e\Xtl'emely jmpOd;atlt~as

,ean Ql)nstrud u.e!arly all adler forms ..io pe.rspective. The square is a 'basic means of measurement, W·e must BrstIearn to ,div:id.e the 8qu~:re.

the: .followi.ng. pag,0-sshow',. From, tbesqlHue: we

Ji."a« ~/oqe.;,d-:;(wil!

IiI: ~&,

t2 ~.~

a;,tli Inltl't- ~,(I.)

i.a·~·.tf, ~Ike

o;~a~

.~ .~""~9'

ifl.per.t;P@:~6ve~ Idtc~ig?~'. '*~nzI/&~e#t.r<!aKrc/(M:l_ o~~ odS co~P"V&t ifl...6Q.x wl,,~: ~Id tit .~"'(}uMlt. meN @e. bui/dike object ~'jf"il4 d... ""el( ?O(tJ<d obje,c6- ftC £ -&e ~ (>;" .6IacA. Ib, d'~ '4e cu.6e,.we .muJ.t eiwlt.rk 02 knzO/( (O/."·&rekv:td'I)~

pc-~:"I-,E. "'I/J.r.d'e.r ,a/ ike <x.t.c6~J Pe(Xde lowa.n:! ~.

'v:arUfck(.~ ~

d}).egronnd.. .An g;r,olil,n.d."lalllsbe.g~flI wru~ih ~'his. We ean f!!0i1W ·bui1d the cubeen the ·square. The shies of tb,e cube are divi,ded' Hke:the squares at the top of 'the: :page~butnM'-i' are shown m per30

Tihe dr,a,wing abCl<veshOW's the sq uare ~a;id tact ,on

Spi~cUve. In the: dr,Q.w~lilgabove d1ete is some

d.istortion because the vanish~.ng. pomts had to be ptac.,oo,:11 Inde too' ,clore in ord.er~o show _hem both on t:he pa.ge. Try wCQ"w[ng some cubes eor-

r.eedy.

THE CIRCLE AND TH,E CYLEND'lER

Dr .fl!J:ea:ns,of' (be,
we can
a
.:.l:W (.'l}MPQ:SS~O

dl.v:id,e,dJsqua~e andll:he cube, the c:WIJe iI:nd.tbe cybndcl. We!!!lse

'm:,a!wa~e ,circJ~. The cilrcie~1i1!ipei[\-

ellrup'se qutte aiOOUXaJI:ely bYlIDs,ing thedi.vlded squ:arn dlmwillin pe.~p'~cUve. T~i5 ~sv~~~labJ.e]1\ d!rawlng:aJI FOlimd. or ,cy:llh'ildrlea:~ {OJlUS.

sfooU.ve beoome;san

elUpse. We, can

dJ"3;W

the

draw a: ci:rde in pefsf~ti\l'lej W~ first: layout a dMaed squJare. W,e dl!e ares anr~n.d.lhe f;'ouIsicles~ malki1:lJg, the atCSc"u:t jrusft mort .of m!E: hfiU\~1 _POlnlts bet'ilv€lel'l .Aallildl.II N Q'W by (k,3iWI iug: ,e~Hps:-esen Ule fGP audbQu"Q.m ~id!esof a:
1'0

mw

pers:pec,Uve, The vlilinJ:sh~ogpoints for a srn,d] obi ec~

clllbe ,ve ()Ollslrncl:a cylhlld.er ill
','Oir

or 'Mock,

sbollidbe spaced\v.~deapaJit:. ~h~ycan be spa.cdl.clOJieT'.

laj"geobjects.

31

THE CfRCL·_E AND 1 HE CONE

Tile ,coDe i:sbWlt on the c:bcle in perspecHve. and thecirele Dlperspe-cUve is o.f OOUlltSe,COJl:stru.c:tedwithin the sqU8[I;',e., Many objects are blULi]~t with the: COlle as the baste form. sucih as f.he wine g~ass, hom. ete,

fwl4 ,VaN"'.rIt.· ,it? I'Ot"rtt.f h(,u.rj.: /;e~a..J~d ~ &e, J~ IYUf /ev,e//tOl"lZOR .,

J(~Hte:JltJ'erha,i !

Latec' y,olJ,lwiU dr~.wIl!eehand, bUlt at 6rsl. when

you are le~nl'~ngthe basicpri:n.cipb~s of dr~wjll~ you .atwaysneed:a S'trai,ght~ed.geto, get 00f-

wm

fecit'perspect.ve. So. get a T'square and abiaJng~e and make .IlU Ilhe lin.es true and straight Cai[\eles:s:
dra.\iI!'ing :isthe Sum sign ,ofthe
:a.,llHlIWUl".

TH.E CIRCLE

AND THE Sf'HERE

'Then dra,w tile ,dreWe ()b,n. On the 'l1prigll!~ d.ii:\\gm ona] planes; 'nUl lengdl of these plaaes is det:er~ ndfledby Itheperhnet'er ()~'the horioonta~ eirele,

Since a ende fits Wti.,thiiI a squar,e. a spbere wiU :liIt 'mth~n a. cube.. Firs,t divide th.~ ,cube. then ,chaw the ,circle pman in per~pectjv,c hodzonta.UY 1iI',c:r.o&s, Diliddle ~t:iion. of the cobe (Fig. I). the

r:......,·...,"""_·!il!!""' - .....'!!!I'r-'#iii ~_

";;;;;;'ii"'O'~_~_.~

..,

~"

THEDRAW,llIIG

,BELOW ,sI'lOWS
~,N E

TrI,E CnRl!I1!.E PLA,N LiO.iD IOOil"ON

1'H~ MID·HO.ilIZiON'fAi..

AND CloNiC' mE DlACONAL I'.t4HIU Of

p,,' a U'~, I~,TW'O'

'THE e'~Cl.E 1:11.6'1\1: IAIID 'ONIALlPUi,NiE$ 'JHtI.! p.mOOt.JI(;',IIfCi A Oi,!;\,!jDeDftW~:fi.e

T'Ii'IO 'N-rel~I'eCTU'4IG CIRCLer W' ~T'I-IIIN A S'PlFlle'R.£

\\'helilllh.e, circIe 'pIan 'bas been laid o iii![

m5(l..horim:fl:m~. !p~anei.!is 'WeW~, as
'OtI!

On.

the

alilyciftical

pia:nes whi.c!hlpasS thwolU,gntlle ¥er~~cal axis} a.

perfectly divided sphefe wiJI r-es.uh',.The OOJ)i'toux olEa sphere nevee ,Chang:es. tlli.ougb the lines IDE di'vi.'l:iut! iiJl'e affecb;:d by pe,rs-pootiive I( Fiig., :2.).

ROUNn
What is: true lo.f the cubeand

FORMS \lVITHIN TtIE:. BLOC:K

accurate' perspective by us~n.g Ithis: baste ap~ plloach.. F:~rst draw plans 'Of Ithe middl'l;! :planes
it'll

the·s:phere is alflo

true of any.eJlongated block that wii!lIfit arouad :any rounded ..~Omli. Any sucb form can be drawn

of the block.

"f'H,E. M Hi!

~,,r..~

!P~"

Ii

·C,r:tO.F.lW J' ..;r ~

The >d:ra;w:ings. here: mdica:te the s;oundn,e~ ,ofthis: .ap.p']loacbto ,good dra:'wing. The wbo~e pdncip!e of per~pectlv'e drawblg is to enable the ,draftsman to g:et at the :h'lllt'lf (!Otii!l~ruotion and to re~a:te all section!! or .parts 'bO lil sin.g1e viewp'Oint. 1ibe mlecwali1lro b\t[~d:s .fr'Om p1l:ii!Tis: '!Ivnlch :ar,e eress :s«:t:~on,S dlwugh tbe object. These, a[it:·!l]su.a!l1Y :Rat'p:llJills lib the two aJt the: top of this pa.,ge. Ha:v:i'ng such. pWa:ns,. can draw them to a hodwe zon and V3ni:S1:1IIing:pOints, showing the object ill}

three dimensions.

THE B,LOCK APPL[E,D TO ROUND OBJECTS

fbe! elrele and the block can be applted in duwWig main), diHeFent objects. J f you can dra w the' bloci~ intperspc(:lt:ive, YOlJ, can dnu:Y3ilmos.t
~,nyobJect in anY' pOSUiolliwirThi:tLn yotlil' subject. Draw the block to equal the heigllt" wid~h., and

depth, ,!)If tI/1,e form..

I ...

'I

lie a'!)-! /ja _!lat yer..rio:g O/I~' cyhH~ 'a'e~ ftitc:~ Ilka[hfa~'~feJj ,tt'f(tjWj

tb kko~/tpt#OdJ Iltee/~fe.1' ..r.lott!t?/e

dra'f'l'! 10J2lctlt/f

j».tHt tVtd*oHt ~

oq(J:cl Hc1kf weff~

e;Y&kye!

35

HOW TO 'CONSTR.UCT THE B,LOCK CORRECTLY

III case yonare .having brQu.ble iratdrawiing'b]ocb

C'o1"fiect~y~he dI'aVilings below wlll :he~p' you. ReII

rnembertfua~ ellipses narrow as they near the eye ]Ievel. Studying, fl. teal object win he:fp you
'lP
nORI--' N

ap'P(1oximate this. the perspective depth* of the' top, slide of the bllocl,dete:nnwfie8 Ithe, pevspecUve depth of t~e bortom side.

lIatu 10C'aH(fp_~t:/~Jlor:Ir o/ftv.eR

orde..r:tred

dtm:~IU.u)N,f

.¥'(1tl xeeda. TJf'a~p'e aff¢~6-(a".f'"

£riaJIt'si, ,i2 ltorl z""
aNd (ulb:llt
.01"

'7e1e,v(?!:

/J,mttJ 4l

P'"'pelt~"c.uIar(j).h/~..fk

Ae/fltl
.~.

peljCendicdar. ~d~()/ ~o/ ,~ iopJtd:e ~.l' ~ve,(J;'tj-~~ ~ 1io~4i* 7ler?;(,.(fk lite PQ(.id-s .eJt~ laked M.engj-o/llite@ dnz~ ~H~ tm,kHs.r@:l7rtd@~. hJIf.t/Uf~ J'l'm
a/x,Yd~Zek dnrMO~e,~rJ;'te:fiH.1k

t:

ai.&0c-K @O/f lie

~e)"-~~adw."Ar&.el;'~.6e,,J;

~---l·'

~."V'""'_"

36

BLOCKS 0 F SPEC) FIE D DIMENSIONS

.0'£ co:n:!l~rMcffi:ing bJociks ,of speci6ed ,iJil1i!.e:nsiQ!J)s" 1[1Ithe drawlngat lhe ]ieft~ the dimetl!S~cmiS, afle~a~d. ,[)!U1torn. the midl.d:~eHn@ owaxws,. usiuRth.ep.rooedlure showfil. O~ thepreHere are
tWGIWi!l:ys

page. In. on~ on the l'~gl'l~~ estabwe hsha measuring Ho.e touchwng~he~ea:r corner, th~1iI. cal'lr)' H'!I€ unit~bo the brule Ii~~.
C~illg;

me

If \

./1

\
\

/'
j

j'l'

,i

f
1

j ~'

I1
1

'\

.' l

II

,..-

- - - ~ '1- ~ ~ ~
I

\
j ~.1
MEA.fV
Jl.4,,¥ 'OlJT .IilN U'NI~• IJ'N~T.f ,<!;,RIE.PR() J I!! CT,!!,; D"l"O '!"fIE FR!OH\!l' I"ll.AMIE Q!",HIE;;, ,{H"OCK

Iriit,lN G'

:1.1N E.
TO' 6,A.fE L.l H E

.r

,AN 0

Pr:l::OJ !5CT

Vlhe~ you: ,~-a~p[oduoo .a:bloclk: of !!peciHec!l.di~ llI.ensions.you ha've the ba.s!b; foo: dl1awirng a:~y
obiec~ ~cc1.nat,ely, You af(lur,gedtQ practice thi:5 ootH you ,can do it. because it is a preeedure (oot 87

you

wm

use For tber~sto~

your Hfe. We prig,.

gress from tbis toether methods of measurement in pefspecUv~.

MEASURIN,G DE,PTH .BY MEANS OF DIAGONA.LS The drawings below shOW'h.ow to spaoe ,off dl'itmlgs as units: (If rug dJesig_ns!.fe:Jlt.'C posts, ·t:e:i,e.. 'equal ·tmUS :rn :perspoot~ve"with.iin. bCiJtb :h(lri,mnta~ p'hQne poles. lr.a.ilil's~Whld,QtlN' pnmes~blocks in,
and.verUca:l.p~an(is .. This: is v.aluabWein ,drawjog even ~yspaced urri:ts rt:hat recede: ~o,waJrd har1~ the 2~n. It \\v.m enable JO'Uto SPI!I·C(l ,correctly such sidmvalks. building blocb. brleks, r,oo.6~g. wallpa pe:TIi~ 'etc.

DRAWING TO SCALE,
Iv.e:ry i!lt~~st~ihouM ~n()w 'how to dr.iit\v to, a, seale. Sca~e dlrn.Wlilligs !!ls~aUY!i'equire: tIle division of vel1ical :ilndhoiI'Wzon:hd planes: into squaJlIc f'eet 01" squa:re units. By the-plalll shownhelie. we ~iIIi qU!i,c'k~y Idivide ,s!I:!ch p]~nes in.tQsquares of any
dilJilll(liflSion. Here we t!lJ~e ,a un~t

M 110 'by 101

fee1t.We measure widl this ullliit as far baek as 2500 Ieet, \vb.cll is as muehas yOl!J, wil] ever need. This Is very vaJuab~e t,o you.

1-; <::)

II

~g

,.\..

~,

NI TA

I"iIGAj"VR.1

N.~

l.i

N &;

Hot{) 10',fca!~ v~rlt'ca/~d ahortionta/ f1/aMe a

ale Httuf lir:.deJlab!tj/c a v(?r6,c,d~d a ,J-or~~onlailltfi>a.r«rtdt.,~~q

_.
1

oy:nf('Oual#:etorizoflt tf lAe", felai~y

.hteaJ;ur'~

louc/!.t~ eack alAer alnr*1 Cl.NyieJ; !foln:1 eero). o)! ballt Itite.rcue lay oui,o,~9"'a/Ui'aiJ io Fe;o~~~e~t!/ol"e~l.7hefii~ o~a.,Wt;ti-,'.,j-

dnza;,/i,ar h-om,all A,oiUlt(;fJ-/v((.fl:lld,/I/?ika,o.ICai ,o/hrft .,I;u,/(oc) ,Muzrkr,o#" ve,.Jt,Ca/ dtv.l:rt,O;~f0/,Gal wul.! ,aNd ~o Ike 121'".$1/0' ~ wd:I a/pain:! C' £)la?i?na/A'iA~UfIt8'foilt 641fthU-edt~ &d~ltaL1~a'kf

Itonz.ow.. WHHiect potnl:r IQ /laKd A tb IVR'&taJt.'JIc o~wta/d€pt.k'

tHe.

Uk

'*~

ae:.rlrM k:(~lrkl oAlike verkcal

t?f~~

V~(~Jtllrr-

rid' anywIAereon.~
.J'iO ,O~

,t;.,...d- ;;'01

oIli:e'

~~.f£

01120#.0;11 ~e1/VUMd&He.7kH,'{;ffIoE(J
,59

""IV

:fl,.~'d

tf,t.ivIi~t:tr~*

DIAGONALS

IN SINGLEePOINT

FER.SF'EC''flVE

It isv'ery impOl1amtt:o'l.nllde~st~nd wnaltt :is meant by a smgle-point perspiMtive and two~lPoint perspective alnd]ho~ the: plat!u~sand d'.i.elJ.' di,a!gcll1als, operate :in ea,C:b.The basile plan fOlsing)e'PQint
'VIP.'

pe,rspectlve ~s Shown below. A]thO;ug~,we dio 'not need an the ,diagonals for p~rurposes measof urement, we .s:hould klfiOiW ~~w Itt), choose the enes we need,

oF~I""I:iS.

~ .J;(ZftcttJorKtnfPI4I't 01 fticfle'~pOlid!,et:{lJecliv€?'

#'

13A.,l'Ii!!.

LII N .... PAQ.A.

I. " E.L

"

\ 'H~I
\ \ \\
'.
I,

.,

TH!!!.
I

HO.~
•

12; 0 N

\ I\~\~~:

· ,e"pmn pei,'sp~ t····hexUlts "V en ~WIIe \ . "t II... it. Smg 1 we/ base lines ,of the objects or plsues in the \ \ \\;(, rI L(\L,.I, ill; f pwcture are para ]] 1 to, t,h e h orison and at 1e '\'~~ I j)'I'1 Eight angles to the line ,of ljI'isJOl). Tbis \ ~ )J~ l 'i\J ' means that the objects we are loo,kmng a~ are5;tra,igThlt 1n frOl'll~ of 'U:S~not at ·a'n oibUfliue\j' p '"1 Of' OfA<iJangWe.Obv~ously ~:inesparallel to' 'the: horlOF V~RTICAl. ZOJ1i. cannot conv'e':rg,e to <ii, vaF.iJis~ing pojnt P!L.l!.1'1 il-r and tbere£or-e have none. In sing:]~PQ'hlt perspective: therle~s OR]Y OI1:emain VR'Oi:sh·
~ \\ ~
I.

\ \\1-

s 1/., \\\i 0' nif J

j,/,.,.

11.

ut

i]n

! I

I
I

!m

t ~l I] 'I II mg PClUlt ror UI reoe d" iIlg par:!!.! el pianes. It ls usuaUy located at or near Ithe mldldle
•

of the b"or~zoL'l.. owever, SjlW~, the diagH onals of dlOse p]~l"U~S are' obhque Iiaes, they vanish iill two pohltS. Diag,oIl.tl:ls of horlljonta] planes v:lInish on the no:ri1;oo. Diagonals of vertical pWanes vanish iii) a vertleal line dlr:rwn ,t'h.rougb the ma~A.va4l.ishing peint,

DIAGONALS

IN

TWO-P'U.ll!N"l

rJJ:!,n~.c

L"~'

1 .1." .

cb'awiliig be]uw. wh'ile jt~:p:pean, to be eomated~ is s~rmple whmll youunde.rs'tand. i~ \t\'e .. il dhrided. a b~ocli::nto, :gec~ion~ .of roor 'Ui'lIi'ts: i I side and c~f.t'1ed :aU the d(3),g9'fl.als; Ito, their'

,pro'per vanis~Jing :po~:nts.This is, S'e~diomnecessary) bu.,t: U n~us-tra,tes 'the basicp1an for ,dia.g.. onels 'h~ Itwo-po:iintperspeet;iy,e" and . Is 'important to know,

)IA~N41..f !I!'tIli"t~""L,

¢~ JII (::iIS;,J"

/'

./'

./'

DI.o..G(iM,Ai..:r OF
"'i!lIiit"~'~G L,,j!',I!;l'

P f,AG',(l'N,A,U" OF V,P'I'
VEIR'TI';iC;lr." j~lt>e,f'

The v~lishi1illg poin.t ,of the'

diagoJii,a]s,

of the

horwzOl'lIta,tp~ane!S is, located. on tbe bo:ri~on. 'What is tIme of diag,o~ats Olil verllio,,], p~~lnCs.a~so ap-

p,li,e! t,o ir~c1in~d plallies as we f.ea.rp, ~atet > {io:r tl!!eir yttnms'hingpoin.ts ~ds{)faU 0111 a ve-rll'i,ca:1Hne

'throllgh, dIe, "IIanis~dngpoit~ts of ,tbe v,rieal planes" It is,necessary' 'W ~tudy the drawing Ctm"e~, fully tOI locate ~be diagonams, ,of any parti,ctdu sect km. T~y draJwiJl'.l,g 'this.

41

EQUAL SP'ACING OF' SOLIDS,

c£ rne,nsuvlng.d.epd~ by also repeata .solid b~otdk.as ShOWWl below; Thi~is valua ble in d'w:awi.ng buJlcilin.gs 0.£ re.p .ating dimensions or a.n:y
!FaMe .11~iU'l,th~~~

IN .P,'JERSP.ECTIVE

By the

means of diiagplII!a]~:li we eaa

of objects. tha~ ate cOW"l!stmcted w~thin eq~al RemielITlilbe~ IthataU objects ,caR be d.rlitwn. with~n Mocb.
I"OW

bloch.

ift.,? ike J(:ll«€ f'eftd/ ettHer /Qay..

:r~'~AAAA), th@ltallolt't(8LJA'A)~,pn.},d_«.C·mar or &-~,whole fide{ or

aie

c(t~f0#;~

.....

"'., ....

.....

.......

.... .....

B_----·--

UNEQUAL

SPACING ,Q'F SOLIDS IN PE:RSP'ECTIVE

an ang.Le ,can be aUac,hed to any oblject~ lliu!I setltill,gup a scale of ,meas·weHlent for all v:a:_rl~ able lIiIeiigbts, and widths.

,/io«) ,to dl"aw'

_. .

Ult:ic.1" ,otYCV-:I'R~/e dtHt't/x.ria'H:i" 'Rrrfj't!c Z'(YQ

(l,~.r«nHf j10lhrit e.r-mQU.rheq' ;N c;-:t:/q", -Io,?~e.c:t 1IM'9.r"re_ePl.,t
• . .t· .L
j' /.

_1

JarQJ;:.r.e ,a/ rite UPlIf:T. /I S':htnJ<I .6e:l'.!aC'er/ H(MU" &8 Yerlit:tJ,/ ~e

,ON

&e i:vriZ:'()H;W,.I~ ~ ~

th'(;1 j((::~r£7!ZI:.n ttl!' mo jVX.

lIatU fa dr~,w varea/;/e Jp4Ct:HIJ;t',(DltAlk« fl"o/Ie ,6locK or ,ttJti.":

,.ti¥ ott, _t4,'/(~~~/ec~ Cl(IIIf~aJj.urBme.,~"".tJ_Ipa~
~e p(ep,t;(",calor /toF.txc.Hta..I.rcct:./e.

--;M'ensur'enlEl'llts

may be set by ,choice 'Of' takell fIr'oma plan 01 scale elevatlon and laid, out olit the vertical and 'hod2Jon~ru seale.
~M

all spaces

They are thellptojected ;J1 perspective inthe

manner sbown in tId.s:d!!·a,whlg.
431

SIM.PLE PROJECTION
Herle is 8. very sim.ple rne,thod of projlecUng di.D1i1Ienl!l~onsand! 5pacillp in petsp ~ct~ve.The l'Op draw~ng: show.s the front and s:ide: eJe!l'at~ons (If 31. house, The ,(limensions; of these create avertical and a horizontal seale, The ·horiizon·m.~ 8pao~

IN PERSPECTIVE
~ngsar,e proj,ec~ed ~otbe base ~itl!eshy means of ~wo mea$urh~g: points. The verUoal s,PlaciIDIgs are tran sferred to tll!~",sl:'tiCilI scale olE the, perspecliv,e duwillgaJll:d projected to th.ev.:::mi:dl.[ng points ..

___ II' -.~

/fnf 0'/1'(210 &e/rt)It-ttUtd

~-~~.

-~~-TI. 0

.tide elemtic.HJ oIdkiNfKf!

,or anr

a/~(?#t.rioN'F

,or

d(J'J't'l"~Io·a f(,~.

'paro.lle/ .I/~..r.

i0181-1i:eP' ·tqt'tk

8n.~ ... tleect.Y'!t.erf

E.r:l-a/'.4 fh a hQ#':f:Z: t;;l:~ witlt: .,J(,Q,() .v4·!(,·,".tJ.t~9I'Cllt",f ,fd1i- aJt9/ / .aparl: Plac:e"~;Nt(Pt:lfU.J!"t;H1 potP.~ .o~ ·etu:A: .rtCl19 ofilt:.e

pe.~.I". -!-ecal JC. ale. kif o"'~ . ~0(9kt'.r OJ! &e've~1 frale. Ext~Hdba-!,~ bfle~ vaMqlc,~'f tb

potldf qr.h'(;!tk

Pl1lct OJ«Ilult ..

lIt,our1t lie ~aJ7e' '-j:,ze~k· .lAi.r wa.(l tAteJpaciJ!fI are carried 6,Q;ck ro w 6a,('ie/citr· .?kenix;' I"UHl4tRUl perpl2.1t·dccu/arf .f1D lASe ,~a/1Jal f/refS POIH.tf;aJe

two'

7Ae POli<.tJ"OIt tlte /to;-izoM/alrcaie are all C()/uulcieclt& tie

hl9t2J"urtH'.:r

l'0eFt:tf

.~. ~. ~m.~(fl~fJt,e_la._ ~k.. . .. -icera:IJ~a'C:t~.fi~-pe; ..... ~-'/':.~pec~ 7ke -. '•..•..•.~R6 .~·.pa. ..

o/tke
~'Y;.

&Cff e~ta6'u~!tl'Yikeredtca!.IPQCl#lrf·

yernCa( .fcr;.le 'are .carr~~OIJr.m.D:ek&ZhtJlttUfpo,ch;t.r;,

'~

dt'Cu..iar;f 6rou9lt.f ":p #OI'U -Me bttft!' It seer:

,6fepe'/beu-

PRO,JECTENG THE VEllTICAL SCA.LE The VleJ:'tiea~.s:c:a~e,can bep[[ojec~edt() any PQtit c0n':l~roftbe~~ep's, O'l:tong dle base }[~e to' 'tile
of a ,~~wing.
~ili:I~drawffin~gbe'~O'Wi~iSn1!O~ :pr.1l.cuc8il~op~a.ce the, SiC'a~ei~,frofllt of :tllC:l:1!1Ih:lldle 0.£ th.e:bui1ding. SlO' we move it from the fmn~
MWi!

------r-- -7:
I
I

m:~dd~c line, \~'.Mch.has been p:rojecJt~. do.wn l[rou:li ~mle .f[!:\ont elevatten 'to d:u~lIilleas!lniri!l1!~ ltae £)rhori,7.o:ll.ta~ seale,

,[JrtltlJ(Z,ffOltt attd:a flOe

~~~- ---.-. .. .-----.-~'-"---UJ ~

I ~\
,~

ek.vaitolt ora iJ(,uLdiq

,-

II

---~ .~

-----iill-~~
I

- - ~-1..!- _, ~._ ~~_ 1_. __

,
I....__

1---------------9'

~---___;.-~-~~--

- - - --~v

---I~Jr~ D--O- -O--O--c -_ -_-_

~ __~I~l._~~~~~~~~~
/1

l_j'"

._-'~, '~==;:::::::====;:~=-:;;=::::::;~=.~=~~=~:

~
II

~r
q
__ l

Id

---

~I
II ~

P
l~I Po 11-4'1".,!Ii' of FFtOJ>!ll'
16 LEV.~',',"r I' QN

f-!lO R'i Z: ON TA L

.JeA LE.

ARCHITE CTS'PERSP'ECTIVE
Thtis ~s the 'way ,ama:r~.it~ct~endeJ:s grouod p~atls and ,e~evwtiom!s~iI1 peoupedi'lt'e. ''[Ids lk:nowl~
edg~rl!iIa}Qe.stfoss~Me i for an artist te dr~w any

.~padngof un~ts can be achieved. with aCClll'30Y. Note that another pohd, eelled jhe «Sb!I.tIQA. point," l~as been eJupmoyed h.ere.

builwng In· sc~le.. BoHlv,ertkal

VP
OF

and ho:ri.Z)crmtal

RO'O.~

F~N'if"

E:_L E; VA "i\'i, 0 N

7iteJtd.ltaH~aiJtt

refJ'@J€ltt5

far aula. r-,06lKd;:;laN aRc/plao€! crlttJltat&~er m<rk weotoof8 to view tlte butldt".M,,-.tLJe drop a rertica.llin:e c70WK .fir&m&e ,c/o.re
cornel': ~ fiLfCtlPfitJP
a.6of/e
aJeai..r:vdfnztI)

t1Ee;oo~itt'cJ/t ortKeob~?rver: hrJ,t

tr

toe

ako;FlzoHtCZ/ i.tia:?-tf, repre:.r(?'lCr

&e.f/:erticcd

,&e;oiclurepltZ.lu? /lioR"ezolt C'a/t:beefhz.6ILj-Aed al,z.ltY'kBt,9kt

~if p~rbcal k.couc~aNtrC~~f,dIte .klc: Jti2zf~~iH.t "e/c)«.J&er.ro~ ~~e, .. a~ ~/<z60!(~ d~LdK ,f/&z1fJ tb&te;;tc.~e ;;1t!H.e1111~ l!1!iC'Nl'ro;;eded Iolie bue 1£.I<&.r.
Cit ~rou.h:dl/;eJ6ottft CF'OfJzitr

eftt(i•.

~tllte

an:

tf°#t.~ero~

46

ARCHITECTS' PERSPECTIVE
l1il.t!lis drawing we ha.Vie a oorop]ica~ed. ground plan. .But l'ememhering th'at •.amy (onn
can be huiJt within a box:... w'e make use of this truU1 to' s.im:plify tih.e rendewing in perspective of
I!Sthe I"

th is odd dla~e.'1\>?l'!are coneernedhere witll set-

ting the ground plan on the gronnd plane usIng a. single over-aU lteig,ht ~(Ji' the brn~di.ng~

~'IJ!IiI;I>~-_J_ . ..-

I I

__
. --

.---

_-

__

k 'CO!ffl~cafeo' exteu'orf
bd.tl'd~H;?; &CJ ~((d;lf
a nu:&z#9w:lar

or

.6«i/(/tar..;; a# t:/.r.v,;".rio~.r#t'6<.r:lk

ex t.1E~d€d to' tRe ha:re /t-fite'J; or .I~e 6Uel'wflt'cA- rw..(' 0«-1~ 6ke Y4!!aJ-At.N9' p!>lir.u /#o.nt ike /P-oh:.t (Z)P';UJ:'"0:' &e

,auo

block; 7b ,t;VPl".r.C'O;l£ po,in:(-rar;e br-:OUJ,.ht doUJ'h!:;;'out :tHe p.tc.tu.r:e'j!JLaxerl" &,e k.r:e ttMf dCeJ'(:

1o,;;lact~.&e,6"ildt~rQitAiP.

carried back

to !he ~aK..(,J-lu,HjlOtH-if. Jiu.dy /

.rTATOW-'' '
47

"'if .

SCALING
This Is an
ili!n~WM to

YOUR PICTURE
.'J:etup in squ3ire Jee1t> er otlher l.n:d~s>Fbr the whore p~c:tYJrearea .. Thisglves both vertleal ~t1Ld .ho.r.iml1J!b\l scal~g,

per:ha:pliithe gr~a t~stp!U~der irnpelspeclive W-.awiA_g, By iliis memcd.the base :~ineof the p~c~u_remaybe sst at atwy di'iit.a:n:OE! from the obseJ'Vle:rQiill.a an. accurate scale

rlG-r

I~X.AM pu=; OF JH~Gl.,E~a,r NT PE R.J p,Ecrl lifE JCAUN ,0 P

/J~ti:t9WWf
d()~

Mt YS""~:!'f~;

Ciro;qo~ ffl~o/< N wtd(Auee! an#,

~6e; ..~nJnlJ[0S:=~~CEH?~~1T-)P.~ic~I.w-::.':'fi'~' ~:_;. 7;'.. ~te ~.p(.;4;' wd*- iiililin.l't.f'

:o:.:z, ••

tiOR~ZON

dt,,,.t(].;.t

.pla ced
,owr~

W:dicaldMt~G'..t" ten d~tI upwzvd

pid

OJ' p.nJjdCisrJlo(1l¥f

J'

'bI-fIw ",dlU"e.
A---IIH'"'-If--il~~H-~---:o'~~"--,o'--+""""",,"-i--+--~B

..•. .... ~.! ~_e_ "Aru.ri.!Cf d,af(j~f.

"!,,.?'1_~. ..~ cteo'. ~~~~.~,

.fm.ie Ol"afUI,/lf. .".... "",..,_,

aldq:.lir~d

~R:~

./J.w:J;"(;l

& Yt#lbt~ .~qi"It.{-..f:~/et:;ted u,81f~MeuMei4

(I;J/(,dt1cn;ucJ8fz5fe

re.I'b.'ca/ r~eai .

i4i w.Aalkf'!fO,~~ 0/ 4/t.~ (Q'tll (/tcate a dk~

'l',I'!(}~d'.Pj_dXq,

olli /I. O(kf. t'J;e

.hlect/cet'rftfloraFiew;uo.id. Ua.l!ll;lt.alt~izolt .lbottfltbfe.pie~.

a~OK(Z.OHft. ~ ~clav.erh... crl/Jca/;~~t).~eF.··.····~Io.r.Iltf!Iu?{.f!. a)i(KihHor'Z;()~~dICOlH/!tele LZf'lfar:e..#~ o#kerlLlUu

.~kr:zl/@tlYl?aUt~ olve~{calJcd« atu~ect a/1UMttJ.. th 6fe r<fZUl.IltLHtj/?CN/t-l{tM etlr~tJene{Ormy.Ere:cIfM~gdtczb

j)~tIJ
It)~n?

.#e Itonztvtk(AB.'6¥rar:9H

!tlleA8:&&ff~f ba.r1?lt:A..e. ~d(tee·,a~tZ.f ID.r1UQd ~e't Io/tlftHf ,dta'1tJltaLr •.

=:

ifO:tlWJXf:f Jctt!eJ. ~ OAt 0tH P .1f.~~.'

Co>tdrttd

SCALING
tjiv'e l-eqUlRstfi€!lLlsij!al
t,W,QIi

YOUR PICTURE
scale is: pra,cHeal when. plaC'ed a~:the nertl: comeT' oft:lle; first sq uare, T~lbS,horrz.on ean be: ,se~ a~ amy

Sealing: the ground pEane f,o[' two-point pers.pecy,:lInfmin,g poh~,ts ,~t

w,~de"pili'. ''lile hori:zO'ntal seale is set ,on l(i'l' be= low the bottJom Une of 'the pictu_fe. The vertical

he~gl:t'tyou choose.

-rWQ~'

,POINT PE R:.rpe CTII V E.,

-m~'~e!"I/C4/ J"ctdeelm .be pr('jeded

I", all? p<nitt

0";

r&d! fl':t1UflOp/(lIt.'t!

__ _---

IHO' !:2;.IIZONTAL

J'CA'LE

&fllhuj/i

two'Htea.fartitr 1'.()iPlt:r, ,all e:aclt fide oftlte l<~rfic«IJ"ca,/fB,ert?k/¥ oyte

0;1(

tierpOll-tl':t. ,('Onl(ect.It()l"izonla/~ tutifr th l'et'lc.ltl:Jtlfeltltt(!:/

Line:r fJ'Otntt~f ,at
Exient/lltefe UititJ
ffalZn!f,
P1pj'~

fpaced

fie kor;zOK~ r/ttpJ. 170#(120111:1 eflaf;tjJ kre liKef 10 .6ot'lt}/@ti.rit$@,tJ

Oil i?ollt,J"tde'f'

60/

7lurm:arAT,of/ tudlf 'H.per.1io~c:ljveo/t,6t;,1R_ lUe /JJNJ b zb kilt Yalt'lf1uk9' pOlnit;, filler roll. kaye ,efk6/t:fhed.roJhe
crOff

.t'lUtU?F.Jttlltl.6e hltZrk~(/(J1f12/ lite dia.9:oltoj.l

r()actu< /ocale lite Y-UttfJinfjJUlill oI~afa,()l(ak a:.~e AOn~()H,JI/oye

(tIlit il.ict2J ~lIt,fI Vtl.UtfltlHfPotnlJ .,
Georg.e 'Fox Co:lI.efl~ lil;mHY

Newberg" Oreg'O mil

SCALING

THE INSIDE

P~L.ANES O~F THE BLOCK

direcHcm,foF width or dep~h as the' c~ule~a'y be. i\U d~n,gon<l.~8of sim:runlliling .En the other

The Yefitiea:iand. hodzQnt:a! scales can be 'useil to, SlC:a:~~ Jny p~a!il.e.Owc@:we have the un-it Hnc.s a l'unnin.s in one d~n.~·cUon~ ~he dma:g:oHal of any sq uare in. crossing these lines: matks; off ~he unJts

liars£} UiiI'J'\es .OJ' uni't,s ing l?Glint.

wm .hav,(l·the ,sam~ yanbh~

j-IC
.' Iii,

R.IIZ'O I'!IT...:i" .J..J"C#A

'_. -. -

~ Ii!
',', ,•

.~ A .Yl:IIte'dmainr'~OH?1It:e IOh ... ·.·"~tKf{Jfl-'_l!1'N Il'aJOt:Kl?dod

. )I(t2U1a: /

.folul(OH~· .tlnJbA a Yen?CaVfC$,on akoP'I'z;pglez/Jcak . E H~fJefe o#:m: IOofHNLIf ":le' EfIbZIOliWitfCaief. .ki Ike .io#~zo~f' QI.tkfltl_fr kg lJaM.6 wl7'lical N,e/; MKt.tJt;/.ri.lH.r
rer:6Cd.Jfctt/e. COtl'hedJ:OI";z(JHz!.altl.l(,fJ~· YI?' £.ddb//.f'k tlepih oIhp..rtff-I!t12h? Ioct.Dr8.HJdd:zfoNt:tI Ioltanzolt. ~iJ" eff4Jlirhe:! lIP',ol&le dt(zr~aIr tGr alll((!CMKf .unt.t.r alftl,oMo creal!?!" a 90/ .9'19: .Repeal iJer tuat t1Jll.lt$.49D:ltalraJ' r!toIYP&.
l.:qcta

nf

mam

18hy27

"rl2ft alH"OnJ(alo/flk/I'ff!J~«/t~

itoo

ttr6".f

.dzzwdtHf2sflc;otzn; t;c$(fitrie-p>UtIperJjDecftp:e;

,,[)tfl..! aI iKteKUCh'att: O/Ao.riZM

tut,',

SCALING

THE INSIDE

PLANES
t03J

OF' THE BLOCK

dH!!

Here Itbe previous problem has been ehanged to tW(FpO'lnt p~rspect]ve. This amollltlts to a change of v~ewpoint. Instea:d. ,0£ lookjfig~tnlfght down 'the mtddle of the mom, the observer has moved

right 0'£ figures, -Dnly two vl"aU.sare now visihle" Th,e fun length of ~b,eroom cannot be shown.

theoretical pOi[i:ition to

me

I'

:2;

,3

"OR

I ZON,TAL

.rCA LEo 11,(D~'OP'PEDae

Low

80'TTO'M

WIM IT OF PI en IJ !'tE,

~e'

JfttfJ!l"lU, ,off of lie' 1Mlt1lQ;;latte,mht-e

t7h2'U)lff,'a;bOIKe, 'f maoh' fl~I""

pot~~.O/te th tile !t?#~ ONe;&'fI& riflti ,0/ z%e rel'"tzcal..rca/e. Zf'e HBa#'" ,romer of f.itz'mom 'f th1O;Rl'sri .6e/ct"O~ Aa$. tom !tHat ,0/ litepiclu,e . ./tkLb on lIlek.onrokia/.fctz/e ~ !M'o/eafl?d ert-nJ!t:r1tlHf

ko mearlU"tHy

,v;; k Ike 6rZfe IMte:rol lite Iloor/;Y(DJtltec!i'o/,iltem6;,lke

'~~f

pot~lf, 151

ae aJ:e oIc1tafoJ{aiJ),{de

ttao »eeer-

,GtJt ~

c./lwmcziatK? tUtti.r.

51

S>CAL1NG AN INTER.IOR
Tl~.e imp@rtam0e o.fbeill1lg able b) seale~nside weiRsand. floolrs: should be 0 bv lens ~O' anyone inh::f,est:ea ifill. good. dra.-..:vng. Wh.ElW1l, )'"\OH can dc! this:~ i

FROM .ELEVAT'IONS
wwthiumnin:tedor,. keepiliillg an th~ngt'l in Sica~eocr pJi"Opo.rfion~oeach odlJl!'lr jand. you know wha~ SI7:iC a IglH"e sho!iJM be al~any spot :~[). the fQ~m,

you can draw any ~nteriarr and a:I'Dyfm'n~sihings

Iii
-1~-ilI-i~-!--I-' _j--l--li-IH-.-j-

_'~'-i-----;.l
~I--+-----!
, I

--,f

~I-

~~--_I_~~I---~~I~-r_'·--~I-~-I-~l~~1
I

I~

L
,t1C'

h:ldltJA"~mt/.(Jtt'JfrfW!Jt;t;(
Ya!$i.tlt.t~

.fw·/. .E..r6zVitlf tl/la1?lzqlt c"tti~.

le.fl ~/( .~.~'fKt -"
~tlf:t.

EJ:Fabu:rlt a p(!t';tica/.fC4/t?

.#arJ: tJflifei1ito.f:dtkHQed (l)a/I ;)C ."e alUi!.I't#-d& k~/?it.:

,&}diAemflf;fNJ/o/'·tNe ra,:lUel'dt4~~~aI.f"(Qi11 t!.r*bll,",,~
. .' J'fj1,l~

"

~"f-.ve,.~ci:iJ'd;W'/~,f't(Jd(,f' .to

.". t?~q.w&~6.<ue!t~/l'Jr

~,w '..•.. e J¥iMt~J. a;,wt.t~tMe.f"U!fS wl/k

i1m:r1Qaf4.(4/~AeIl k(Ji4'.d''Kf~t.lt''.

--

HOW TO DRA.W A. [CURVED SUR'F'ACE, INPERS.P:ECTIVE,

Thep'I'ob,lem of drawmg ncmv"ed .sl"u·fa,oe~n cerreet perspeettve is· oft€"tl fllzz1[ng. A stmp,le ,roJu.tionis Qleredbe~ow . .A. ground plan ~!imade~ w'hh~hcan be scaled ,oft'~n unns~ from which the ClU've, an thenhe put i11l~oerspecttve. c p

f_OI(otd'apttlHat&e ctUYB. Blo,ciilo#'tftJfaare IUli!-!,l1ar* ~p',idwk6'!Ci?J4!I" :i~e

ctlYV"e' 'cnJ'I";R!rfJMlrm-l'Z(2~

7'1"(?4C1u1~,!tmeiN Ike tUtm/H(t2K~'te~ fit ,ett!er J7'iatk or iuJo-pOtKC per~cipe" ./Jie .e.rU.6!t§h a fC4/e' 0/ A.r?~?~i alU;e,do.re ,e/Cd'o/ &e l'~aHe. fleri-ieal lUUb-· Pe &a .rr«ared',a# It:, ~:rrH<: a ~£r:klc:'~,at a j AbO'....... ,-"'/;.:. _-I" _.1:1'; ... a.-n ".. "'''d· ,//) t.,."",L:';''''''c-~'~-.1 ~h(""''''''''' ~r ~~ j -;,...~~ / '---'~.•;:;~,~ ....~"p.e.",...f,,.... - - t.,,_-.1 D<.''''''',,.U' ~. '~wK~.r~-.. _ _. . ~'~r ~ __ .. ,F~IV"\on:uF~ r/ ~ ~ rfZC-'Ir:""'~"}'-,I_ ttle
.l'cet&e _P/<moKiNe
~~~ ~.!C;.~~

ike cU:IIPe Craf.f'Q..re

/Z()~/~d

(?;fta/J(t'.tw~It&'9~~ 0/ zfk cUoV:l>1ecfl'lt2He at lka:lpoafl4&/t'r be b~.pec:kd cuAe.« .ltec:eff'CV9' ar .rkoCO/£ ~ &e hY.I'z!«.J€ii-abt:>Me.

&'m~eieacP?J~~d£ct?lar/K;m'&e ft,po/de fide waJ't$u

Ht:aj"

kal"i.l:o.t:(z!tZ/

cnv.tf.t,·O.l.(

o~&e

9?!(:)I!iUCQ UK/t.r.ZJ#-aw,a~

S).MPLlE P'RoIECT'MON
''I'h~s is a s~mlfJeb-llIltvery va~lUaMc bi~of w,01'king

knowled,g:e",Any d'raw~ng or design caa be clesigp in any 9.u p~a:neof your suibjec!t. squilr;ed oland r.tojected lnpt.-'rspecUve ,OJl ,either av,eIrUea~ OJ' a hodZ01lital p~ane. Tih~s ;[~ ' /

p:!i''&c~i,ca.!lFor sl~ch,things as!~ettleling,IDpel'SrecUve; w~n andloo:r designs~ '(}f placement 'of 3lfl.y

'"1"'--T""""~-,----.-.L..--I-....l..II"""""-'r----'---:t1

;'

"\

~-I,

TO

,ILOCA"Ii'E.

POliN.

:IN TTii'lE! OE.JiU:J;·N) t..1;;iTTI~~ THE AN~ID !~H!J!MB5~ TI;H!M

UNE'"

IN 'ION!;!.DI~f!CT!'QN
TI"IU,J

J'N T"I~ }:;;l''rUiiRj

E;,3 1$ "I'WI:!., CEN'!:E~'ClIF CIIf.t.C1.e..

II

'"

Po

\~

REPEATI.NG Any dljlsign

1C3i1l

A DE,sI"GN IN P'ERSPEGTIVE
readi~y :appool'(imate the posjUoo of the points on the dividedrectangle in. perspeetive, Draw diagonals. torepea t dIe blocks,

be repeated in pefspectiv'e'. . Simply square off the deswgn. TIle squares serve' as ,guide, lines fi1Jrth,e points te be fonowed" By laymg; out such points on the squares. you cam

~I

R*'7ai &e hlocir

t·

<w &e <1"'-<>'pI_e,..i6!;

dia'loltaP

"_ .~,_VP'OF OJAG.r

~l

'I '
'~l='
1

'~,I ~

HOR-I"ION

~i

jfsi~!!;~~~~
~q

L,a,'¥

.r:a«r../ar

ga.t;0, ot.~t.r

PCl..H:.t:,f OH

W,:ltel-W, -,'~r. ,", ike

.d€t.fe'It:t,CF., 'O.t:,-Je.r &e'c/livi.r{ou.h'KeJ,

lute:T Q/ ike.6/0cK

dIVt..rtOH.

or fAe iaf/ o~1 lJtper.rpec/:tve' a r .rk'OlLlk.below.

!

~'<lc!.

55

INCLIN.ED
''['he

PLANES

IN !PERSPECTIVE
plane, l~aveU1Icir 'Va.n~sh~mgpoiil11!ts'on. that horizon. Incli:fiiied :p~anes vanish above ,,)r 1be~o\iVthe
ho:riwn.

ground. pIDooe~salwl:lYSa!)ns~d!er·Gda:s a level phlne str~tcM_ll}g milt to' t~.e horizon, AU otber lei\!el planes, or _p1:<'!:llIe.s; pala][~e·I ~oth~ ground

i
j
!

I
I
,t 1

J
I

.f

I
I
I
I
f l

I I

'

Jiit9J(J~pol.itt Per.rpech.:vs
j

I
I ;

I I I

"

/"
I
'1

""I

/1~~ .... ~
\

I
I

.~

'\

\
\

'\

'\
1'\

r I/

\\
\

'

I
fi
/,
.1·'

I!
I

I/

.1

I
I
/

I
I
j

/1
//

//

I
I /

/l
/ /

/1

t /

I !

I
\lIP

II'
,

\
\
\

~J J'

)' j
JJ

I /f

I,'

!
I

I
-.

/
I

1
'.

/ /" ..

I
'

"

/:i

/. I

I
/

// //

AJC:~N

D~ NG IP·!".!!!,IN 1!l!J'

OE.fC .E·N ~.~ ~(;j: PI.·AlNlleS'·

l ,

~'

/ ! //
C/ /,

l",/'

/
I
/"

,/./
//
/

./
vP

56

.lNCLIN,ED

PLAN,ES IN PE:RSPEGTIVE
is}1ing:poiat of the lbuilClini. The inclined edges: vani:sb above o.ll" below the .hod:Z1on on a vertical mine dra:wn iliIo,ugh, dle: v,3Jnishing poin.t of~he building-,M ~nylrtjsts do not know tillis"

Drawing roofs, isa proble:mro, one who, does not [mow penpecUve. A roof ~ 'being ian incoo,ed plan,eil'l'it'b,two ed~:.'i ,ara:Uel 'ro the ground~hM; two vanishing poln:ts.The: edg,cs: p'aralle~, to the gro~nd plane v,ani!sihon the horb:oB: Sit the van-

1,

//
",-:?,

//

//

INeLI N.ED :f:L,A NESE N P'ERSlPECT'IVE

The lPynt:midand simw~arf:o:rmsare exoepUons to

the g'efier:a~ rule" in tha tthey have novanish:ing points exe:ep~those for the base Hnes. A loonic~l form bas 111.0 vanishing POlhllts excep~tbo$ie, lo~

the bioc'lk inside wll~cb th@ :form[s eenstructed, We mus't always 'build su:ch f'OffllS from. a block :iifli correct perspective, since there 'is no other way '~ relab~ them Ito' the horizon.

b.u.ilt .O'g ,a lnuJ'd/e

Pq?fl.HJtc"da/ '.00/:1 ~

t.1"ie

~e plfrmat.'cl

ad oott),H,

58,

,Ixcr.r NED 'PLANES

We must u~d.~~·stand tha!t i,nc~lned.plaWles dio not va:tdsh at ~hl;:ey,e level or on ~l.e p1cl~m,e h(ijd:l!0l)j. Th!eho:ri:z;on hasul'llly~o do w.iit~]eVle] planes and pia"lf~es: 'w~th ,edgesplarane~ to~he le~l

'IN f'E RSlPECTIV E

grQlr~d plane~rhj:s is oonflllsing to Ithe ave"r-age student. .Asce:nding pla,nc'.'i always varnish a.borve
the horizon. Des!oond~ng planl0s alw'aysvani.sh

below th.ehilYdZOIll,. T-:ry ~o f{:m,cmber ~his.

In the dra WILfDlg, abov~! road desoel'lds raTfild then rises over a hms~.de. It: then <lfpea.rs ~o drop over aeeest lut€.! a, yl,li1~eybe~ow.. This is: acoom .p'~~8hedby ,ch:'a:wlng tne[,oadiilll, seetieas, e3!,cn
m

tu.

w[tn3i,

di:fFe:tent v;9in~shh~g POhilJ!t. AJstb.e aA_;g~e of

eachsection cha:ng:es.the va:n~shlngpoints are

Jfajsed~Ulan dl'io.p:,ed~to foUo\i\I'the con toms of the VC1und ,plane.

fNC'LIN'.ED PLANES IN PERSPECTIVE Theproblenil ,of dr,awing a downpde in perS,p~clt:i,ve becomes simp'[~ Oililce you. ki!lGW th.e

dtawn d'lfOUgh dle va,njshinglP:o~n~,of' the level plal:1lGs. Note tm1 a.~ ther-e an: twe ho!l'1i.z;o:ns.The
I

basic pitirtclple. A. downgrade has its V9.'pis'h'i:n,g po~nt below Ithe hodzon ,in a perpendfC'1i.d.ar Un.€:

• L ..' - neow,er ,one" . upper one 1!i ~"e ,"true 'h' "on~m,'l!.. T-~'-] not b~iltlgau eye ]eve'~,is a ··fa]se'llor~z,on."

I"'\.

Looking Downhill
Sinoe the roofs and :ftoorsof butMin~:are bl.dlt On level filali:le,s~ dieyva.n~sh in a [p<omt O~ the level hor,i."(;on. Th.e doping p'hmes vanish lfl a

The "true bod:zon'" is: ah.vilJ.ys: t eye Ievel, Not.e a that6g,Ul'~ on. the bH~ha,'ve been stlll,ted. to, the lower horizon. since tlley are aff,eet,ed.by the

"false ao,ri100n,''abiYVle

OJ:'

beIa,VII'the ,gound. Ievel, 60

slope.

INCLI.N.EDP'LA
.is!

NES INPER.SP'EC'lTVE
vat'lisbmg point of the MOf€falls: on s. vle:di.ca[ liIine dra:wnltbrou:ght:he v;8:mlis'Mngpoint on~e

For an. upgad.e view. the perspective: .priTIcip!IDe' ~,e oppoS~Jb~i f tt.a,t foil:'a d.OWfi,grade,. ~nlihat o 1ihefa~e horlzon is above t:hebmJe hortzon. T.h.<C1:

:!:ruehorrson,

II

FA 'll

~ MOR: J .ZiG til

Tile roofs. :Hoors.. wiindows~ba:se [~lles~aJI1d. all othe:r]eve'i planes: v<iLnish~na pom~ On. ~e true

ho[izon. A:oy plsnethat isa part dE the slope v;)IIDshes inthe po.int a.rbow 0':11 the Ialse horimn. Asb<efo:te,the fi.gU«lsare scaled to the :b,ori~Qn OiEth.es.llo:peswnce (bey al!:,esratwonJ8d ensn in.~
l

diml,ed p]~ne. FwguJ:'eson Ieye~ ,lanes ue always sealed to~he roue hQ.r.izon,:asshown :at Allind B whexethe figW!es :are st3i!tiCIDJed. a. ~evel,cr[!l,li~~ On. hlg. Fi.gures: fa w~ndows ,or on ba~coniesa.re sealed the same 'WItty.

INe'LINED
in loorroot perspeoti,\I'e

PLANES

IN lPERSpl,ECTIVE
risers., TJ!u: treads same v,91nishinl po~Q;t: on the hOJrizo,D. Scale tbe: lJ!eighl' of th~ r~ser-s to lthe 6:gl!1re" as sho'Wfi. in ltbe ,dlra~wing belthe

It is, im,Pol1tant~o'know how to draw a stainvay

allld how to p1!'oject 6gu_r,es upon an~ step. Th:is is ]lot dilicuilt to do. Tile plane of the s:tafi'w,3(yloea~~ all tl'i.C points of the

nn have

I~Y.

-,

-,

-,

-,

-,
\,

INCLINED
,H,ellewe,
rnN]';®El

PLANES

IN P'EIlSPECTIVE
s[ze of tbe' ~ise:r,sa;ndl treads as ,!they come up the

the p_wblem 0111.the precedin,g page" but we can s:till iica!e ,all 'the &,pes from
the one at the bottom (I,fdle sta~nva.f' :Note~a,t
~i'liUJ·

plane of the stairwa"Y. The Il.guresa.re in a.p'p!I!oximate.JY tile same posiUans.

we

.,.u11·

Jlave

1h.

h.. 'W,e'L"""
~1L .

(]I

Ii···· liL'· iL· :gJ ve .H.iesWu:~C'n

us tne

..L

,I

'....

\11

-~-'

--~~
1M I,?f' ~t#PJ&zt""tQ~y 10>ak-(~
J1te',0:6:.f&rve.f;Y P,;?,:/",'/tl'OK
k;o.u;

ar',Pea"

J_aNte JC€!/a'?#0& tlitpoffdH.T csperfFN9'ct'£,v-o!

?"W#(

:Iok
upon;

fkl?

ar

IN CLINE DfLANES
maybe facOO. w~th the problem ()f ,draM"1 a U~~edobjieCitThe objed may be Iall[n;!!;~ blown ov,er. a sq uared o'bjiecl resting ,on""n
AnariIJist

I NPERSP.ECTIVJE
inclined plane, Or for aill.yreason nQtbe in a~igAment with the horb'lo11l. T.heile is a simple tecb~ nlq ue £or soIvlu; this p~oMem.

nrrt er_k6(l".rk

a~;rIt~ItUt:9

h~iFiimil4. hma9~li-ai~"Pftd~~(Q 7 #-e';2A9'le rd4I:~'ck &W o.6i&ci,iF~,.6e a#~d 7Itu,liKffft " UJill .6s U@,4:a;r~broN a/#,te Itlt!<Jld,~/ec:/ ~ ute'qil'tzW:c,/'<ylZMdraw a re:qi:f-aMrk db~u /iV..w" ~e' Hew ;Cor:iZON. ;:;'o#t, -_Ileal

_,PO(itr:O;n.ilt6

w~

lirA 4,ba.re bl«J lOr a .610r::K. CO#~jJletvtr' di#Cot? HUf.#'UZ04f o~~ block wi~h: «Ik{..'& &e
o~et:"t.ifioM.dra&J1:C ~ ~,I-".!jf€Cn~. ,.P~acP 'llte ()b.l~ wih.konzog,t:?J'irtt-CtM'.Mff' OH~ b~1 ~tlalte. ~P?UtUh.!~ POlH:T .f'kouAd a.~

dT"aNaMoilt:er

uiM aen?ldato;k>s .zb <?dd .t:&

ti'lS'l'o't;i( f·o/ erai' J l~

of tJb9, tmo

kO,,:Z:O.I<CJ.

INGLIN]E·DPLANE
,It is hlllpo:rt:rfJIt to .!know fhatany Objiect ~~h~ch is llJotparallei ~o the gn:l'l,md pJa~e bas its vami:s]dng point eiithe:r .aboye erbelow the horizloln. The
am-:awhtgbe[Qw

S INfE

B SPE,CTiVlE
till€:

The .angle of sseension ~;t~ts bdow

hori2lorn

and comes up tbwiilgh the gr01!l!lll,Q, plaIDIe and through thecenser of the oibjieot;.

S:ho'l'vs an a;sce:ndwn.g a~rphu;te.

_\\
\

\\\(~ \\'
\

\ \ 1\

\ ).

---=

-~-

".,..,-'.... ,.

-,",,,,,,~~,

"..,n

--

~.

7ke t:Urpla,ltC" .£;dn:uuh; ~a ,v~n'J.ki4f pr)t~t p/_gCM /;s/r;wf./MMt-"izo/rC. ~e Wl!t:r.f v~tfk ,(I(; ,a. pei'"tC"Rt &:~AO'Ptz;oAt ..J"ticC:4~;r~if0..r '4rep;ap~/M/ ~ -zM:B'I"cu.tAt:d p/~.,

PROIE,C,TING

A SOLID

TO ANY POINT

ON THE: GROUND- PLA'E

within a Mta-61l:~ me~hod shown on d~js pag:e win en,the able you t,o duplieate amy lobi eet for placement at any ,other spot on tb.e groun.d.plan,e. Th.e p~o-

Since any objlect can be eonseucted

pOirHaos wni be ()OJiTeotaocordi.Jlg to, posldon and distance r~om t1~efj'rs't o'braot. The llIan is to draw the block fh:'Sta;nd then. dU;l: 0hje,ct '\IVHhin the block.

IB ,DI"4IQwi ,cub.u~io tt(e Ja~e ni;kI~~ Iq,pt v:att:iJla:.l€f poi.utf (kat-fROWAt o~ IR(,f ,IMlfel

PROJECTION
Ali)yveri~ic~al measurement inch.lld~lllg the 'he~g~t of a ,Gg:u:re,can be projected to any p~)iinit in the piJ1!tullie. If dU;l me:asureDTIle'llli~ er 'gu]1e is to he ShOVlI1 Olll a plaue higher ~h<lillthe :gJf01l~)dI p]aJle~ it m~!:itbe eleva tedto that p[illne. TtDl~s Is done
j

OF FIGURES
measurement {A and H,) toa Spf>t Hg1ll!1usltHI!t:elevation and ~ift:il1JJg~llil,at measurement to dH~e~evaitedp],ane~bove. U seapals of dh~ideFsto ,~]fl:~he measurement.
~y projectingtbe

/ /

,A;~ltl~or',sN Gite~~ specia~ a:Uention~bou~d begtven E to thils page~ because ithe f,rincip,les of pmJieclh'lg meaSliJ!reme~tsas app,liedh.er,e are ofel(treme v:ahJle to every m~:lst:G1!toF ocmmeretal arUst. Qr

The foll()I\l\"JID.gpage shows haw d1.e prj;nc~pl~ a:pply to .~Ubrie(:ts in wh],ch the6gures are a:~. dllHerent levels, Fi_gll[eSm l.tst be hl correet pmpUlft~o:n IbJ OilllG at:loH1.et.

FB.O JECTI'ON

OF ME ASURE M~EN'I'S tbis cl:ml'l"lfJIg wasmade witihout models: er C:OFY,

the~e]ati ve :sj zes o[ :rtg~U"es other units are and oonvlncl~ngbeoo1i11le the· pe:rs~ective [s oorreet, Study this care[uUy..

E,verything hl a pi.atlJre has 3lfda:thltl s~ze aeIco.rdjng tOI~ts posiUQWl! in per$pe~Hve. In the "awing below, the heigM (}·f d'l.e boy (m) has been pmileded!~o several pOc.~m(Jn:s. Although
\1\

~m~:::::::;;;.· ::--::_=-------.

.,-.-~~~s:

~~

__.-~
. ,N:uor C~Mlf ~~ ~

FE RSPECTI VE IN THE P,IGURE

.N0' maUer

how wnwh yo'P, know

of ~,rulltom,y

and

the OOll's'tnrot:ion. of' the iii gl!lil'le.)"ou will not be able to, draw6gures from. .mag.nation untU you ~ll reJia:tethe: dilerent parts of ~hAfigure ~o a

,borlizo!i!. ow [ey[e level, SOilr.ietimesit is helpfu1 bJ think of thlil various forms 318 theyW'Ou~d! appear as btocks - square jm;:~ead ,ofround. Thell round
OlelJil out.

;;;11(; u~~J
THE;, HO~

A801t!;
12

01'11

f)[_ ,', ',' ..J.' ,t-"e'Klpecave"

lite h:ru:e, but ,!ouctUtJt4rercinzw it

~ouk(}to it; draw
h€eaaJr'

lUlll

,"Ii,

, ",t .1. ,__ iW"t"eacf(_ L

~£#totd f:1p'.fpBcl:t've / I'erfpeclt,'ve: tntlte h9'Uye

related to

t1t:a.J allpartJare
f2Iit.

e'r;€

Ie ve /.

One of tlie SJimp,Ies~ ye~ ]C<lI;S;t observed r ules and.

of

,lPiers,f;ect~velsthj)jt

",]I GgUl'eSOill the

S<lIue

g~@~ndplane must ber,el3itJed~n size. Te be sure of the ootrootl"le]ution, establiih. the hc~ght olf a

"key" fignre ~nd scale an o~he[s from ithQ;t 'height. To do this, draw a line froM the {'eet of one fig;~re under the feet of allKolther to ~he hO[l'j21Ql1I,. Then c~rry a. lin.€:back to dIe fb:st f.igur~.

All ,6g.;es 0f ilhe same height.. w'h.eAstai'il,dir1lg: on the same ground p]I:!lTl!e.. win be crossed by 7'0

the horiwn,all: th~ sa.me vetti(!'a~ po~nt

flg~lre.

lOin

the

]PROJECTION
W.ben it~s so ,easy to scale a ng:tll''e toan y spo~ ow,the grml.nldp]a~,e, sueheerors as those shown. he~ow are uufiOocgivab]e. Ef~he feet of a6gure (lien,
l'I!O!t

OF FIGURE,S
jected ~as~ (or exam,pl(;"l, the .heOi'l!d. and shoulders of die 'IlIan~]l the draJwing below, Rememher alwaty:Sb) scale your figures. Don'tg;uess._ you
can>t,

show.,a.ny por~ion of afigt'!!r,emay be

/~1

pl1C1~
.

/Droit?,'

I
I

,j

~f.

f1t, /

~'f

p.f}qtUJcb~ piVw,r

Wfe'k .... I:m~'idiJ(.1·7k.i1'f a wfft cO: '1M#(, error. i

/ltttN.

71

FIGURES ON lNC:LINED PLANES

Whea we: bow that an :inclinedpmane has: a h~zon :and vQ;nj~hing,pom,ts '~\Y'h~ch re used. in a 6e s.amemaameI' as those 'Of 3. ie,Vlei plaine, seal, mg,:Sip~, Colli :iIIn blJdbiJ.ed 'planebeoomes muCh s:i~,ple:r.So, lougls the ,entme p~an,e'has,&e same slant, the perspec,ti~e is: wowkedlout in ~e man,· net shoYm.~!IiI, dj.ag,~armbelow. TAe diagram .[1;= shows: au' 'the Rooessary 'vaJ:l!lisht&g, pomitS.

J/t;()Wt~~ ~aJ -Me ~e5 0Iit ike rQ.or (,ft tIte. dr4 Wilt'lbe/o'/()

were Jca!e.dutpe:1':.lptU:C'tV8'

1...--

_-

,000aur tKcliJtJ8dpl«-Ke.

nfUn?;f,Ct2R be' Jcaled

1:1

FIGURES

ON INCLINED'
J

PLA.NES

Tbe projection of figulles en 'hillsides can bel

v,ery puzzling, if the :principl,e is not: undefs~,ood. The ,dra'win,g be:lo,w off,en; a simple soluUon" Whenever ~ke plane ohang:es as it: goes :a:!roUl!d

the hm we <kaw to a new hot,il~on.,To, keep ,oulyone horizon would ,continue th"e same plane
a,t the same incline to Nnflniity.,

--. '"
~

-,
,

13

R.E,F'LECTION
Many arUsts do not rea]~ze that a refleetton (toes

not dupEEcate thep~rsp,~cHvle ,of ~h,e odginat Thepe:rcspective of the roe:8c:ctio:nis tlh:a,t whiCh the a,e.nal objec~ would 'hav,e ;~r were i~ve:rbed! it

:(I!,n.dplaced In 'thepos:itiion, of the iMlse. 'Thou,b, the p:roporUons are dup]icatl0d" the act,ual ,dnTw.. mg i;s quite dUI,e{'eJ~t.

A r,eiect:i.(ln is not :3. reversed tracing IGf the thing r,eflectoo, 'buJt: Js an hnag~ ",ith :~ts IOWJl. perspeeUve. :[f you tun(l, ,tbe dr'I,~'ii'b.lig arlo'lmd~ ~'he Idii~ enee in ,tbe Illi.ng~e 'v'iiew booo.Mes apparent of l'h.e figure and its:image attach at the watel' lins, .!points: of the figl~re mu..st be pro] eeted down to a simi1!arpoint on tlheilnage. wh~cb is directly below.. Both the Ggurle, and, irts r,deetion are

An

drawn 'to -one vanishing point on the horizon. Any movement ,of til.e water aHects 'the reiectio:n.

'"

'BEFLECTIO N
....._

T~e :~tis~.w.llilo uO!tskinedi, in pe~spect~\!'e ma:y ~s havedU16ic-u~.t.yin dra:l~in.ga rdection. fa amir~ 1'or, Th~ dJa wing below m,alkes tlhe proceSiS S:iMiple.With a fair knowredg<e of t!he&g~e'fIl

~e,aeC'it~onan he ,dira.wn w~thoot copy. Study c

thJs dMwblg careftiUyrosee how aU pM'ts of the

Ig!:l!JT.e havebeea proj€icrnd.

7It.ep/~ c/tlis I1drl"ora(warJ"a?F~arJ. ~ be &e Aai(war between .Ike rellecf"ed ,"HU:UJ&=cd'zfke U9c.ureoroiyec.tl7f'/leckd

ea¥

15

ICOMMON

E,BR.oRS IN FEllSPECTIVE gre:a;;te,rthan a rigp1tangle ontbe drawing. S~D!lCe I a ri,g;lt 8Jl;gle cannot be represented bya:nydlm,g
,tha:n a right angle. The dt~wing below ,S:ho,ws this ,OODilnlOll et'JI'o:r·.
~G88

Dis'oo:rtion. resuks from hliLv~n,gboth vanishing points witMn Ute field 0'£ visi()iIl, IOir too close to Hle ,ob~ect.If the ,object 'has a. rigbt ;~n,gle.;lj,t the near cornel, the base ~ines must make an: a:ng:le

_- -,...~
/
/'

__ 7 ~".,.. ~~?/
~

./

/ tdr01tf"

I
iIP-" ..

Jet- Mit.Ui/t: wo' cI(7fe~-

J).'. 'id-.._. (Jr/~.·~.o .. c. ~ .•. q..r. a.·. ..•... , .:02.:;.... . ,*,., ntltUU'tM p.?tJt.tf ~

D·(ir..yl ..··
.6.. ·_ ..

"

"

"~

____J'

CO:MMON ERRORS' IN :PE:RS:P,ECTIVE

Too few ail:Usts: foRm,,, !he sUnipEe p,lan ol£p.rojootwngl,gufe'S to a .borium and a, wnkh~n,g ,pomt .. 1.0

per,spectlive ,6gl..U\esa;r,eno, dilerent from ,fenoeposts ilIndno hude~to scale ,oo-r,rcedy., It is easy
i

,scale any ye.rnca]l1lDit or me~1Dement ·to a borizon~,hut: the faib;mre to do so ,oOO'UJ:,S a,gai~ and agam in. otRemse good 'Waik.,
to

Light on the Basie Forms

'When tile a;rtj:st Ieaves the study of line a,nd the surface is ne:ady :Rat or .at right angles to d"e

seeks to combine ligh~ and Sh;~Ic1o\v, coastruction :m,I:~donl~o'ut) c he s~eps it'.l'bo a new \:"If(UI']<;1" I:Us
clrtnvhl.gs: heg~1:l to imke on a Iflua] it)' of existenee, fO'Ji"' ~hroLtgb light and shadow we ddinea te Ionn,

and aU the visible world isonly Hgh:t on form. But. nature, until11ef\vays and laws are un,tle.rstood. ron se,ellil so compr'I:,ex; as Ito 'be .1JI,hn(»,1t overlloweri~lg, USlI!nUy her fO~~l'lJ1s are surf.~ced wuh e:ndJess variatioas of texture , and the relaItlonmip of her f/arms. as we:n :LUi,of l'Ilm1,~ma&e forms. bi) basie'~o:J'1l"iili is not al wa y:s ,('wioen't. S,o S'O~~I:I!e simple plan must he devised to help us: understandth - complexities before illS. As an ,a.:PI)roacl" we must :dn~plify both Iwgllt and form. TI~e basic Forms sburt \1:S on the w,ay. :dnoc they do n.ot have ,confusing S!l:trfa-ceinegu~ law-Uesor ehan gas of color or 'tlcxt ure .. T'.~leyare ,Iii, sim pie wh~te', with a, smo oth surf ace, thns allowing usto look at the effect of Ug)"lt uninfluenood by other Iaetors, There is 110' better placeto ;s,ttu'it than with the SphCl'-',whi,ch S ·C,IRS 'to be 'til() btuUrc form of the un iverse. 'Witk~he sun Hgh.Ung Our uni'VGl'S e, Itll€l sprh.eres of aLI the 1)I~anet~ al,;\,ays half in l~g)lt: are

source of light. Thd p.ut collects more Ili,gJlt rays Ithan il,ny lo~'her. Thws, we c,~~'U, :h~gh'~i,tht I't ~s the al'W':lliyS at the shortest distance Irom ~hc' surda,ee of the [onnto the light soure '. As the surface turns; tlW~ly Irom the :!lol'U1c:~.i:t collects few~r my:s and this causes halftone. The edge of dm shadow then beglns '\'II'hcre rhelight mys are at a tan g:cnt to 't:llc surfaee of the sph r . Therefore, i:f ""I'ehave am cstab~isl~.ed dirocNoll of the source of lig,itt, \VIe ean approlidmat.e where the ~haCl,ow bcg;in,':l O,II!! anyri)m~cle(l ()rS~)herECfl~ (orm. It is a:~\"'~1Jys the hal.f·wiIYmark around the form .., at 'lilt fil'st basic law of H.ght til n is; The light fratn t:llly :oJingl,e source mns,t; tnwol ,bll a st'l'aig'i&~

Uuc .. (md dU1.r,efm'e

,Cnnri(.lt

tlf$(Jch

n:J;Or-edlcm haZI~

:f,t-'t'~'m'o,rm,f.l (~1'Iy fQUlfUl

farm .•

and, haU in shni~t"

tO~I;\ting on

but beci';mse ~he l')'~~Ul!e:ts ,m;T~e ~heil" axes, any' sing'Ie spo~ 01'1these

sp~~eres moves from ~ight, Into shadow, and. back into the light. In ~he course Olf u, single' revolution. ,Siilll!ce ,tbelligl t on a spbel!C itnlC'rges into the shadow tlnrQugb gradually dal:keuing halftone" the rotation '0£ thesphere ,of OUt earth produces the gr.mduaI dkU'kenmng o:f [be dayligb:t which 'we
know as, It;wruHg]lt and. evewdng .. ltJ

11'l1cn,G';'dlaw follows from. the r~rs,t~ Any face ,tS lighted a,oGonllngto cluJ' (jmgl'e of its sw'I(~'C'e in: J'eiatiO'n t,t) t IN~ d~rccNon ,of tile ligl~t S\O'.u~,'ce. '11~e hrigb Ie-Sit planes then are either Olill.t: 01[ ot !"igl1,t~1lI[lgles lo the light \1\!jdl every mJlw crease ill: He curve away hom the perpendicubu' to the 1ight s:ourc.'c, the value o.F,the plane darkens un.t:i~ it reaches d\e lrn 3111:imUIl darkness, which is a~'and just be'yond U~Cl edge ollthe :ilil3d,0'\Cv. ~f'he n e:Kl ]~t ['OUows in. order 1y sequence: w Only a fift,t inane elm be crJenly lig/l~ed in tl!.(~ same valu'le. 8ir~ce cure'ingml'cl 'founded planes
tll,Ef;'lI'Y8

,u,...

1Jrgd'~u;'e ,clJect of tlus

3J'l/,tltUll'led

tone«

0.1

In,gmt

we ~ave

reachedshe shadow side where the l~a1i;'d.Uel 'rays Qr the sun can no longe[ n~ach.us, At noon W'iS are in the middle of the lighted area" and at midnight we are in the middle ,of the .'hado,,\' area, These ~f~~ds ,the basis of ill] tbe might aml nre :s:h~'lIdo"'tha't we shan ever dll';a w. On ,::II! h,ghted spI~~re there is ~ highest ,point of light~ where

Jwift'bne" Here then ~ies the seer ,t of renderlng light on (orin. The Ha~ areas aee Hat in tone or va'IIJ:M':. The rounded areas are modeled fm gl'adu~ a~ed tones, The way we treae tlte srea shows: rhe Obsel·V(~t·rOlillllildi.l€SS: O]r Hatn ess, Ql'l:d.th1J1s!estnb~ li'she'sthe identity of the fonTl. The sp.here; or egg is the fflJiy {ONrt 'Withm:~t {lflllt€#18. Th« cube 0'1' .block is w.ith;m~t i'Ountlne3s, l'lwej elQr.rJ dIe s,phe,ji',! ,01' like ,'onns con be n~:t:t .. tlered only i:n grtl<d1lat ed tones. lInd tluJ cube lo,r b,lQcl( onty in flat tanes:. AU ,fofflt8 l~ro Icomp(;i,8'l.~d
1

LIGHT ON TH.E BASIC FORMS

e1~hef' of Jfat 1JlanB& ()ir r-o'unded cmflb,i,~ation. of t.l~e two.
S:-UljtlC(!S,.vr

at'€:looking at the might source, w'€ see I1lny objec:t be:tw!(')lcnus an d. the souroefn fun shadow. .fOi

No,w let us think of shadow., When a, surfaee rups SOi that a t!lW~"l' lllli,,a on lhep~a~ne cennot l?aWt at the Hght seueee, ,tIla~area, mllstbe i))(li'tatoo, as in shadow. That is \vh"", there can be ' ,badmi\i,s b!lltw,een, lighted areas, as in the I:olds of d.mpery. In ,fact~any depre.ss[an 1M indent,atiool1. ld,entifies RselJf VlJiitJ" halfto'P.e 'Or sfuu:1{)w. Ally pl'otu1i:lmr:anoe On the ;surf<l!ce has ll,ght-er value on the .'Siclesfaclngthe bghit andh~lfitone on the other stdes, and, if i'l: Is hig.h enoiiIgI1J casts ·111 s'hadolw 0.'-'. tb.e surface.,

~lfeare onthe slladmv s~dJe.If Itlle: HgM SO~1IOO is directly beillind U~ or between us ,and the: ob1ect'~ 'Vi"~ see In}€: obj®ct in fu111igh.t WW~hO~l!ts.tl.'ldow.
This i:s the e.llroct:we get in pho'lograp,hsw~th a. flashbullb at Ithe 'catl1r1er3:.A. dirnw:ing llluler tl10se loo~di't[o¥~s 'I.'V'(mldbe ICO:!IW!posecli only of Hgh~' Iilncl. halftone, withthe d<llrikes:t arks at ~h.eedg-esof d contours. U Itbe ob,~ect is placed. at ,right angles to O~lr pos~tiQII1 and, to the ]~gh~SOUTt·€, ~tis seen

as half in l:~ght~n<l ha.lf' in shad.cnv. If placed in

one ,of the q:l12Lrte:ru: posItions

n is

cithffl' ~lr.ee~
'01"

Getting back 1:0 the sphere; let us look carefully at ~he s'hadow' sJd.e.\Ve find that the dark~ est pl1~t of dlltl shadow OCCl1!.l·,sneat Hl@ edge of tbe ]i,ght. Tile shadow can be a .Oat tone onl!y ]_f there ~sno .reflected light. n~js is the way we see
1

quarters in light and. on:e-quarter ill shadow,

hall-1'l:'.iOon. There 11Jnothing to Jight up the shadow; However~ since (MJrydl~t1g .in the light alse reiteet,g l~~the shadows we see have usu;;dly taken on, SOU1i~ of the .li'eD.ectedl,light of H:ghited.
tJU!l

the reverse. U L'u:1er'Sllan.ding these fMI~s> we C:'U'lI draw' a sp] ere'}as H it were lighted! hom iilily dfrectlen we choose. By turning the dl;awing on end, we can get the efiiect '0£ 'the Hgl1t SO'I!.u-ce beinS;3!ho'll0

or below the spheres. Incld-entaUy. the qllia'l\t'e:r lJightmgs are usually more s(j\l:lsfadory ph~,to!l:'i,aUy than }uit1f~fght and half shadow. Having
either Hght shadow dQrnim~'te is more: effective dl~n an equal di]vis.l,on between ~hem. The, :[ij]l0'1:

planes ne~u'by. and ther·eJore the tones within the sh.adow are somewhat lighter than its edges.

This daI'kl.\ll'edge of a shadow on a rounded forrn ,is wha1t illustfatOl'S 'C~lU"th,e hump," !B eing dMler > ~t tends ~o accentuate fhe brj]J!iaiJlcyof 'the Ughted areas ne.dto it, and also Ito g~ve a iriness and. lUll11.ifiiooity I~O the shadow areas, T.his: "hump" eeeurs only when, the lniUalli:g_:ht has been relectcdba.ck. on tb.e ,obj:eet. Unless the .~eilJl.ededligh:t is d'lr'o,w.n d~ectly bad.:: at d.'u~Bgh~:
soufoe,tbis: darker edge disappears, since it Is caused by the (",Cit that neidler dle lig~t nor d~c :re-hc:ted :~ightean faJ,l]Ol~,the angle ,o:fth:ep~alle 61' sUJ·faoc ,at ~h~ltPOillt. To get dds be~utifu] elect pho~og,apb.~caUy>Ie ~m~in d ngl~JtsllouM be po~nt0d drul1'€cdy at. tl1eU!3!i.ll ]jgb~ source, 8l1fld.be nOit more th(\D bal£ its iint,ensUy. This is flu:;: ,secret'ot 1,.re",ar£n..g goo(' 1Jho,tograr).1~tc '(;~P!J

Iront ]ightfuO' is ve1'Y g()od £01' sh'np:le or poste'IY effects. It wsused a. great dea Uby No.rnlian Rock~
well, among othees, The use o( hvo li:ght :oourCC$ tends to' brenk down ~he soHru~y of the form. Cl':i;ssCl'O!S!l Il~bt-

jug - Iigh:t sources at both t~'i,e~·fgh.t nd, the -~€l.ft a of the artis t - ~sespec~nJlybnd because it breaks
up ,every~h~ng, ilrThto snn~U ~.ights :JI;nd s'~ladO'W's'., Outdoor SUl1ig)ht or clayliight is the J?erFect ~i:ght:
f<)I· drawing or painUng.

The sphere in l~ght3in d its, C3st s<had,ow on the

g)loll.lI1dp~~neillte she ..'111 on page 81. The \

,of

oen~ral my of lig'h t is 3. nne passing ,t:lln'ough the ,oenter of Ute sphere Irom tL.e ]jgh~ SQI!.Y(',OO. The pom:t a~

\\=.hidh ~Ms Iline hWts the' ground l)~ane i's ~hecellb:.. of the east shadow, ,~'lh~ch !i ,a:t,",y,3I),s 'T ~ seen as

(.rom,

,sillc,e any obI eet may be moved about in re];a:Monto the light source. and wle;ntay look 3lt~ftle ob~,~ct frornany vi~v:pojnt! we: ean seeW,ight and. sbadO\-v in any prO,portiol1 on the ,obj;ect:. Uwe

wl~iclt:io am:ro.

an e'Uipse. Sp.heres Aatnd

B on l,ag,e ,82 sho\\I' they,ery

Ilil,e 'effects 'of

iU1I.polrt1;Q!nt dlffererllC:e between

dt-

reet ~ight with its: cast sliladaw .1ild of dU!used light with its dwU:u!ied. shadow, In sphelie A, tlu~]

so

LIGHT ON THE SP'H'ERE

.'

!Vole fA€' ,barafoAc(ar-k??T fhadoU)'iluzt apfH3ar.r beiv.;eelZ#teltalll-qlte 01 Ike Ilrltf aNd lite' reoso.0" &e

flecfed 119ft!aliffUM t~e fH.adoCQ.

"1'0LtAt

&e,cadJkaxl ..

c;I ?LizK~ f
81.

dar6- £t:m ikIJ6a<l'&Q

SHADOW

PROM A SP'H.ERE INfERSPECTIVE

.LIGHT ON THE BASIC FORMS

:t~glb;t3nd sbadoi\:V ru-e sh3ill'ply d..eined .aJndl p0:5.tth',e. On !Iph~r® B, the modelin dlail'~'u:~ter~st~c sunlight ,of ~hat
On Cu'

g ts very gmdu<1i.l

di.ca~es tb.!: lbn,~~s oftbe sh3idO\y on. the gtooll;~l place, (See ijib.o plll.,ge 85).

with no' sh,arp' d,e:£juition. The ~ight~ng on A is

d.ired arHlcia~ Hght; B, of '~]ght from
01'1

sunlight

the: sky w~dtout direct the 0bj ect, 00: of the pOipu1nr ]nd~l'ect

Thesilliadow .11"On1 a eone Is surnpleto execute. Dt,1l.\V the line of the dirc~HO'n cf rh.elligllJt th:l\ough. t11G center (If: the base. Then divfc1e Itlle
el i.fps.u of the hilge acoold:il'l,g~y, 'From ~hea pex, ,o,f the <."onedraw the angle (liElIght to the ~oulfid. ,plla:ne. The poin t ;a:~'\~lbicllit meets ~b.e'line of '!:he di:r,ec.ti.olll of light ~s tbe point of the shadow, C'olillJnecit~his:to tbe base of the cone at: ~he half-, waypoint~o~ tbe' cn~pse(se Fig, I. pag~ 84).. F'igulf·es 2: and S show the lighting worked out \vUh ·a d~Ie'J1!l(n~di1"ect.i(lu. s'hQwn j I'll Flg. ,3.

er diffysed mi,ghUng.

'the ,differ,eflC'e ~n these corect'S must be 'tak,en into c'Orisidentioll by the ~l'Ust" Th<l:whole pk-' ture should have the effect of one or the ollJlcr. U o!lletlting, casts a sbadow, all things musf cast

shadows, If one shad.Dw is soft and difftlscd~ all

other shadows must recei\~e I~[le san ... 'rrea;t!1l:le.nt. e

OtherwIse cons~tency~s lost. Wher! the elect of

The elect of looking.tOo the bight

wi th these planes

source

a drawing is bad. this maybe the reason.

Figure 1 on page 8.2 shows 'the eUipsles of the (orm shadow and Ute cast shadolli,Y on the gli'ou~~d plane. N o~e d1.e cent.r~[ ray tbl/lough, the middle of'tbe ball to the middle of the C~ts.t:s:1tndow,The el[ipS<esare dta wn [n pcrsl'oo'l tve. Pi,gure 2: shows how :a ,s'hadiolM m:ay be p~'Ojt,'II;:t-edtG the gro·Uld. p~ane when. a sphere is: in mida:~f' ..
Cast shadows of
00

!!,lI,orlred Oi!i.tis shown

on page

86; Page 87 shO"ws the opposite effect - shadow"

rooeding. wlth the light soureeat ~'h.€ a·l!'tis;t's hack. The cr:fect' o:f 11:. ... us~~elllded arM.f.k!;iaJll~g~lt~s shown Oil] J?age 88. Here the perspective principWe is reversed, sin{'C ~he Shad'OW8 vanLsh. a.'t a po,j,nt On the grouli1d Th'),],ane dirGd~y und.er tn.e

irse require

perspective,

\!!"Mch many *'frtis.ts fail to. state cerrectly, '\\fw~h any cmst shadow we h:(l:v'{l h.['ec things t,:o con~ siife'l': firs~~the pO.l>i tion of the: ligl~ WUIC-C; sect olld, the angle of ligptj aad, third. the van[slling

li'gh~sou:rce, '''heo~'eti~ny they spread Qutl:O, jnfinIty and have linle to do 'with t'hcpictuu' hor;izon. This is l'eaU)< a mdj;)!!tiil'l'g pownt ~'o giYG
dil'·cctiotn to thB sha.do\;v conl'Oul's. However ~ we ,<;ti I'~h m.ve H~edl:ree necessary points oM' the triangl<: formed by the 1igl'l!t SOUI!'(le. tbe tflmlgle of

I)oip't of ttu;: shadow' 'on the hOll'izon. If the ~igh~

SOULIi'ce behi ud us, we get the angle .QI.f ligh~ is

lWght•. and the dtreetlen .of (he light.

IteI'D.Thembe.r: l~'/~et:i. are ioo'ki~g fJ~lodl'e' l~htyOltf The <lJ'lig]O of light Is the nearest point

Irom a PQ~ntpl~~. he~ow the hor:hr.unon a perpe1fldiculat Una dropped. down ~1uongh Hl€! vanIshing point of the shadows. From this poi'llt 'V1:re bring lines up ~hrou,gh the grounj plaae to, tIle o.t)~ec~. ~~eshailo·w Ist hen - located C'lil. the T
ground plane by drawiflg lines from the ohject to d'iJevanishing point of the shadO\vs. (See ·wg. 4., p!l.l,ge84,,) \iVhen Ithe ligM source ~S~l'l front of t'beob~ec,t (Fig. 5,. ll)age: 84,). we es t:ablfsh ~ pos,j,f,tOJili of the ltg,h:t source, and, on the borizon d,ir.ed]y beneaeh, a vtlTl.wshing, po,intfor til,. shadMrs. '" e 'then draw lines from the H,ght SOurce down tlu'ough ,t'he ~ofl,oO'mers: of ,the' cube. Then Erm)). the vanishing po~n:t o[ &I,e shadows we

ara.w .~ines:through the bottom corners of the

cube:. The crossin.g of these two Sle:t.s ,of lines in-

three and is located (In the ground plane. The wm~shif1lg point of :s.ha.do\V's. :IS, en the lte!l'.~.~ zon, directly under t'be light 8.GurQ€:. WhentfH! light. i~' behind' rJ()t~-' 11'1lc <'II gle of Ug~lt is iocaf,ed below Ithehori:zon di.l\~·cdybeHeath the vanishIng POllilt Q!f shadows .. l'[h~ dwroecUQn of n~'lt is the ~ine from the van,ish-in g, point of tIle shadows to the ,object 111.. source. not beinli visiMe. is! Wlo,tshovim,~but t1~· angle is used ~o .pointbachv:llrd ~o tl1,e ohio ject. and nu:t beyond wt,. AU poi.tl t\~ around. n ,etllltour l'egis~ru' as a CMt shadow. and yon draw those contours on the'

.of the

ground phme 'within a :recbtnlgle (see page (51)'.

PERSPECTIVE OF SHADOWS
I

Fk~14

~.i-

.... ,~.

I,~ .

NCJ~e ~llQ;t9ill ",hadolWs reeede '~~ t~e same van~ ~S:him1llg OInt Thev;Ji!nru~h]ng ,POhlt of ~ihado'W:s p ~anSOl'll t~'U:l:.ho.l:iZQn diirecdy below the ']ight

so_ceo

By eOl1lDJecfhll:g lint1 spoto~tbe

gt'oUl--:l.d

plane to the H~ht S@lUfOO ~ get the angle ,of ~igll.t~t that partj.QY!~~r point.

P'ERSiPEC:TIVE OF' SHADOWS

Loo,~ing t,()w(Ud the Light Source

The small &awtng at lhe lower right iUus:trates the prooodm-e ~al was foUowed in the main dralOYing. The lines from LS ( ligp't source) th_rough A, and from VPS (vanisMng point o.Ii shadows) ~.lliOllgb. D,>meet at the poillit oiE C, Thus C is the point of thecast shadow. Always think of a 'tr~ang~ cemposed of ligbt source, angJe of I~ght~ and vanisildng point,

,P'ERSPE:CTI'VE

OF SHADO'WS
"< 0", _ _

~c

I
;
I

':

i'
"

'.

I'

'Ii,

..........

-_--

.... -._,....I!'-II_~"'-..~_."....,.·_~ ................ · .............. _- ~..

t--...

......

_.J'..........,.,.. __ • __ ,'"'_~_

.....-"--._.....~ ... "'iI_,.. --~.E,,~ ........... -- ....

The a:ng:~e,of H~t :[s deteTmined, by lines drllw.n 'to :a,po.nt placed dire,ed), below 'the vn-n'Ls~~g point €If sh.adows:,. Any objc:ct, rna:y he squar,ed ,of in: dle wily' s'~, in the pict".J"eof the tree at the right above ana tbe ~~q ua.res; pro~'ectedto

the ,groll,l,ndplane. If you oo_nsider r'he tree as a fI',a:td,esig~ ina squal1l!d-oIf blocl:, t1le eontours ,of dlJe tree are pl10jecltM Ito the tp:(iioodi, plaOJe. These ddiine ,tbe shadow"

lPERSPEC'TIVE O:F SHA.DOWS --

,/

Note that die shadows iU radiate &om a :point an the groWld plane dirootly 'beneaw the 'Ii.ght SOm:Cl!i. This is called the vanishing point of ShadoW'S, I(VPs.). Iw~n. 'ltlu:mgb it is: not Ollthe

horizon ..Such shadows do, not dfmihilim, as 'lib,ey reced.e toward the oo,:dzon. Their length on the groundpla-n.e t~,detennhiled by 'the aOIJe of nght.

Coml1l'exForms in Lighl
To the

J3Y'mm the l\endermg Qf .form with

~ro~l.t'00 it SCCiIl1IS; Uttte l!lhort ofmimculo'll:S.. lie is:

~mlk!ely to talk about yOUli' great talent an,d how' lucky you are, to. have been born with it. The
truth .is liha:t he is unah~~ to distiOgti£Sb t~llent

the 'whilte of the p~per., So the: J?l:dc1ti,ce '0:£ good dr,3i\v.twg•. ll)eiyond o1Jj;tHn.e ~CID.S truetlon 01' con~our~ ts Gnt
the '\~ldtes are
preselillt in

ab-,eady

looking for theareas

o~ light, th~t1,seeing Ith~

loom plo:hli ob'5:ervatiQ~ tlI.nd. knmvled,g;e. lIe has ~~evewrea.lliy m'lla~Y7_;edhe W1ll!Y t light works: 'OIl
fo.nn, though be has leamed Ito recogJ)jz.e, and. accept tmHi: pl1()per e:II'i;lct When we pGlililt ,out th~t an ind'eI!ltMion causes h~l£bcll:'l,eand s'h''l.dow, h~
nH~y shl)j~e his bead. lllut[et andhe

s~u·.rou:ncl them .. D.raw'h1Jg: is lI:',eal~y dilicu;~t onlly to' ~hoSle who do not know wt).atto, look .for, 'The placement of
ha]f,tmlles and darks which
CO!lllt.01H'S

ismeasurement

lJInd nothin,g else, Te

1

find the p]~lT'~,esf an olbject~s to wtlIitc,h th.e s,ngle o

therce be

the

s,Ught~t

dent ina f'i3liurl,el!'after ]IlUli:o!rhas used 'U~eC!I!f. w.iU see it as a den't as far fig he cansee. Ally dlsturbacce of a smooth tQ'IiI'@ is ,eilther a smudge oJ foreign materia] Or a cb::ltng,e ,o.fsome IDrt .In thecharacter of the slIi.u;.ftllce. How 'qu~ddy a. spo't on the wall or a f:aibricis 'BvId,el t'. 'l'ihe same SCYlt O'f ~hing happens :in a .drawblig;. If we put in <'I. tone of dar'k where it S:~101illd. not be. the elect lS that o~'~, SJ11udg,t'i';' A light where it does not belong is just as C\1id.cnt.-l t seems ,strange to lnefurilt SOJll!O; rt students a no~draw objects as filley reany 1001(" Ear t:hey ean

Q.f tihe ~nrface fo'rm trI,s ~t cbang,es~ :~I1I~ tlletl '00 record the tone or ,falee ,caused.b.y tl~~tcbange or angle., The d:ra:\V~n,gs ot:ip3lge 001 show .Mw
,ea.dlly the effect 'o:f forrn ,~nd s:tlI!i"faceand even of the mmterial itself is: d.e.Gned by simp],y p.;lUing

down the g,rays iimcl darks as they aFpear. In these d,i'iliwlngs,we' are l~mid~y ,coniSClOUS of penefl s~.r,o'I!:e.~ 11IiIanne:l'i;sm~ ,on~yof the use 'of apeJlc~l '01' .•
to render the ,e:ffectas seen. After a"ihne you '~Cl!nm tGll'leoogn!zechal"actelrmstic cieets. and they become much easier to set down,. 'The student ShOl.~d start 'by setting 11p a s~ibNect in a good :~~ghtand. shl~ying tl'l.e ,elects, . neg~n W~dl t'hilligS that are :silmp[e in fonrll aJud
not 1'00 eomplex in texmre, Take a piece 0.£ brokea sto.ne and try to, draw It. Take some dishes or pouery. a: h.d~.er a box,. Ow Atly ,simpie

wm

see the difference between Ugh tsand drorks as well as anyone else can. The chances are that Ithey are nO't ev,cn. lookin,g £(Ir ~he efEec~s ,of liig11.tS:;

g,n\ys. and (~arb~ dnrey m:ust :sJmply feel r:hat they

to t1lle space 1111s:idlet1le oiILi.tliilles: \'ifith. s.trckes cE some sort. They 1 ave seen that draw-

have

rm

o'bjec~~ ,~.ndl,(lmw foil: d~e <:tfifeclsoil ltg:Jfllts~ grarys~

in,gs are fun '0£ strokes, so 'strokes m-e thek rea] IOOlJ1;cem~ 'witbOtlt mu.c:h. thought of \vha~: the .,;,tl'okes are supposed to beaccomp:lliisbr.ng O~ representhlg.Tbewh[,tes: on tJl,e;: subj'ects bfllve ~10
strokes, since we

and, da\d~s'"Later, try s'O~nct.hj])g t'lilatbns drapery - ever), the YO'1I:mgs,t,el,"s dolt Or drapes. piece of
mrla~(~rhtl ver semethlng and try to d:ra.\vthe o .'o'~ds. Cmnljp]ed p~.per .l.sthe best ext'U:'np~e of
pll;uu~sj n ~wght;,\a!lfl~O'fI):e~ l ttl'ld. sl~.ado"~/. .outlines shooM ~ot be dark and hea.vy a~1

\vhilt:e.. The gra ysha "t:! de]_iC!\ te Sh'Cl]{~S 't\'l' leave a gra y wb$re we see: it ~s gT~y'~ afild then tThl.B d.o\rks are l~nd:.hi!willll gusteand press:l.llFE: to' set ctl the gI'aysand whi'te.s,. Tile ,da.riks and acceats rea'n y makethe dr awing. bees use 1iI.ey are most easily seen. Tllley carry tbel'UJillch. Any draw ing, can be l"ed\lCed. b) a rendering of hallftoiil§ and darks ollly, si:nC(l:

are really lean.dng the whites as

around, but light where the Inside tone is Ugh'!:: and d~n'k whW'<t!lhe dad ..s are. In. :fact~in. some t olE the b,est draw jni~w'G: 3l1'ehaJ"dly conscious, ocr
oudmcs at aD. the Sb!ess being laid. Olii thetones :and shapes Inside Ithe oultli:n.es. Alillll)O t every light area has (;II ·deJini'te shape., then the half-

tones haveshapes, nnd ~naUy tl~e darks have sha pes. They 11lliU:st be ftttf~d' tog,~'tlle['. Some sh.1pe.s have de£ii!lled edg~s~ 'ot:het.s: Lave soft edges:.

89

eOM.PL.EX FORMS IN LIGHT

Care:f\li1,

study o~:rnJs pag:e win Ievea~ ·lli,efact

cafll ,define ~o.se elemenbi cleady and!,can ·then £if

that any type of surface .form can be rendered. by dup1ica:t~~g t!he eJFeot.-.!Of Hght a:wd.shadow .as

they

QCCI!.If acrQs\S~atfQfm.
:3:

E'V1I;lffWJgt'erial

Qf

s.fareha:s

c~achl'risUe

m.ome.l'!It. EV1eI'y ,effect is mlade

tone,. andshaduw.

e:f[eclat any given tlp ·(!,f light. hallfH we sllildy the suibjlect and 90

we will. Jh_.ave m-creatllid. the .form. sud 3100 the clEect of the ]]ultterial(llf 'Wh~ch.it~s oornl!pO'sed. .liIlI.th~ drawing$ above~ arrows imdw.ca;tethe djre~tio[l, o.fthe UgM", e~.trp3i n.n.b~r of Su'lbjecls oom.posed of S
a v;;u:iety 'Qf matetiab and render the ellE'ecu.

tlhem ,P1l"Qpedywiithin thecontoms,.

P'LANES

~91

"LANES

t~_A! ol'll,es:boW'n. a'boYe lcatLmot iJlle drawn. or painted convincingly withQut a-study .of the li~ht 00 its p,]anes. The eemeraean give lomd,f'il.@ Ilntrwoo.tle superHdal ,elecbl. 'We mUi~t always :sealich farther bl1oa,der planes upon widell thtseoJ:'i:f~silllg demil iIJi.€S!. Sinoe, ~igh:tehaJlitg,~s@i
A. sl1!!Ibj1ec:tlike

rapidly. iJt: :ilso(too p~dti()!lil to' •. all:;ea quick ley drawing like the one a,tthetop of the pac~"to l'eoord." '~he 1li:Mn planeso~i1ig,h!t. baiInone,9:1ild . shadow,. TbJs gives a ba:.sis for 'building ·the· solid ,efFects larer.

92

~;e; '"I-r'tH!'''iI P"!' Dr:.

e.OOfZ OFstlA
""-'''M ~

Iii ! i:.i I'" I-f .a"H'f

~C1it'iic.s'T ~R.~

elf.!

".4He

C)~~~

CJk.~t N:~ ..fi:lll)tiW'

rNG" we HI'T

IOI/otOllt9' Ike cm?le.fof tleefltrmce

eaclt clt'tUt:f'eof"pla~~;,ItO,t-tkflkedta'Mre 1e;I'H:Zlae.

t2UC/(QLtic

l' Tac~.ird)pawoit af'.auy .otA:cr J~ffaoe.

iFdr~I.()~6'1

Qn2(2&'r
~e metifu)(:/lftkeJt:l.B'rtJ.

ss

,Lic;ht aR IOYH!f.frela,ted iz, lite baJ'lC far/4l!.f of.J'pitt!re

95

CUlt:! cru,it.der

¥Clt c:lraa;1fCJlI(,etiHt~.r #teJe a~e4f p,eHt?Rf JH;~'p:p,qgRo' qe4cO'te~ ,J'OtJut lllBl//ieJ'i,oar· (J/:;.re.pya,tl",/t and .r1e,?1 ri; ,deh.iee :6'teue.

1ti;lttJI Aal/f;-a~e,aRId' JHadb,f() tit everfllriJt?

o'/I(;e JOUI'fc:e.

of !e;~",ttiJl? dh2·U). Lt9*tNte .f-o

~e.rt~rof:Jtl"!/~11 Nit oneaflltrJ:6e#wa~~

#:¥ 10,feparate·Q//~e .a,~of

0b;ect-;-iroH(.

If you are il'lItere:r;;te:din comios" here i:swltete you can have a lot of .tun. Once you get the '"feel''' Qf light en fo:r.m.;and lssrn tlhe way light lope:r3i,tes:, y~o can add.i1ight and realism to your
h,umorous dntwing~. Suppose you have drawn a sp,liere in its: normal eff,ect of ligbt and shadow. Now begin to

:add forms to the surrnoe '0'£ the, spbe~~e.You do

nothave to finish the sphere 6rst, bu.,t fOora change docs-\\' some bumps on it This principle was I?Desented in I'll)' earlier b,ool<:; P'U?l W fth a

light on the forehead - on a bald head. on. dle cra!lium. A bignose catehes a. lot of light" and. fat cheeks de alse. The ,chj~1,ff pr,otrudk!.g]. wiU • cateh its share in most nghlilllg'S. vVe esn mak,e a. ehin com.e forward or recede by the way i~ is: ligl'tted; especianyi~ a front view" On pages lOll) and Ulll I have gi.ven yO'll the outline construcuon of some characters I have drawn. You can go 00 buiIdJng such heads In,dlemrutely, arriving at chl(,e.rencpersonaliiu,es: hy

Peno.il, hm.m :lline only. Here: we aHempt Mnadd the ]j"'ing;CJl!l1,a~i ties of ligbt and sha,do)V. Lig,ht can be handled just as se:.dously en
comic forms as on any other. for farm .is fOJrI1!Ji.

tbJ;: .fi:lolll:1!:you attach 00 'tile hal" I per .. s:omaJly ,('mj(lly dorng these tlli.im.gs"and it iS3Imaz-· iug: hO'W' such f~)(lllin,g around helps you In seriously drawing heads, ThB Wighting p~'indple may !be applied to dle whole figure as shown on
varying

and Ught d,e.fines it. TIle sphere! wnthe left··hand 'upper eemee of page 99 and. the dta",ln_g next ~o it show the p]an ,of drawing such forms ~l~ ~achei b) the baIt illn V(l[l't ylOIlH' .rol'.ms as you w.iml. so 10018 as you ld.ulP'lka~e th.em on eacl~ side o·fthe face ,r Q!J.l: can ga.in, lI" lot ·ofexpei'h~11Ce fn lighting form ~f you get some modeler's clay
Ocrpla.sHcille and! build upwme of these forms 011 a ban. Then set the model up in light; and draw the. .ight and sha-dow :3iS ~hey appear. Tms willhdp you aehieve a. very oon.vincing solidity &:1 your cl'Eawings;, nd also deve~of' your SITUCa tuifal sense. Ally 'co:m:peteotartist should besble, to model forms that he has dra Wl1. often. hJIf dr-awil'lIg3!nd mode]iRg have such an affi,nityfua.t

pages lOSt/oJ 105. Co-mi,o drawing is a fi,e1d m. itself.. Most eomte artwsts shello Qu~HTle on iy, fol' the sakeof sill·· phCity. iI,owever~ these artls;ts also may 'ngv~r ha ve sttlidru.ed. tile possihiHtles of :Iig'nting; on tiM

fi:guIl3'S. Of oourse~whEl)il, the d_r1il;wings are

til

be

reproduced in smal] Size" thereere c1:ifficuiIties involved. But if a grainy board and aVely bla.Ck pencl~ are, used. ii:t is not nece:sslllxy to use ha1£~ tofte reproduction. 01[11 such boar-d.the penciil may also be used in 'corn bjn3itio11l, witb.p:en. line. ror rel3lXafti.o!il udreal fun, th.ere 18 nolltlmgm. a

d.r~.wwng:o ,compare w.i~hdds type of creativet

ness. The lliitt]!ewooden o[ pla.s.uc mamikins ~vait. :ah.me:at most at.. dealers can help out a g,reat deal ~ for pose!.> and action, In ,comic drawing the ,(ictllsfit'uction and prro.portionwtll be mostly youI' own, Sometbnesthe mOie iaeorrect they appe:a.r ;tbe funlllie~ itma:l.;;es ~e draw.mg. If the \vdoldliis in H'II.ec'lo:th~s are ,8. pro,Mell:~. :get ufmid wok at yom.rs.eH in a mmor. Miikeamel1tru note of w bf\ t happens jln a sleeve

tobe able: ~o do, the one almost assures the abiili,ty tOI do the other .. In the 'deeply roundedforms, like the nose, O[ the smiling cheek, we are pretty sure to, have some r.e:lec~ed U~ht \vMch causes th.e ·'hump'·;

at the edge; of tile shadew, Norte th,a.,t the darks ICOIme:in. the depressions - the deeper ,the darker. We watcll for tile ~Mgest 3indbrightest areas of

or trouser leg.

nQ: '<:10'

.~r:~~

.J""-

l.OO

100

105

Usi:ng a Mallikin '(or the BIDdy of J\,nOl'lomy

The: best way to ,s,tudyanatomy ~s to set up a hook of a~n8iti!)mieal ~agnuins be~ore yOt), and d set up an art-store manikinalong}'!:id!e it. Draw d:u~ actio~1! (lJom ~he mmni:kjiJl and. 'the muscl,es from the book 'iou, ,cal'llalso l!l~leml.lgb.s:ke~ches ,of the manikin itself for gener,al bu~k and, ac!ti»u on'fy. Just copying aii;a~omk.al cUagr'ams does llot seem vely helpf'ulta, most ,'l,tudien,ts. The meseles pll1o,ximat1on at best, and, thelte ms no a,ctua~ J?'~IY of muscle 'to, gO' by. This ,obJection is sound. l,)oc,O'vided. ~ll.e pe'I:son studying drawlng 'hlils~U'e classes 91niklble. the time :£01 them~ and Idle funds ItO',p;l.}"for them. I g,I:!ld!lya~ee tNl.".!.t3'rI)" young person wbo intends 'to' [l'I:3ke a lLi.vmng:at :~rt .llhou~d.by all means atbend. '~~feC]MS'~:. Ho'w-, ever, I believe that the manikin has an important
use' f'i()r ,f]l,Ei study ,of aeUofli~ s.ii~cel a '~i\i'e model

m'usts:om.ehoi\\i' be built 'upon a ttru:n,e or figure in

ot<d.eii'to get t'hmpro'po:l'tiio(Jl and .!i)e~J.lfi,tionsbi!p h)

,cannot hold an <ldion. pos~ .for any.~n:g:th of

tiMe ..'WOlilkhiig

.r:ro.the l'll1itl'!liI.ikintenrllsto loosen.

the figure las 3\~ho~e'"The joints of the m,:rnDciR

3Ir'e usually b.1.1b of SO'Ifl:llC' kind~ aud. of e..JUl',S!E! i such. jOints must ev,enruaUybe covered Up" Fo,t th.is; retlloon it ~s well to! concm:~trnte on Ith¢MUS'ciles 0" tbe s:houlders. 3Irld Itho~ .of Ithe t1dgbs~ e5ipe~ ,eiaUy ;~the h~p'S.,Theti smdy d~e chest., waist, t

an.d buttoals. N,e.li.tge~ the back, tbentbe ::lmliS sud. dl.e who~e leg. To ba~ance ~e llu:liI1iikiu on its feet requites 3I.bo\lttb.e same ,a:rra,ngernent of Umbs and.t.~m tha~ ._.e, :b.umarnneedsto bold
jits:

bslsnee,

Tl'll,e :m:llrd.'km. is ~hm,ded {'OJ' liDe ODIy. nt)!t for tbe study of tll/(li Jlgure in, lighta1'lld shadow. The lighUl'l,g on these snnplifi.edl foo:.ms: ~snot enough like tJJat oa live models'. \\r'e, oons[der la:t~r the ~gUire in lighland. s:had,ow.

up' the .student's :fi:,guille ,dtilWin,g~ V{hen an attiist gets out Illito ~be active: ploot.ioo o.f .his art, 'be: can seldom draw :JI: fi.guxe posed :!}S it worud be posed in a ltfe cJas~ for hv~:nty ~o ~nty-:6v,e m.~~ut~s ata tbne. The static poses ·o.f',theall:'t dElss ,should 'be m1'Ulch more (Of ~he s:b;uJy of lIght O:l'.! f'O"mlI,t ",,:lInes. and calor,. To. g(2it 6gL~lrQS m act!JJn the artist is £l.1moot .fo'r,ce:d to use th.e camera, ~.nd m=.ulY p~eS'ent~day ,aJrti.sts ha,ve high~s:J?eed cameras for thiS purfO~.(i. Rowe'\flJli'" f<ll anaetion pic~lIl.re. Ithe artistshoUi~.d haV'c a wien~deveIDoped bo\V~~lge ~f 'the ,Gg,IIl.lC; under the &a,pery . It doesno harm to Maii!.:!e tIte fig~do sometbIng besides ,s:trn;ld or sit~ 'Of per-

'tlaps,hold a rod or pole. Thepcse 'Or,gestme ()f

~he figure ,doe-SliI1\lchtlQ, 'Make it tell
,a,

st<l_ry'. If

W,od, ..inthe

liEecID=w,

soouM

he ,done:

~d:I.

'the ana!l:ffiny hoo,l; o.l'e:n. n .is diiUi'oult 'to8t3ill"t drawmg; the6;gulie from Jife w~tbout: 1:I,fi.y p'r~vious pll'~pal'aUOill. Upon ,entering, a :fi'e class 'the s:tudept sboulld have a, rniFI,accw:ate id,e& of tIle; propoI'Uol1S of the figur,e .in.h.eadls and in .silxths, as :iiHuslrnted on pag€l 1:07. I haV!e tr~ed, t:Q, coyer moot af ,the prob1cnrrls ofRgun diICarwing in a previo:us vohune,. Figure' Drawing f'orAU: It!1 'WQirlh.
j.

,YO:u .in:tendlto, be an m,ustra:tor~ )I'IID must: b.1Iive aetlon in ycrur work .• ,or i.t '\iilin 1110t be \lie!!')' suO, eessful. Th@ D1aniki:nhelps pa.ftlco'lady in rna;ki:ng, pre~lf:lllin.al"y ~eeches 0)' devel0'Ping:rough ~deas \"Mch han.Hy warrm.n;t.~be 'e!\:pense of a model. A model can be hUed, fm Ithelast stage clthe W'Ork or :ror the ma~cr,ial ffon'!. Vi'hich ~he .'t\Jal werk wil1be drawn. The student sbO'uM ,O'f COl,D"seUs,e his own

Some i.t'l~b'lr.tcb:lrs,objec~m wooden. man:ikinJ sbtce

tAe, use of !the

judgment. If he fin,w, thnt 'lhe mao"=~~ 'helps"

let ldmu~e .it.

the aetiOlii.ws only an :a:p'"

106

DRA'iVING FROM

T'HE,MANIKIN

,I

M:anikrns are a ,gr'eat help in. deveiJoping ,a:ction. in figure ,drawblg., in that they can be put intO' "snll" poses 1110 itve mode] ooo.ld.hoM. They ,Cain b.ipu:I'\ooased a,~ m.os1tatt dlea~s, 'TM.eir appro:rl,marte CQ.nstli"u,ctiQIiDJs shown by the £ig:m-e arl the i riight. FOli' eomparlsen, tho :liig:tU'IS: at the~eft mows the .ideaWpm'po]lti.ons of the: mal.e htmllln

fignre. The line :at the extreme :~e:ftshews ,divisjons: ,O'f Ithe height of the Hgul'c ,of ided proPQt~ions. One :sid,eof the :~in~. ,dliv.idedmfo SImmS :is

:and. the othie:1!'sid.e ffim1l~Q e:ig;h.'llis. These '{wIO sets ,01£ div~slons indica,te: the: imr~O:lrtan!t pO~WJ:ts ,of' ·Ute fi,guI~. Mem;ol!.".iH tlie~e seales.
l' ,.

101