A.

WHAT IS VOLCANIC ERUPTION

Definition of volcanic eruption
-Volcanic eruption is the sudden occurrence of a violent discharge of steam and
volcanic material. When the earth's plates shift and magma is forced up through the
earth and basically out of a hill.

Advantages and Disadvantages

a. Advantages
• Rocks produced from volcanic pressure, form most of the ocean floor and
continents
• Volcanic ash and lava also form rich soil, while hot rocks heat underground water
• Volcanic ash also serves as a natural resource for construction and industry
• Lava and tuffs have enough strength for high buildings, stone walls, are
lightweight, resistant to weathering, and good insulators
• Great tourist attraction
• Great source of geothermal energy
• Volcanic rocks are rich in nutrients needed by plants
b. Disadvantages
• Pollution on air
• Destruction of life and properties
• Causes substantial changes in the climate
• Low global temperatures
• Large quantities of gases produced from the eruption react with atmospheric
water thus producing acid rain which destroy crops and kill all living things
• Poisonous gases damage respiratory systems of people and lifestocks, and
contaminate water sources and vegetation.

B. What causes volcanic eruption

Theories associated to volcanic eruption
a. First theory: The buoyancy and the pressure of the gas within the earth’s crust
cause the volcano to erupt. Magma is formed when the upper mantle of the earth
 melts. A volcano is erupted when the magma (the hot liquid) rises upwards by the
pressure of gas that is dissolved in it.
b. Second theory: Magma contains dissolved substances such as water, sulfur
dioxide and carbon dioxide. The solubility of the gases is high as the pressure
increases. The solubility of water decreases as the magma moves closer to the
earth’s surface and eventually separates from the magma.
c. Third theory: A volcano erupts when new magma is injected into a chamber that
is already brimming with magma of similar or different compositions

Causes of volcanic eruption

The buoyancy and the pressure of the gas within the earth’s crust cause the volcano to erupt.
Magma is formed when the upper mantle of the earth melts. A volcano is erupted when the
magma (the hot liquid) rises upwards by the pressure of gas that is dissolved in it. This is one of
the three predominant theories.

According to the second theory, magma contains dissolved substances such as water, sulfur
dioxide and carbon dioxide. The solubility of the gases is high as the pressure increases. The
solubility of water decreases as the magma moves closer to the earth’s surface and eventually
separates from the magma. When the ratio of the gases becomes more in magma it causes the
magma to disintegrate into pyroclasts, a combination of partially molten and solid fragments, and
the volcano erupts explosively.

The third theory says that a volcano erupts when new magma is injected into a chamber that is
already brimming with magma of similar or different compositions. The eruption occurs when
the magma moves upwards due to the injection of new magma.
Process of volcanic eruption

Increasing pressure on the magma

chamber deep below the Earth’s surface

Pressure causes the magma from the

chamber to be forced upward through a
series of tubes or conduits

It is thrusts through the vents on the

volcano, resulting an eruption

Factors:
Volume of the Magma
Amount of Gas
How much silica is in the magma itself

C. Instruments and methods of determining volcanic eruption

Satellites
1. Orbiting satellites monitor volcanoes from space, providing vital information and signs of
possible eruption. Satellites use cameras to provide images and photos. They also provide
information from special sensors that can detect heat, sulfur dioxide and even tiny changes in the
Earth surface's shape. All of this information can offer clues to as to whether an eruption is
imminent or the volcano is dormant.

Seismographs
2. Seismographs measure the movement of the planet's crust. Volcanic eruptions are closely
related to the seismic activities that also cause earthquakes and tremors, so seismographs are also
often used to monitor volcanoes. As the tectonic plates scrape and slide against each other, or
move apart, they cause vibrations and tension. A violent seismic reading is often a precursor to
an eruption.

Tiltmeters
3. One of the key instruments used to monitor volcanic activity is a tiltmeter. Similar to a
spirit level, tiltmeters are positioned around a volcano. A small container of liquid shows how
much the ground moves. The tiltmeters are connected to computers that monitor the ongoing
changes in the landscape.

Changes in the landscape and deformations at ground level are often a predictor of volcanic
activity. Magma movements beneath the ground can cause visible bulging and hollows to form.
These changes can offer vital clues.

Hydrology Instruments
4. Hydrology is the study of water flows and ground water. Hydrologists use pressure
sensors, water detectors, maps and the naked eye to gather data.

Measuring the hydrology on volcanoes has two purposes. Monitoring water changes can provide
clues about the activity of a volcano. A sudden change could predict a volcanic eruption.
Hydrology also examines the paths that water takes as it flows down a volcano's side.
Understanding how water flows can help us understand how lava might flow. This can help
emergency services decide where and when to evacuate if an eruption occurs.

Gas Trapping Bottles

5. Measuring gas emissions around volcanoes can also provide useful information about a
volcano. The instruments used to do this are typically trapping bottles wherein gas is pumped
into containers and then analyzed in a lab. As magma moves towards the surface of the earth, the
reducing pressure releases gas. The two most abundant gasses are sulfur dioxide and carbon
dioxide, and if levels of these gases increase, it shows that magma is rising to the surface and an
eruption is more likely.
D. Manifestations of volcanic eruption
1. Scientific manifestations of volcanic eruption
Large, explosive volcanic eruptions inject water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2),
sulfur dioxide (SO2), hydrogen chloride (HCl), hydrogen fluoride (HF) and ash
(pulverized rock and pumice) into the stratosphere to heights of 16–32 kilometres (10–
20 mi) above the Earth's surface. The most significant impacts from these injections
come from the conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfuric acid(H2SO4), which condenses
rapidly in the stratosphere to form fine sulfate aerosols. The aerosols increase the
Earth's albedo—its reflection of radiation from the Sun back into space - and thus cool
the Earth's lower atmosphere or troposphere; however, they also absorb heat radiated up
from the Earth, thereby warming the stratosphere.
2. Non-scientific manifestations of volcanic eruption
Non-Scientific Precursors for a volcanic eruption
• Localized landslides, rock falls and landslides from the summit area not attributable to
heavy rains

• Increase in the temperature of hot springs, wells (e.g. Bulusan and Canlaon) and crater
lake (e.g. Taal) near the volcano

• Drying up of springs/wells around the volcano

• Development of new thermal areas and/or reactivation of old ones;appearance of

solfataras.

• Migration of animals from higher areas of the volcano to lower areas

• Noticeable increase in the extent of drying up of vegetation around the volcano's upper
slopes

• Ground swells (or inflation), ground tilt and ground fissuring due to magma intrusion

• Crater glow due to presence of magma at or near the crater

 • Increased steaming activity; change in color of steam emission from white to gray due to
entrained ash

• Increase in the frequency of volcanic quakes with rumbling sounds; occurrence of

volcanic tremors

• Dark cloud formation from the top of the volcano

• Bird migration due to land tremors

• Sense of impending eruption with the presence of crows and other animals that are
related to myths and folktales

• Creation of unusual animal and land noises

• Surfacing of aquatic lifeforms due to increased temperature of the crust

E. Active volcanoes in the Philippines

1. Babuyan Claro in Cagayan
2. Banahaw in Quezon
3. Biliran in Biliran
4. Binubulauan in Kalinga
5. Bud Dajo in Sulu
6. Bulusan in Sorsogon
7. Cagua in Cagayan
8. Camiguin de Babuyanes in Cagayan
9. Dequey in Batanes
10. Didicas in Cagayan
11. Hibok-Hibok in Camiguin
12. Iraya in Batanes
13. Iriga in Camarines Sur
14. Jolo Group in Sulu
 15. Kanla-on in Negros Area
16. Leonard Kniaseff in Davao del Norte
17. Makaturing in Lanao del Sur
18. Matumtum in South Cotabato
19. Mayon in Albay
20. Musuan in Bukidnon
21. Parker in Cotabato
22. Pinatubo in Zambales, Tarlac, and Pampanga
23. Ragang in Lanao del Sur
24. San Pablo Volcanic Field in Laguna
25. Smith in Cagyan
26. Taal in Batangas
F. Types of volcanic eruptions
27. Hawaiian Eruptions
-Hawaiian eruptions are neither explosive nor destructive. The lava thrown out is low in
gas content and it flows down slowly. Sometimes the volcanoes throw up a fire
fountain where bright lava is sprayed into the air for several hours or few minutes.
However, the most common form is the lava lake where the lava forms craters or
depressions.

28. Strombolian Eruptions

-Though these eruptions are not dangerous, they are more impressive than Hawaiian
eruptions. There are regular eruptions where the small amounts of lava are exuded into
the air followed by booming sounds. The Strombolian eruptions produce small
quantities of ashy tephra.

29. Plinian Eruptions

-This was the eruption that not only destroyed but also buried Pompeii and
Herculaneum. These eruptions are caused by magma, which has high gas content and
has high viscosity. The lava is spewed as high as 50 km in the air. This eruption lasts
for days. Plinian eruptions throw out large quantity of tephra, which is heaped on one
 side, this depends on the direction of the wind. Here the lava flows quickly and will
destroy everything that it comes across.

Definition of terms:
Ash fall
- A layer of volcanic ash that falls from an erupted ash cloud.
Cinder cone

- A small, steep-sided volcano made of pyroclastic material. A cinder cone is an

accumulation of loose volcanic material that erupts as a liquid, and cools into cinders in
the air, falling to the ground in a heap.

Composite volcano
- A large, steep-sided volcano made of alternating sequences of lava and pyroclastic debris.
Sometimes called a stratovolcano.
Convection current
- The motion of a fluid that rises as it is heated and sinks as it cools, moving in a circular
path.
Felsic
- A term applied to light-colored igneous rocks, such as rhyolite, that are rich in silica.
Felsic rocks are rich in the minerals feldspar and quartz.
Fissure
- A crack through which lava erupts onto Earth's surface
Hot spot
- An upwelling of magma from beneath the earth's crust, caused by a disturbance at the
boundary between the solid mantle and the liquid outer core. This upwelling is not related
to the convection currents associated with oceanic ridges, although some hot spots do
occur there.
Lava
- Molten rock erupted onto Earth's surface.
Mafic
 - A term applied to dark-colored igneous rocks, such as basalt, that arepoor in silica and
contain large amounts of the iron and magnesium.
Magma
- Molten rock beneath Earth's surface.
Oceanic ridge system
- A long (40,000 mi; 64,000 km) crack in the earth's crust where new ocean crust is
continuously forming, causing ocean basins to grow wider.
Pyroclastic flow
- A fast moving body of pyroclastic material from an erupting volcano. It moves as a fluid,
in some cases covering thousands of square kilometers.
Pyroclastic material
- Volcanic debris formed by solidification of erupted lava in air; includes dust, ash,
cinders, and blocks of rock.
Shield volcano
- A broad, low profile volcano consisting of layers of basaltic rock, typically formed in the
middle of oceanic plates or on continental rifts.
Silica
- Any of the mineral forms of silicon dioxide.
Subduction zone
- A boundary between tectonic plates in which a dense oceanic plate is forced beneath a
less dense continental plate.
Viscosity
- The internal friction within a fluid that makes it resist flow.
Volatile
- Readily able to form a vapor at a relatively low temperature.

G. AGENCIES THAT DETERMINE OCCURRENCE OF VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS AND

THEIR FUNCTIONS

1. The Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) is a service

institute of the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) that is principally mandated
to mitigate disasters that may arise from volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunami and other
related geotectonic phenomena.

HISTORY
1951 – The violent eruption of Mt. Hibok-hibok created the need for an institution
dedicated to the studying and monitoring of active volcanoes in the Philippines.

1952 – The Commission on Volcanology or COMVOL was created through Republic

Act No. 766 to primarily protect life and property from volcanic eruptions and to provide
relief and aid for the victims of such eruption. The COMVOLs first order of business was
to create five monitoring stations near the country's five most active volcanoes.

1960s – The commission conducted geothermal energy exploration to help with the
country's energy needs, indentifying a number of areas for potential geothermal energy
harvesting which led to the development of such sites as the Tiwi geothermal area where
an energy plant and a salt-making plant were established.

March 17, 1982 – Executive Order No. 784 was issued whose provision called for the
reorganization of the National Science Development Board (NSDB) and its agencies into
the National Science and Technology Authority (NSTA), which included the
reorganization of the Commission on Volcanology into the Philippine Institute of
Volcanology or PHIVOLC.

September 17, 1984 – seismology, the science of earthquakes, was transferred

from PAGASA to PHIVOLC. With the added duties, the PHIVOLC was renamed to the
Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology or PHIVOLCS.

1987 – Executive Order No. 128 was enacted, calling for the reorganization of the NSTA
into the Department of Science and Technology (DOST), and PHIVOLCS was put under
the Service Institutions of the department.

FUNCTIONS

Provisions in the Executive Order No. 128, mandates PHIVOLCS the following specific
functions:
 1. Predict the occurrence of volcanic eruptions and earthquakes and their geotectonic
phenomena;
2. Determine how eruptions and earthquakes shall occur and also areas likely to be
affected;
3. Exploit the positive aspects of volcanoes and volcanic terrain in the promotion of
the socio-economic development efforts of the government;
4. Generate sufficient data for forecasting volcanic eruptions and earthquakes;
5. Formulate appropriate disaster-preparedness and mitigation plans; and
6. Mitigate hazards of volcanic activities through appropriate detection, forecast and
warning system.

H. RESCUE / EVACUATION
• In a phased evacuation, when there is sufficient time between the official evacuation order
and the onset of destructive eruption, one may assume that each family possessing its own
vehicle or boat will look after itself and any neighbors for whom it has space and has made a
specific commitment. All other evacuees will be collected by public transport from pre-
arrange pick-up points. All private and public vehicle drivers will be briefed on which escape
roads to use and when to leave. The public transport will continue to make return trips as
long as roads remain open or until all evacuees and as much property as possible have been
removed. In the event of an unexpectedly rapid escalation of destructive activity, transport
will become increasingly difficult to control (due to attempts of people to scramble on to the
nearest available truck or bus), and traffic movement along the escape routes out of urban
areas may become impossible because of the large number of people leaving on foot. In this
case, the plan will have to be abandoned in favor of a "crash" plan allowing any vehicles
returning to the hazard zone to collect fleeing pedestrians at ad hoc pick up and turning
points (preferably under police or civil defense control) along the escape route.

• During or after an evacuation, some people known to be living or working in a hazard zone
may fail to appear at any of the safe transit points or in a refuge zone and it may be necessary
to organize searches for them. There may also be people isolated in areas which are not
exposed to any danger but to which the access routes are blocked by pyroclastic flows,
 mudflows, or lava flows. There may be need for aerial and/or marine reconnaissance
missions as soon as conditions are favorable, for food supply or rescue. It will be necessary
to plan what equipment will be available and how such missions will be carried out.

• How to prepare

 Be prepared either to shelter or to evacuate.

 Develop an evacuation plan and a sheltering plan for yourself, your family, and others in
your household.
 Review the plans and make sure that everyone understands them. If you haven’t already
done so, put together an emergency supply kit. Supplies should include the following:
Flashlight and extra batteries, First aid kit and manual, Emergency food and water,
Manual (nonelectric) can opener, Essential medicines, Sturdy shoes, Respiratory
(breathing) protection, Eye protection (goggles), Battery-powered radio
• If you are told to evacuate
Follow authorities’ instructions if they tell you to leave the area. Though it may seem safe to stay
at home and wait out an eruption, doing so could be very dangerous. Volcanoes spew hot,
dangerous gases, ash, lava, and rock that are powerfully destructive.

• Preparing to evacuate

 Tune in the radio or television for volcano updates.

 Listen for disaster sirens and warning signals.

 Review your emergency plan and gather your emergency supplies. Be sure to
pack at least a 1-week supply of prescription medications.

 Prepare an emergency kit for your vehicle with food, flares, booster cables, maps,
tools, a first aid kit, a fire extinguisher, sleeping bags, a flashlight, batteries, etc.

 Fill your vehicle’s gas tank.

 If no vehicle is available, make arrangements with friends or family for

transportation, or follow authorities’ instructions on where to obtain transportation.
  Place vehicles under cover, if at all possible.

 Put livestock in an enclosed area. Plan ahead to take pets with you, but be aware
that many emergency shelters cannot accept animals.

 Fill your clean water containers.

 Fill sinks and bathtubs with water as an extra supply for washing.

 Adjust the thermostat on refrigerators and freezers to the coolest possible

temperature. If the power goes out, food will stay cooler longer.

• As you evacuate

 Take only essential items with you, including at least a 1-week supply of
prescription medications.

 If you have time, turn off the gas, electricity, and water.

 Disconnect appliances to reduce the likelihood of electrical shock when power is

restored.

 Make sure your automobile’s emergency kit is ready.

 Follow designated evacuation routes—others may be blocked—and expect heavy

traffic and delays.

If you are told to take shelter where you are

 Keep listening to your radio or television until you are told all is safe or you are
told to evacuate. Local authorities may evacuate specific areas at greatest risk in your
community.

 Close and lock all windows and outside doors.

 Turn off all heating and air conditioning systems and fans.

 Close the fireplace damper.

  Organize your emergency supplies and make sure household members know
where the supplies are.

 Make sure the radio is working.

 Go to an interior room without windows that is above ground level.

 Bring your pets with you, and be sure to bring additional food and water supplies
for them.

I. SURVIVING VOLCANIC ACTIVITY / SURVIVAL TECHNIQUES

1. Before Volcanic Activity

• Learn about your community warning systems and emergency plans.

• Be prepared for the hazards that can accompany volcanoes:

-Mudflows and flash floods
-Landslides and rockfalls
-Earthquakes
-Ashfall and acid rain
-Tsunamis
• Make evacuation plans.
If you live in a known volcanic hazard area, plan a route out and have a backup route in
mind.
• Develop an emergency communication plan.
In case family members are separated from one another during a volcanic eruption (a real
possibility during the day when adults are at work and children are at school), have a plan
for getting back together.
• Ask an out-of-state relative or friend to serve as the "family contact," because after a
disaster, it's often easier to call long distance. Make sure everyone knows the name,
address, and phone number of the contact person.
• Have disaster supplies on hand:
-Flashlight and extra batteries
 -First aid kit and manual
-Emergency food and water
-Non-electric can opener
-Essential medicines
-Dust mask
-Sturdy shoes
• Get a pair of goggles and a throw-away breathing mask for each member of the
household in case of ashfall.
• Lava is the centerpiece of the eruption. It is also the most destructive material the volcano
will produce during an eruption. It is composed of very hot mud that may instantly burn
down any material. Avoid contact with the lava.
• After the eruption, wait for volcanologists' advice on when you can safely get back
to your homes.

2. During Volcanic Activity

• Follow the evacuation order issued by authorities.

• Avoid areas downwind and river valleys downstream of the volcano.
• If caught indoors:
-Close all windows, doors, and dampers.
-Put all machinery inside a garage or barn.
-Bring animals and livestock into closed shelters.
• If trapped outdoors:
-Seek shelter indoors.
-If caught in a rockfall, roll into a ball to protect your head.
-If caught near a stream, be aware of mudflows. Move upslope, especially if you hear
the roar of a mudflow.

-Close all windows and doors to keep ash out. Seal up drafts. Do what you can to keep
ash out.
-Seek higher ground - flash floods, mud, and poisonous gasses will accumulate in low-
lying areas.
-Put on long pants, long-sleeved shirt, and hat.
 -Wear a dust mask or wetted handkerchief to help filter ash.
• Protect yourself during ashfall:
-Wear long-sleeved shirts and long pants.
-Use goggles to protect your eyes.
-Use a dust mask or hold a damp cloth over your face to help breathing.
-Keep car or truck engines off.
• Stay out of the area defined as a restricted zone by government officials.
Effects of a volcanic eruption can be experienced many miles from a volcano. Mudflows
and flash flooding, wildland fires, and even deadly hot ashflow can reach you even if you
cannot see the volcano during an eruption. Avoid river valleys and low lying areas.
Trying to watch an erupting volcano up close is a deadly idea.
• If you see the water level of a stream begin to rise, quickly move to high ground. If a
mudflow is approaching or passes a bridge, stay away from the bridge.
• Listen to a battery-operated radio or television for the latest emergency
information.

3. After Volcanic Activity

• If possible, stay away from volcanic ashfall areas.

• When outside:
-Cover your mouth and nose. Volcanic ash can irritate your respiratory system.
-Wear goggles to protect your eyes.
-Keep skin covered to avoid irritation from contact with ash.
• Clear roofs of ashfall:
Ashfall is very heavy and can cause buildings to collapse. Exercise great caution when
working on a roof.
• Avoid driving in heavy ashfall.
Driving will stir up more ash that can clog engines and stall vehicles.
• If you have a respiratory ailment, avoid contact with any amount of ash. Stay
indoors until local health officials advise it is safe to go outside.
• Remember to help our neighbors who may require special assistance -- infants,
elderly people, and people with disabilities.
J. GENERAL PRINCIPLES DURING AN ASH FALL

• Keep ash out of buildings, machinery, vehicles, downspouts, water supplies, and
wastewater systems (for example, storm drains) as much as possible. The most
effective method to prevent ash-induced damage to machinery is to shut down, close off
or seal equipment until ash is removed from the immediate environment, but this may not
be practical in all cases, especially for critical facilities.
• Minimize exposure to airborne ash by using dust or filter masks (or a wet cloth, for
example a handkerchief) and minimizing travel.
• Coordinate clean-up activities with neighbors and community-wide operations
(learn the clean-up guidelines and instructions of your local community and leaders).
• Stay informed of volcanic activity in your area, especially during a period of unrest, and
know what to expect, including the type of eruptions that can occur and how much
warning is possible for ash fall in your area once an explosive eruption occurs. Learn
about evacuation procedures, if any, in your area.
• Prepare for an emergency by having critical provisions and supplies needed to
support your family, business, or community for at least several days. For example,
food, water, medicine, and shelter, dust masks and other personal protection equipment,
spare filters and parts for machinery and vehicles.
• Develop and test a contingency plan that can be used in a variety of emergencies,
but not necessarily focused on volcanoes.
• Provide information frequently and directly to the public about volcanic ash,
including instructions for participating in clean-up operations.

K. NURSING RESPONSIBILITIES BEFORE AN IMPENDING VOLCANIC ERUPTION

Goal of Care:
(1) Establish connections with community experts and local emergency responders such
as counseling agencies, hospital personnel, law enforcement officials, fire departments,
media outlets, etc. and maintain corresponding contact information.
 (2) Inform and educate people on the attitude and management of such disaster.
Basic Principles in planning for a Disaster
• N- ursing Plans should be integrated and coordinated

• U- pdate physical and Psychological preaparedness

• R- esponsible for Organizing, Teaching and Supervision

• S- timulate Community Participation

• E- xercise Competence

Roles and Responsibilities of a Nurse during the disaster

• D- isseminate information on the prevention and control of environmental hazards

• I- nterpret health laws and regulations that are protocol during the disaster

• S- erve the best of the MOST

• A- ccepts directions and take orders from an organized authority

• S- erve people but don’t forget about yourself

• T- each the meaning of warning signals

• E- xercise leadership

• R- efer to appropriate agencies

Equipment and supply list for establishing communication during the disaster
• Cell phones and extra batteries

• Portable battery-powered radio with extra batteries

• Contact information — home and cell phone numbers, addresses, etc.

o Community experts — counseling agencies, hospital personnel, etc.

o Emergency responders — law enforcement officials, fire departments, etc.

 o Media outlets

o District-level crisis response team members

Miscellaneous
• First aid supplies

• Flashlights with extra batteries

• Pens, pencils, notepads

Planning to Meet the Disaster Health Needs and Problems

• Provide immediate and appropriate treatment
• Proper handling and positioning
• Immediate evacuation to nearest medical facility
• Provide psychological support

Problem: DEATH
• Objectives:
Provide care of the dead
Provide supportive care to the bereaved family
Proper identification and disposal
Notification of relatives
Spiritual blessing to the dead
Proper mark of the grave’s site must be done

Problem: EPIDEMICs
• Interventions:
Initiate preventive measures (isolation, immunization, environmental sanitation)
Treatment of cases
Record and report known cases to proper authorities
Accomplishment of terminal
 Disinfections
L. WHAT IS LAHAR?
Lava is the centerpiece of the eruption. It is also the most destructive material the
volcano will produce during an eruption. It is composed of very hot mud that may
instantly burn down any material.
s

Source:
http://library.thinkquest.org/C003603/english/volcanoes/theadvantages.shtml
http://www.buzzle.com/articles/volcanic-eruptions-what-causes-volcanoes-to-erupt.html