CHAPTER 4 :

AQUEOUS REACTIONS AND

SOLUTION STOICHIOMETRY

QBA Miguel A. Castro Ramírez

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS
SOLUTIONS
Solutions

• Solutions are defined

as homogeneous
mixtures of two or
more pure
substances.
• The solvent is present
in greatest
abundance.
• All other substances
are solutes.
• Aqueous Solution: A
solution which water
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS
SOLUTIONS
Electrolytic
Properties
• Electrolyte : A substance
whose aqueous
solutions contain ions
: Substances that
dissolves in water to
give an electrically
conducting solution.

•Nonelectrolyte : A substance
that does not form ions in
solution
: Substances that
dissolves in water to
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS
SOLUTIONS
Ionic Compounds in
Water
• Water is a very effective solvent of ionic
compounds
• Electrically neutral molecule, but one end of
the molecule (O atom) rich in electron and has
a partial negative charge (δ-)
• The other end (H atoms), has a partial
positive charge (δ+)
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS
SOLUTIONS
• Cation (+) are attractive to (δ-) and anions (-)
are attractive to (δ+)
• As an ionic compound dissolves, the ions
become surrounded by H2O molecules.
• The ions are said to be solvated.
• The solvation process helps stabilize ions in
solution and prevents cations and anions from
recombining.
• The ions and their shells (water molecules) are
free to move, the ions become dispersed
uniformly throughout the solution.
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS
SOLUTIONS
Molecular Compounds in Water

• Dissolves in water, solution usually consist of

intact molecules dispersed throughout the
solution.
• So, molecular compounds are non-electrolytes.
• Example: Table sugar (sucrose) and methanol.
• A few molecular substances have aqueous
solutions that contain ions.
• Example: HCl – Ionizes and dissociates into
H+(aq) and Cl-(aq) ions.
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS
SOLUTIONS
Strong and Weak Electrolytes

• Two categories: Weak and strong- Differ in the

extend to which they conduct electricity.
• Strong electrolytes: Dissociates completely
when dissolved in water.
• All soluble ionic compounds are electrolytes Eg:
NaCl
• Strong acid, strong base and soluble ionic
compounds.
• Weak electrolytes: Only dissociates partially
when dissolved in water.
• E.g: CH3COOH: Most of the solute is present as
CH COOH molecules. Only small fraction of the
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS
SOLUTIONS
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS
SOLUTIONS
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS
SOLUTIONS

• For strong electrolyte: Single arrow represent

the ionization of strong electrolytes.
HCl (aq)  H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

• The absence of a reverse arrow

indicates that the H+ and Cl- ions have no
tendency to recombine in water.
 PRECIPITATION REACTIONS

• Precipitation Reaction:
Reaction that result in the
formation of an insoluble
product.
• Precipitate: An insoluble
solid formed by a reaction in
solution.
Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2KI (aq) 
PbI2 (s) + 2KNO3 (aq)
• To predict whether certain
combinations of ions form
insoluble compounds, we must
consider some guidelines
concerning the solubilities of
 PRECIPITATION REACTIONS

Solubility Guidelines for Ionic

Compounds

• Solubility: The amount of substance that can be

dissolved in a given quantity of solvent at the
given temperature.
• Insoluble: The attraction between the
oppositely charged ions in the solid is too great
for the water molecules to separate the ions to
any significant extend- substance remains
undissolved.
• No rules based on physical properties to
predict the solubility of compound.
 PRECIPITATION REACTIONS
• Based on the experimental observation only.
• All common ionic compounds of alkali metals
ions and the NH4+ are soluble in water.
 PRECIPITATION REACTIONS
• To predict the forming of precipitation:
1) Note the ion present in the reactant
2) Consider the possible combinations of the
cations and anions
3) Determine whether the any of the product
is insoluble
Example:
Mg(NO3)2 react with NaOH. Will the precipitate
form?
• Existing ions: Mg2+, NO3-, Na+ and OH-
2) Possible reaction: Mg2+ and OH- ; Na+ and
NO3-
3) Products: Mg(OH)2 and NaNO3 - Mg(OH)2
is insoluble.
 PRECIPITATION REACTIONS

Exchanged (Metathesis)
Reactions
• Metathesis comes from a Greek word that
means “to transpose.”
AgNO3 (aq) + KCl (aq) → AgCl (s) + KNO3 (aq)
•

• To complete and balance a metathesis

reactions:
1. Use the chemical formulas of the reactants
to determine the present ions
2. Write the chemical formulas of the
products by combining the cation from one
reactant with anion from another reactant.
3. Balance the equation.
 PRECIPITATION REACTIONS
Writing Equations for Aqueous Ionic
Reactions
The molecular equation

Shows all of the reactants and products as

intact, undissociated compounds.
AgNO3 (aq) + KCl (aq) → AgCl (s) + KNO3 (aq)

The total ionic equation

Shows all of the soluble ionic substances

dissociated into ions.
Ag+ (aq) + NO3- (aq) + K+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)  AgCl (s)
+ K+ (aq) + NO3(aq)
 PRECIPITATION REACTIONS
Writing Equations for Aqueous Ionic
Reactions
The net ionic equation
• Eliminates the spectator ions and shows the
actual chemical change taking place.
• Those things that didn’t change (and were
deleted from the net ionic equation) are called
spectator ions
Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + K+(aq) + Cl-(aq) →
AgCl (s) + K+(aq) + NO3-(aq)

Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl (s)

 PRECIPITATION REACTIONS

Writing Net Ionic Equations

1. Write a balanced molecular equation.

2. Dissociate all strong electrolytes.
3. Cross out anything that remains
unchanged from the left side to the
right side of the equation.
4. Write the net ionic equation with the
species that remain.
 PRECIPITATION REACTIONS

EXAMPLE

Predict whether a reaction occurs when each of

the following pairs of solutions are mixed. If a
reaction does occur, write balanced molecular,
total ionic, and net ionic equations, and identify
the spectator ions.
(a) potassium fluoride(aq) + strontium
(b) ammonium
nitrate(aq)  perchlorate(aq) + sodium
bromide(aq) 
 PRECIPITATION REACTIONS
Using Molecular Depictions to Understand a
Precipitation Reaction
Consider the molecular views of the reactants for
a precipitation reaction.

(a) A: KCl, Na2SO4, MgBr2, or Ag2SO4?

(b) B: NH4NO3, MgSO4, Ba(NO3)2, or CaF2?
(c) Name precipitate and speactator ions from reaction.
Write balanced molecular, total ionic, and net ionic
equations.
ACID-BASE REACTIONS

• Acids: Substance that ionize in

aqueous solutions to form H+ ions,
thereby increasing the
concentration of H+ (aq) ions.
• Acids : Called as proton donors.
•Molecules from different acids can
ionize to form different numbers of
H+ ions.
ACID-BASE REACTIONS

There are only

seven strong
acids:
• Hydrochloric (HCl)
• Hydrobromic (HBr)
• Hydroiodic (HI)
• Nitric (HNO3)
• Sulfuric (H2SO4)
• Chloric (HClO3)
• Perchloric (HClO4)
 ACID-BASE REACTIONS

• Base: Substance that accept or react with H+

ions.
• Produce OH- ions when dissolve in water
• The strong bases are the soluble metal salts of
hydroxide ion
Example: Ca(OH)2
• Compounds that do not contain OH- also can be
base.
Example: NH3 is common base. When added
to water, it accepts and H+ ion and produces
OH- ion.
NH3 (aq) + H2O (l) NH4+ (aq) + OH-
(aq)
 ACID-BASE REACTIONS

ACID
Substances BASE
Substances
that increase that increase
the the
Arrhenius concentration concentration
of H+ when of OH− when
dissolved in dissolved in
water water
Brønsted Proton
Proton donors
and Lowry acceptors
 ACID-BASE REACTIONS
Neutralization Reactions and Salts

• Properties of acidic solutions are different

from the basic one.
• Neutralization reaction occurs when a
solution of acid and base are mixed.
• The products of the reaction have none of
the characteristic properties of either the
acidic or basic solution.
• Neutralization process will produce salt and
water as products.
• CH3COOH (aq) + NaOH (aq) →CH3COONa
(aq) + H2O (l)
 ACID-BASE REACTIONS
Neutralization Reactions and Salts

• When a strong acid reacts with a strong

base, the net ionic equation is:
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + Na+ (aq) + OH-(aq) →

Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + H2O (l)

H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) → H2O (l)

 ACID-BASE REACTIONS
Acid-Base Reactions with Gas
Formation
• Some metathesis reactions do not give the
product expected.
• When a carbonate or bicarbonate reacts with
an acid, first gives the carbonic acid (H2CO3)
and salt.
HCl(aq) + NaHCO3(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2CO3
• Carbonic acid (H2CO3) then decomposed and
the products become salt, carbon dioxide, and
water
H2CO3(aq)  H2O(l) + CO2(g)
 ACID-BASE REACTIONS

• The overall reaction is summarized:

Molecular eq:NaHCO3 (aq) + HBr (aq) →NaBr

(aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
Total ionic eq:
Na+(aq) + HCO3-(aq) + H+(aq) + Br-
(aq)  Na+(aq) + Br-(aq) + CO2
(g) + H2O (l)
Net ionic eq: HCO3-(aq) + H+(aq) +  CO2 (g) +
H2O (l)
 OXIDATION-REDUCTION (REDOX)
REACTIONS
• Which electrons are transferred between
reactants.
• Corrosion: The conversion of a metal into a
metal compound by a reaction between the
metal and its enviroment.
• When a metal corrodes, it loses electrons
and form cations.
• Example: Calcium vigorously attacked by
acids to form calcium ion:
Ca(s) + 2H+ (aq)  Ca2+ (aq) + H2 (g)
• Oxidation: Loss of electron by a substance
• The term oxidation is used because the
1st reactions of this sort to be studied
thoroughly were reactions with oxygen.
 OXIDATION-REDUCTION (REDOX)
REACTIONS
• Example: 2Ca(s) + O2(g) 
2CaO(s)
• Ca losses e- to produce CaO which is ionic
compound.
• Ca is oxidized (lose e-) while O2 gain e- and
transformed to O2- ion. O2 is said to be
reduced.
• Reduction: The gain of electron by a
substance.
• The oxidation and reduction process in in-
situ process.
 OXIDATION-REDUCTION (REDOX)
REACTIONS
Oxidation Numbers

• To determine if an oxidation-reduction
reaction has occurred, we assign an oxidation
number (also called oxidation states) to each
element in a neutral compound or charged
entity.
• The oxidation numbers of certain atoms
change in an oxidation-reduction reaction.
• Oxidation occurs when the oxidation number
increase, while reduction occurs when the
oxidation number decreases.
 OXIDATION-REDUCTION (REDOX)
REACTIONS
• We use the following rules for assigning the
oxidation numbers:
• Elements in their elemental form have an
oxidation number of 0.
• The oxidation number of a monatomic ion
is the same as its charge. (e.g; K+ has an
oxidation number of +1) – We write the
sign +/- 1st before write the number.
• Nonmetals tend to have negative
oxidation numbers, although some are
positive in certain compounds or ions.
• Oxygen has an oxidation number of −2,
except in the peroxide ion in which it has
an oxidation number of −1.
OXIDATION-REDUCTION (REDOX)
REACTIONS
• Fluorine always has an oxidation
number of −1.
• The other halogens have an
oxidation number of −1 when they are
negative; they can have positive
oxidation numbers, however, most
notably in oxyanions.
• The sum of the oxidation numbers in a
neutral compound is 0.
• The sum of the oxidation numbers in a
polyatomic ion is the charge on the ion.
 OXIDATION-REDUCTION (REDOX)
REACTIONS
EXAMPLE:
Determine the oxidation number (O.N.) of
each element in these compounds:
(a) zinc (b) sulfur (c) nitric acid
chloride trioxide
 OXIDATION-REDUCTION (REDOX)
REACTIONS
EXERCISE:
Which reactions are redox reactions:

(a) CaO(s) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s)

(b) 4 KNO3(s) 2 K2O(s) + 2 N2(g)
+ 5 O2(g)
(c) NaHSO4(aq) + NaOH(aq)
Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)
 OXIDATION-REDUCTION (REDOX)
REACTIONS
Oxidation of Metals by Acids and
Salts

• The reaction of an acid or metal salt

conforms to the general following pattern:
A + BX  AX + B
Zn(s) + 2 HBr(aq)  ZnBr2(aq) + H2(g)
• These reactions are called displacement
reactions because the ionic solution is
displaced or replaced through oxidation of
an element.
• Many metals undergo displacement
reactions with an acid to produce salt and
H2 gas.
OXIDATION-REDUCTION (REDOX)
REACTIONS

• In displacement reactions, ions

oxidize an element.
• The ions, then, are reduced.
• To show that the redox reaction
have occurred, the oxidation
number is shown below:
Mg0 (s) + +1-1
2HCl(aq)+2-1 MgCl20(aq)
+H (g)
 OXIDATION-REDUCTION (REDOX)
REACTIONS
• Metal can also be oxidized by aqueous
solutions of various salt.
• Example:
Molecular Eq: Fe(s) + Ni(NO3)2(aq) 
Fe(NO3)2(aq) + Ni(s)
Net ionic Eq: Fe(s) + Ni2+ (aq)  Fe2+ (aq) + Ni
(s)
• The oxidation of Fe to form Fe2+ in this
reaction is accompanied by the reduction of
Ni2+ to Ni.
• Whenever a substance is oxidized, some
other substance must be reduced.
 OXIDATION-REDUCTION (REDOX)
REACTIONS
The Activity Series
• A list of metals arranged in order of
decreasing ease of oxidation is called: Activity
series
• TOP: Most easily
oxidized (1A)
: Active metals
• BOTTOM: Stable (8B n
1B)
: Noble metal
• Can be used to
predict the outcome of
reactions between
metals and either
metal salts or acids.
• Any metal on the list
 OXIDATION-REDUCTION (REDOX)
REACTIONS
• For example: Copper is above silver in the
series. Thus, copper metal will be oxidized by
silver ions:
Cu (s) + 2 Ag+ (aq) → Cu2+ (aq) + 2 Ag (s)
 OXIDATION-REDUCTION (REDOX)
REACTIONS

• Only those metals above hydrogen in the

activity series are able to react with acids to
form H2.
• Example: Ni(s) + 2HCl(aq)  NiCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
• Because elements below hydrogen in the
activity series are not oxidized by H+, Cu
doesn’t react with HCl(aq). But does react with
HNO3.
• This reaction however, is not a simple
oxidation of Cu by the H+ ions of the acid.
Instead, the metal is oxidized to Cu2+ by the
nitrate ion of the acid, accompanied by the
formation of brown NO2(g):
Cu(s) + 4 HNO3(aq)  Cu(NO3)2 (aq) + 2H2O (l) +
 CONCENTRATIONS OF SOLUTIONS
Molarity

• Two solutions can contain the same

compounds but be quite different because the
proportions of those compounds are different.
• Molarity is one way to measure the
concentration of a solution
moles of solute
Molarity (M) =
volume of solution in liters

• A molar of solutions (1 M) contains 1 mol of

solutes in every 1 L solution.
What is the difference between 0.5 mol of
H2SO4 and 0.5 Molar of H2SO4?
 CONCENTRATIONS OF SOLUTIONS

Laboratory preparation of molar solution

A
•Weigh the solid needed.
C Add solvent until the solution
•Transfer the solid to a
reaches its final volume.
volumetric flask that contains
about half the final volume of
solvent.
B Dissolve the solid
thoroughly by swirling.
 CONCENTRATIONS OF SOLUTIONS

EXAMPLE:
What is the molarity of an aqueous solution
that contains 0.715 mol of glycine
(H2NCH2COOH) in 495 mL?

EXAMPLE:
How many grams of solute are in 1.75 L of
0.460 M sodium monohydrogen phosphate
buffer solution?
CONCENTRATIONS OF SOLUTIONS

EXERCISE:
An experiment calls for the addition to a
reaction vessel of 0.184 g of sodium
hydroxide. How many mililiters of 0.150 M
NaOH should be added.
 CONCENTRATIONS OF SOLUTIONS
Expressing the Concentration
of an Electrolyte

• When ionic compound dissolves, the relative

concentrations of the ions introduced into the
solution depend on the chemical formula of the
compound.
• Example: 1 M solution of NaCl is 1 M in Na+
ions and 1 M in Cl- ions.
: 1 M of Na2SO4 is 2 M of H+ ions and 1
M in SO42- ions.
• The conc of an electrolyte solution can
be specified either in term of the
compound used to make the solution (1 M
CONCENTRATIONS OF SOLUTIONS
Dilution
• Stock solutions: Solutions that are
routinely used in the lab are often
purchased or prepared in concentrated
form.
• Dilution: The process of obtained lower
concentration from high concentration
solutions by adding water.
• One can also dilute a more concentrated
solution by
– Using a pipet to deliver a volume of the
solution to a new volumetric flask, and
– Adding solvent to the line on the neck
of the new flask.
 CONCENTRATIONS OF SOLUTIONS

• The molarity of the new solution can be

determined from the equation
Moles solute before dilution = moles solute
after dilution
Mc × Vc = Md × Vd,
where Mc and Md are the molarity of the
concentrated and dilute solutions,
respectively, and Vc and Vd are the volumes of
the two solutions.
• The concentration can be in L or mL as long as
the unit is the same in both side.
(1.00 M)(Vconc) = (0.100 M)(250
mL)
Vconc = 25 mL
 SOLUTION STOICHIOMETRY AND
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS

• Problem solving procedure : Outline of the

procedure used to solve stoichiometry
problems that involve measured (lab) units of
mass, solution conc (Molarity) or volume.
 SOLUTION STOICHIOMETRY AND
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
EXAMPLE:
How many grams of NaOH are needed to
neutralize 20.0 mL of 0.150 M H2SO4
solution?
 SOLUTION STOICHIOMETRY AND
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
Titration
• To determine the concentration of particular
solute in a solution : Titration.
• Titration: Acid-base, precipitation or redox
reaction.
• Equivalence point: The point which
stoichiometry equivalent quantities are
brought together.
• Indicators: - Used to determine the end point
of the reaction.
- Color changes of the indicator
showing that reaction had occur.
SOLUTION STOICHIOMETRY AND
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
 SOLUTION STOICHIOMETRY AND
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
EXAMPLE:
• What volume of 0.128 M HCl is needed to
neutralize 2.87 g of Mg(OH)2?
 SOLUTION STOICHIOMETRY AND
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS

EXERCISE

A solution of 100 mL of 0.200 M KOH is

mixed with a solution of 200.00 mL of 0.150
M NiSO4.

e) Write the balanced chemical equation for

the reaction.
f) What precipitate forms?
g) What is the limiting reactant?
h) How many grams of the precipitate form?
I am only one;
But still I am one;
I cannot do
everything;
But still I can do
something.
I will not refuse to
do something I can
do.

-Helen Keller-