D WATER RESOURCES AND USE: SHIRIMA
22nd WEDC Conference
REACHING THE UNREACHED: CHALLENGES FOR THE 21ST CENTURY
Reinforced blockwork water storage tanks
Laurent M. Shirima, Tanzania
ONE OF THE most important needs of any community
development is a safe and adequate supply of potable
water. Unfortunately, there is still a shortage of clean
water supply in rural regions of many developing coun-
tries like, for example, in Tanzania. A large proportion of
the rural population in such countries rely on the avail-
ability of man-made wells, natural springs and rivers,
and recently on limited piped water supply schemes. The
majority of such sources are not at economical distances
from the dwellings.
The effectiveness of piped water supply depends on the
availability of water storage tanks. Reinforced blockwork
tanks are used as water distribution and storage facilities
in some rural areas in Tanzania. They consist of rein-
forced concrete roof and floor slabs while the walls are
made of reinforced blockwork. The blockwork is made of
concrete blocks that contain grooves into which reinforc-
ing bars are laid and embedded in cement mortar.
This paper will discuss matters related to design and
construction of such tanks. Since severe cracking and
leakage were observed physically to be the major prob-
lems, the authors intend to present, in view of research
results, ways by which the tanks can be designed to
minimise crack widths and water losses through them.
Economic importance of storage tanks
Piped water supply schemes are costly but necessary
infrastructural requirement for the development of any
community. A survey which was conducted in Tanzania
(Senyange, 1985) indicated that water storage tanks con-
stitute about 30 per cent of the total cost of water schemes.
The majority of large tanks are made of reinforced con-
crete while smaller ones (< 150m³) are made of reinforced
blockwork walls and are mainly located in rural areas.
Suitability of blockwork for tank walls
Rural areas of developing countries are characterized by
low technology in terms of skilled manpower, equipment
and transportation means. Construction of reinforced
concrete walls for water retaining structures requires:
• adequate compaction of concrete by using surface
vibrators;
• low water-cement ratio by using admixtures for en-
hancing flowability;
• sufficient curing under tropical temperatures, which
can hardly be fulfilled in rural areas of developing
countries.
205
New Delhi, India, 1996
Blockwork construction is one of the appropriate tech-
nologies in such a situation because it requires simple
skills and tools, it is labour intensive, may create jobs and
is cheaper. Basic materials for the wall construction are
concrete blocks with grooves, cement mortar and rein-
forcing bars, all of which are locally available.
Problems for designers
The major problem with the existing tanks is cracking and
leakage that is accompanied with heavy water losses. In
order to reduce the heavy losses it is recommended to
design future tanks by taking account of crack width
limitations. The designers of existing tanks lacked ad-
equate knowledge about the behaviour of reinforced
blockwork in tension, crack formation, and the control of
shrinkage and load induced crack widths. The majority of
tanks were designed for ultimate limit state to bear the
tensile ring forces caused by water pressure .
Research on reinforced blockwork
It is well known from reinforced concrete structures that
the reinforcement ratio required for controlling crack
widths to specified sizes is significantly higher than that
required purely for the stability of the structure. This was
the reason for conducting a research to investigate:
• tensile strength of blockwork;
• crack formation, initial and final crack patterns;
• tension stiffening after cracking has taken place;
• crack widths in relation to steel stresses;
• water flow through separation cracks in blockwork;
• bond characteristics of reinforcing bars in mortar.
The investigations involved testing of 18 reinforced
blockwork wall panels in axial tension for which axial
deformation, crack widths and spacing, as well as rein-
forcing steel stresses were measured. Bond stresses of
plain and deformed bars in mortar were investigated on
45 specimens by pull-out tests and 21 beam splice test
methods. A total of 18 axial tensile tests on mortar and
small aggregate concrete were carried out as well to
investigate crack widths, crack spacing and their relation
to bond stresses.
In addition water permeability of cracked blockwork
was performed by which the amount of water flowing
through a crack of particular width and length was meas-
ured. In such tests water pressure was varied and D’Arcys
formula for lamina flow through parallel walls was ap-
plied for the determination of flow coefficients.
 D WATER RESOURCES AND USE: SHIRIMA

Results of experimental investigations

The results of the investigation were as follows (Shirima,
1996):

• Self healing of cracks may take place only if their

widths do not exceed 0.10mm. Therefore reinforced
blockwork tanks should be designed for cracks less
than or equal to 0.15mm, to minimise losses due to
leakage.

• A formula for the estimation of tensile strength of

blockwork in axial tension was derived from the
results of tensile tests on mortar and small aggregate
concrete. The tensile strength of blockwork can be
estimated as follows:
f Figure 2. Load-deformation curve
ft = αm ftm + (1 − αm) 2tb (1)

where αm is the proportion of mortar in the overall

cross section of the wall, ftb and ftm are tensile strength
of blocks and mortar, respectively. They can be esti-
mated from the compressive strengths:
2/3 2/3
ftb = 0.2 fcb ; ftm = 0.1 fcm
where fcb and fcm are respective compressive strength
strengths of blocks and mortar. A comparison with
test results is shown in Figure 1.
• The average gross strain of blockwork in axial tension
∈m, depending on steel stress was derived and reads
as follows:
for final crack formation, where Es is the modulus of
elasticity of steel bars, ρ the reinforcement ratio, σsl is
the cracking stress, i.e. steel stress upon formation of
the first cracks, and σs stands for service steel stress.
(2)
• Formulas for prediction of crack widths were deter-
mined, from which design tables and charts can be
produced and used for the determination of bar sizes
and reinforcement ratio required for bearing ring
stresses in the walls. The average crack spacing may
be estimated by the equation:
σ d
sm = 50 + 1.5 4 slτ s [mm] (5)
m

σsl f where ds and τ m stands for bar diameter and mean

εm = 0.60 = 0.60 t (3)
Es ρ Es bond stress, respectively. The mean crack width wm
and characteristic crack width wk can be calculated:
for initial crack formation, e.g. shrinkage and
σ
[1 − 0.55 (σσ ) ] wm = εm s m
1.5
εm = Es sl
(4) (6)
s s

w k = k wm (7)

where k = 1.3 for initial crack formation and 2.1 for

final crack formation. Bond stresses τm to be used for
design are 1.6 for deformed bars and 0.7 for plain ones.

Comparison between test results and calculations us-

ing the formulas above is shown in Figure 3.

Materials and construction

Figure 1. Strength of blockwork in tension
The materials used for the construction of blockwork
water tanks should meet some basic requirement. For
example, the compressive strength and density of con-
crete blocks should correspond to concrete grade 15 or
above. This can be achieved by a mix proportion, 1 part
cement: 3 parts sand: 6 parts course aggregates (< 8mm).
Strong and dense mortar is necessary for the protection of
reinforcement against corrosion. A mix of 1 part cement

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 D WATER RESOURCES AND USE: SHIRIMA
Figure 3. Comparison of mean crack widths
to 3 parts sand is recommended. All cross and bed joints
should be completely filled with mortar and well com-
pacted.
It is quite common to find plain bars in use in develop-
ing countries. Whenever deformed bars are available, it is
highly recommended to use them in favour of plain ones.
When only plain bars are available, then proper curtailing
procedure should be followed; the bars should be hooked
at their ends for adequate anchorage.
Laying of concrete blocks should be conducted care-
fully. All joints must be thoroughly flush and filled with
mortar. Reinforcing bars should be fully embedded in
mortar (recommended αm is about 0.30). Blocks should be
wetted a short while before laying them, to allow a good
bond with mortar and reduce the risk of mortar losing the
water it requires for hydration to dry blocks.
Low water/cement ratio for the mortar will reduce the
pore content and therefore the carbonation rate although
it may bring about workability problems. Experienced
masons are able to judge the proper consistency of mor-
tar.
Surface finishing
Blockwork surface is normally rough, therefore the inte-
rior side of a blockwork tank requires plastering and
screed, in order to be smooth. The materials used for the
purpose should be inert and nontoxic; they should not
form a breeding ground for fungi or other microorgan-
isms.
207
Water tightness can be improved by using plasters or
coats that contain components which may dissolve in
water and deposit into small cracks. There are already
products for such purpose like, for example, HEY’D1
slurry used in some northern parts of Tanzania. It is used
for replastering of interior surfaces of tank walls and has
shown good results.
Another important reason for plastering both interior
and exterior surfaces is to reduce the danger of rapid
shrinkage of mortar joints, especially when one considers
the climatic conditions in Africa which are hot and some-
times dry.
Shading
Potable water should have a comfortable temperature.
The practice of covering water tanks by soil, i.e. partial
burying, is one way of insulating them in addition to the
structural benefits of reducing ring stresses and therefore
crack widths. Any shading of a water tank from direct sun
radiation is a welcome step towards maintaining com-
fortable temperature of the stored water.
Conclusion
When properly designed and constructed, reinforced
blockwork tanks may perform well for storage of water in
developing countries. It is therefore important to provide
adequate reinforcement, by choosing suitable diameter of
bars and ensure that they are well anchored in the embed-
ding mortar. Compaction of mortar, plastering of
blockwork surfaces, and proper design of joints are cru-
cial considerations with regard to water tightness.
The equations presented in this paper enable the esti-
mation of suitable bar size and reinforcement ratio for
particular crack widths. Further research is required,
especially in the area of improving the durability of
reinforced blockwork tanks, since mortar cannot offer
adequate protection against the corrosion of reinforcing
bars.
References
Senyange, K. (1985), ‘Design of Reinforced Blockwork
Storage Tanks,’ MSc Thesis, University of Dar es Sa-
laam.
Shirima, L.M. (1996), ‘Design of Reinforced Blockwork
Water Storage Tanks,’ Dissertation, University of Dort-
mund.