Utilization of Solar Energy To Drive DC Motor

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11. UTILIZATION OF SOLAR ENERGY TO DRIVE DC

MOTOR
P. Dheeraj Kumar N. Prajwal Kumar
Jyothishmathi Institute of Technology & Science, Karimnagar.
ABSTRACT
We are living at a time when there is a greater awareness of the
energy problems facing the world than at any period in history and the
electricity consumption is increasing at an alarming rate. As such, due
to the constantly increasing demand of electric energy the
conventional fossil fuels are being consumed very fast. With the
current rate of their consumption the fossil fuels are likely to be
exhausted very soon. So there is a need of looking for other non
conventional sources. Solar energy is by far the most available
alternative energy source. Electricity consumption in India is constantly
increasing mainly because of industrialization. So, here we are mainly
concerned with utilizing solar energy for industrial appliances.
Industries like textile, cement, paper etc. require

sophisticated speed control of dc motors. So it is important for an
Electrical Engineer to develop a sophisticated speed control method to
meet present day industrial requirements. The recent and advanced
development of electronics in the field of POWER ELECTRONICS and
Micro processors give a good opportunity to develop accurate, reliable
and sophisticated speed control techniques. In this course of study our
paper“ Utilization of Solar Energy to drive a DC Motor and its
speed control by Micro controller based PWM technique” is an
attempt to study how to utilize solar energy for working of a DC motor
and at the same time controlling its speed by PWM technique.
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INTRODUCTION
The Paper presentation on “Utilizing Solar Energy To Drive the
DC Motor & and its Speed Control by Micro controller based PWM
Technique” describes the design and development of Prototype
module constructed for the demonstration purpose.
In this work the innovative technology involved is, instead of

using 12V DC supply for controlling the motor speed, non-conventional
energy i.e., solar energy is used. In this control system 12V is obtained
from lead Acid battery which can be charged using solar energy.
Today, power electronics is an indispensable tool in any country’s
industrial economy. An important aspect of power electronics
application is energy conservation, i.e., more efficient use of electricity.
Power electronics permits generation of electrical power from
environmentally clean photovoltaic, fuel cell, and wind energy sources.
As the availability of fossil fuel declines, there is need to find
alternate energy sources, of the many sources, solar energy available
in abundance and renewable is the ultimate source of all known forms
of energy. It is clear, safe, and free, does not pollute the environment
and thus will be an extremely viable alternative in the days to come.
One way to utilize the solar energy is to generate electricity

directly from the sunlight by photovoltaic conversion. Since
photovoltaic modules have now become extensively available in the
country.
Solar energy has long been regarded as an ideal energy source

but for the fact that we knew little to tap or use it to our advantage.
The advancement in science and technology brought out by mankind
had lead to developments like the photovoltaic cell. Solar panels
comprise of a number of such Photovoltaic Cells. The output of the
Solar Panel is proportional to the intensity of incident radiation from
the sun.
As the power generated is dependent on incident radiation and

also the intensity varies with time and season at a particular point, the
efficiency of the fixed system is far less to exploit commercially. For
optimum generation of electric power the PV Panels need to be
maintained or positioned normal always to the incident radiation. This
technique, known as Solar tracking, is therefore essential for improved
system performance and efficiency. The resulting increase in
efficiency is significant enough to make the tracking a viable

proportion in-spite of the enhancement in the system cost.
The terms “energy-saving” and “quiet-running” are becoming

very important in the world of variable speed motor drives.
Now coming to the DC motor, it is an important class of electric

machines, which finds wide applicability as a motor in industries where
wide range of speed control is needed. It is a doubly fed motor. It has
simple and inexpensive method of controlling the speed. A wide
range of speed control is possible.
There is great diversity and variety in the components and

systems used to control rotating machines. The purpose of a motor
control may be as simple as start/stop or the control of one or more of
the motor output parameters, i.e., shaft speed, angular position,
acceleration, shaft torque and mechanical power output. With the
rapid development of solid-state power devices, integrated circuits and
Micro-controller modules, the range, quality and accuracy of electronic
motor control has become almost infinite. Machines and other
electromechanical systems having the highest possible precession and
reliability have been developed for nuclear power and space
applications. Using solid-state power converters, schemes have been
devised to start, stop or reverse dc motors in the megawatt range in a
matter of seconds. Finally, as the non-conventional and renewable
sources of energy, such as solar, windmill, etc., would become
economical, viable electro-mechanical energy converters will be
required with matching characteristics.
The three main objectives of our project are
1.Controlling.
2.Global user interface
3. Reducing hardware
1) Controlling:
Variation in speed over a wide range is possible. So, there is

flexibility in controlling. The user can change the speed of DC motor to
the desired speed depending upon the application. The speed can be
set through a PC or a keyboard attached to it. The main advantage of
this method is accurate speed control is obtained and if once the speed
is set, it is stored in EEPROM. So, even if the entire circuit is switched
off, again when you want to run the application, the set value is
present it is not lost.
2) Global User Interface:
Some products are designed in a closed loop manner, which can

only be understood by the manufacturers, others cannot easily
understand it. If any problem occurs to those products, only
manufacturer can rectify it, and they are designed to operate in only
some specific areas in the world. If they are sent to another area, there
its derating factor will be very high and come out of normal operation
at a faster rate due to difference in the operating voltages and
frequencies. So, here we are trying to make an attempt to design the
product, which can be used efficiently all over the world (95%) i.e.,
Global User Interface (GUI) and the process can be easily understood
by other people if they know some basic concepts regarding
microcontroller programming.
3) Reducing The Hardware:
All these operations can be performed using 555 timer. But it

needs some extra components such as three comparators and some
I/O ports. It increases the complexity of the hardware. So, in order to
reduce the complexity of the hardware and increase the reliability of
the system, we employed 8051 interfacing device. The power
consumption of the system also reduces and also decreases
propagation delay due to the reduced components, so the desired
speed can be obtained at a faster rate.
BLOCK DIAGRAM AND ITS DESCRIPTION

The block diagram and its brief description of the project work
“Utilizing the Solar Energy to drive a DC motor & and its speed
control by micro controller based PWM Technique” is explained
in brief. The block diagram is as follows.
TACHO
GENERATOR
INTELLIGENT
CHARGER
DC MOTOR
SOLAR PANEL
MOSFET DRIVER
BATTERY
FEED BACK
EEPROM
MICRO
CONTROLLER
LCD DISPLAY
LOGIC BOARD
SERIAL
PC INTERFACE
BLOCK DIAGRAM KEYBOARD
DESCRIPTION:
Solar panels consisting of Photo Voltaic (PV) cells convert the
solar energy into electrical energy. The electrical energy produced by
the solar panel is stored in the battery through an intelligent charger,
and this stored energy is used to drive the system. Since the system
consumes more power, the output of the panel is not sufficient to drive
the system. There fore stored energy is used, for this purpose fully
charged condition lead acid battery could be used. This intelligent
charger has two modes:
1. Trickle charging mode

2. Boost charging mode
The charger operates in the trickle charge mode to retain the
charge when there is no load connected to the battery.
The charger operates in the boost-charging mode when the
output voltage of the battery drops below certain operating voltage
(12V).
The output of the battery is fed to dc motor through MOSFET
driver, which acts as buffer amplifier. DC motor converts electrical
energy to mechanical energy.
Now to control the speed of the dc motor, PWM signal is given to

the dc motor, which is generated by micro controller. The speed of the
dc motor is sensed through a tacho generator by optical encoder
principle. This information is fed to the micro controller. Micro
controller displays the speed of motor on LCD display in rpm. We can
vary the speed of motor by varying the duty cycle of the PWM signal.
The duty cycle can be varied through keyboard to the desired

value. The EEPROM stores the program even if the circuit is
disconnected. So once stored, the program can be executed as many
times.
SOLAR ENERGY - AN OVER VIEW
In today's climate of growing energy needs and increasing

environmental concern, alternatives to the use of non-renewable and
polluting fossil fuels have to be investigated. One such alternative is
solar energy.
Solar energy is quite simply the energy produced directly by the

sun and collected elsewhere, normally the Earth. The sun creates its
energy through a thermonuclear process that converts about
650,000,000 tons of hydrogen to helium every second. The process
creates heat and electromagnetic radiation. The heat remains in the
sun and is instrumental in maintaining the thermonuclear reaction. The
electromagnetic radiation (including visible light, infra-red light, and
ultra-violet radiation) streams out into space in all directions.
Due to the nature of solar energy, two components are required

to have a functional solar energy generator. These two components
are a collector and a storage unit. The collector simply collects the
radiation that falls on it and converts a fraction of it to other forms of
energy (either electricity and heat or heat alone). The storage unit is
required because of the non-constant nature of solar energy; at certain
times only a very small amount of radiation will be received. At night
or during heavy cloud cover, for example, the amount of energy
produced by the collector will be quite small. The storage unit can hold
the excess energy produced during the periods of maximum
productivity, and release it when the productivity drops. In practice, a
backup power supply is usually added, too, for the situations when the
amount of energy required is greater than both what is being produced
and what is stored in the container.
Introduction to photovoltaic (solar cell) systems
Solar cells convert sunlight directly into electricity. Solar cells are
often used to power calculators and watches. They are made of semi
conducting materials similar to those used in computer chips. When
these materials absorb sunlight, the solar energy knocks electrons
loose from their atoms, allowing the electrons to flow through the
material to produce electricity. This process of converting light
(photons) to electricity (voltage) is called the photovoltaic (PV) effect.
Solar cells are typically combined into modules that hold about
40 cells; about 10 of these modules are mounted in PV arrays that can
measure up to several meters on a side. These flat-plate PV arrays can
be mounted at a fixed angle facing south, or they can be mounted on a
tracking device that follows the sun, allowing them to capture the most
sunlight over the course of a day. About 10 to 20 PV arrays can provide
enough power for a household; for large electric utility or industrial
applications, hundreds of arrays can be interconnected to form a
single, large PV system.
CHARGER SCHEMATIC
The above circuit is a solar power center, it can be used to

handle all of the power functions for small 12 Volt solar powered
devices. It contains a photovoltaic charge controller and a low voltage
load disconnect circuit. The low voltage disconnect has a load on-off
switch, and a battery low voltage indicator. By using the SPC2 as the
center of a solar powered device, long battery life is assured. The SPC2
can be used for powered lighting systems, radios, and other 12 Volt
devices.
Specifications
Nominal battery voltage: 12V
Maximum solar panel current: 6 Amps
Maximum load current: 6 Amps, more with an external solid-state relay
Nighttime battery drain current: approximately 10 micro-amps
Temperature compensation for use in variable climates Radio-quiet
operation
The kit forms the center of a 12 Volt solar power system. It

includes a charge controller, a load switch, a low voltage disconnect
circuit, and a battery low voltage-warning indicator. Regulated
charging combined with the low voltage disconnect function will
provide years of reliable battery use. The kit will work with Lead Acid,
NiCd, NiMh, and other rechargeable batteries.
This kit can be used as the power control center for portable
lighting systems, cellular phones, car stereos, CB and Ham radios,
small TVs, portable recording equipment, fans, and just about any
other 12 Volt load that uses up to 6 Amps of current. The SPC2 can be
used to run an external DC-rated solid-state relay (not included) for
controlling higher current loads.
Controls and indicators include a momentary action on-off

switch, a red/green Charge/Float LED, a green Load-Power LED, and a
yellow Low-Voltage LED.
The kit includes:

• A high quality double sided, silk screened circuit board.
• All of the parts required for building the board.
• A schematic and wiring diagram.
• Easy step-by-step assembly and alignment instructions.
Charge Controller Theory

The charge controller is shown in the upper half of the
schematic. Transistor T3 turns on power to the rest of the charge
controller circuitry when the PV panel input exceeds 12V. Regulator
IC3 provides 5 Volts to run the rest of the circuit.
The upper half of IC1 is the heart of the charge controller. It acts
as a combined comparator/oscillator circuit. When the battery voltage
is well below the float voltage setting, IC1 turns on, this causes the LED
to turn red and the 4N35 to turn on. The output of the 4N35 activates
FET T1, which connects the solar panel power to the battery. When the
float voltage is reached, the circuit oscillates above and below the float
voltage setting as the charging current gets switched on and off of the
battery. The oscillation frequency is mainly set by the battery charging
characteristics and the current that is available from the solar panel.
The 10n capacitor across the upper half of IC1 limits the maximum
switching frequency. The 4.7M resistor across IC1 causes the circuit to
have some hysteresis, separating the charge/float switch points.
The thermistor modulates the float voltage setting slightly, the

full voltage setpoint rises in colder temperatures. The lower half of IC1
always produces the opposite output from the upper half of IC1 for
driving the bipolar LED. Shorting the equalize terminals causes the
circuit to stay in the charging state, this is useful for occasionally
overcharging (equalizing) a battery.
Diode D4 prevents the battery from draining back into the solar
panel at night. Diode D5 is a crowbar, if the battery is connected in
reverse, it causes the fuse to blow, this saves the rest of the circuitry
from destruction.
Low Voltage Disconnect Theory
The low voltage disconnect circuit is shown in the lower half of

the schematic. The circuit operates like a solid-state version of a
latching relay. Unlike simple under-voltage shutoff devices, when the
LVD circuit shuts off, it stays off until it is manually turned back on.
This prevents the load from oscillating off and on due to the rise in
battery voltage after the load is disconnected.
When the momentary switch is turned on, transistor T4 is turned

on. This activates the comparator circuits formed by the two halves of
IC2. As long as the battery voltage is above the LVD setpoint, the
upper IC2 comparator goes high and FET T2 is switched on. Once the
LVD circuit has been turned on, T4 continues to stay on via the current
through the 1N4148 diode.
The IC4 regulator provides a reference voltage to compare the

battery voltage to. The voltage on IC2 pin 8 tracks the battery voltage.
When the battery voltage drops near the shutoff point, the lower half
of IC2 turns on, causing the yellow low voltage warning LED to light.
When the battery voltage drops further, to the cutoff point, the upper
half of IC2 goes low, causing FET T2 to turn off, cutting power to the
load. The bias current through the 1N4148 diode also shuts off, T4
turns off, and the rest of the circuitry loses power.
If the LVD circuit is on, switching the momentary switch to off

causes the upper half of IC2 to produce a low output, shutting down
the LVD circuit as described above. High capacitance loads (above
several thousand microfarads) will tend to keep the circuit on for a
while when the off switch is pressed. Adding the circuit shown in the
dashed box will help to speed up the discharge of the capacitance.
Charge Controller Alignment
Connect the PV panel and battery to the circuit. Turn the float
voltage setting fully clockwise, the dual color LED should turn red.
Measure the battery voltage with a voltmeter. The battery voltage
should gradually rise. Leave the circuit connected until the battery
voltage has reached or exceeded the fully charged setting, typically
around 13.8V at room temperature. Turn the float voltage setting
counter clockwise until the LED alternates red and green. Tweak the
setting until the LED blinks and the battery voltage is where you want
it to be at the full state.
Low Voltage Disconnect Alignment

Connect a variable voltage power supply that can produce 10 to
15 Volts across the battery terminals. Set the supply to 11.0 Volts.
Turn the LVD Setpoint pot fully counter-clockwise. Turn the power
switch on. The Green power LED should go on. Turn the pot clockwise
until the yellow low voltage LED turns on. Slowly turn the pot clockwise
until the yellow and green LEDs turn off. Adjust the power supply to
12V and turn the power switch on. Gradually turn the power supply
voltage down until the LVD cuts out, you may need to repeat this test
while tweaking the pot to set the shutoff point exactly.
DC MOTOR
The direct current (DC) motor is one of the first machines

devised to convert electrical power into mechanical power.
The main parts of the DC motor are:
1.Magnetic frame or yoke

2.Pole cores and Pole shoes
3.Field coils
4.Armature core
5.Armature windings
6.Commutator
7.Brushes
Direct current motor converts electrical energy into mechanical

energy through the interaction of two magnetic fields. The stationary
electromagnetic field of the motor can also be wire-wound like the
armature (called a wound-field motor) or can be made up of
permanent magnets (called a permanent magnet motor). . A
permanent magnet assembly produces one field and the other field is
produced by an electrical current flowing in the motor windings. These
two fields result in a torque, which tends to rotate the rotor. As the
rotor turns, the current in the windings is commutated to produce a
continuous torque output.
In either style (wound-field or permanent magnet) the

commutator acts as half of a mechanical switch and rotates with the
armature as it turns. The commutator is composed of conductive
segments (called bars), usually made of copper, which represent the
termination of individual coils of wire distributed around the armature.
The second half of the mechanical switch is completed by the brushes.
These brushes typically remain stationary with the motor's housing but
ride (or brush) on the rotating commutator. As electrical energy is
passed through the brushes and consequently through the armature a
torsional force is generated as a reaction between the motor's field
and the armature causing the motor's armature to turn. As the
armature turns, the brushes switch to adjacent bars on the
commutator. This switching action transfers the electrical energy to an
adjacent winding on the armature, which in turn perpetuates the
torsional motion of the armature.
Permanent magnet (PM) motors are probably the most

commonly used DC motors, but there is also some other type of DC
motors (types which use coils to make the permanent magnetic field
also). DC motors operate from a direct current power source.
Movement of the magnetic field is achieved by switching current
between coils within the motor. This action is called "commutation".

Very many DC motors (brush-type) have built-in commutation,
meaning that as the motor rotates, mechanical brushes automatically
commutate coils on the rotor. You can use dc-brush motors in a variety
of applications. A simple, permanent-magnet dc motor is an essential
element in a variety of products, such as toys, servomechanisms, valve
actuators, robots, and automotive electronics. There are several typical
advantages of a PM motor. When compared to AC or wound field DC
motors, PM motors are usually physically smaller in overall size and
lighter for a given power rating. Furthermore, since the motor's field,
created by the permanent magnet, is constant, the relationship
between torque and speed is very linear. A PM motor can provide
relatively high torque at low speeds and PM field provides some
inherent self-braking when power to the motor is shutoff. There are
several disadvantages through, those being mostly being high current
during a stall condition and during instantaneous reversal. Those can
damage some motors or be problematic to control circuitry.
Furthermore, some magnet materials can be damaged when subjected
to excessive heat and some loose field strength if the motor is
disassembled.
Sometimes the rotation direction needs to be changed. In normal

permanent magnet motors, this rotation is changed by changing the
polarity of operating power (for example by switching from negative
power supply to positive or by interchanging the power terminals going
to power supply). This direction changing is typically implemented
using relay or a circuit called an H bridge. There are some typical
characteristics on "brush-type" DC motors.
When a DC motor is straight to a battery (with no controller), it

draws a large surge current when connected up. The surge is caused
because the motor, when it is turning, acts as a generator. The
generated voltage is directly proportional to the speed of the motor.
The current through the motor is controlled by the difference between
the battery voltage and the motor's generated voltage (otherwise
called back EMF). When the motor is first connected up to the battery
(with no motor speed controller) there is no back EMF.
Ia=(V-Eb)/Ra
Since Eb=0 at the time of starting,
So the current is controlled only by the battery voltage,

motor resistance (and inductance) and the battery leads. Without any
back emf the motor, before it starts to turn, therefore draws the large
surge current. When a motor speed controller is used, it varies the
voltage fed to the motor. Initially, at zero speed, the controller will feed
no voltage to the motor, so no current flows. As the motor speed

controller's output voltage increases, the motor will start to turn. At
first the voltage fed to the motor is small, so the current is also small,
and as the motor speed controller's voltage rises, so too does the
motor's back EMF. The result is that the initial current surge is
removed, acceleration is smooth and fully under control.
Motor speed control; there are 3 methods

1.Armature voltage control method
2.Field flux control
3.Armature resistance control.
N=k (V-IaRa)/(flux)
We can vary the speed of the dc motor by varying the applied

voltage(v),armature resistance(Ra) and field flux.
A simplest method to control the rotation speed of a DC motor

is to control it's driving voltage. The higher the voltage is, the higher
speed the motor tries to reach. In many applications a simple voltage
regulation would cause lots of power loss on control circuit, so a pulse
width modulation method (PWM) is used in many DC motor-controlling
applications. In the basic Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) method, the
operating power to the motors is turned on and off to modulate the
current to the motor. The ratio of "on" time to "off" time is what
determines the speed of the motor.
Ton Toff
Vo=V( Ton/T)
T=Ton+Toff
Duty ratio = Ton/T
Frequency, f=1/T
By varying the duty ratio we can get variable voltage.
There are two methods to vary the duty ratio:
1. Constant frequency
2. Variable frequency
Constant Frequency:
In this scheme, the on time is varied but the frequency F( time
period T) is kept constant. Variation of Ton means adjustment of pulse
width, as such this scheme is also called Pulse Width Modulation
scheme. This scheme can also be referred to as Time Ratio Control .
Variable frequency:
In this scheme, the frequency F(time period T) is varied and
either on time Ton is kept constant or off time Toff is kept constant.
It has some disadvantages as compared to PWM scheme:

1.The frequency has to be varied over a wide range for the
control of output voltage in frequency modulation. Filter
design for such wide frequency variation is quite difficult.
2.For the control of duty ratio, frequency variation would be

wide. As such there is a possibility of interference with
signalling and telephone lines.
3.The large off time in frequency modulation scheme may make

the load current discontinuous which is undesirable.
It is seen from the above that constant frequency(PWM) scheme
is better than variable frequency scheme.
When doing PWM controlling, keep in mind that a motor is a low
pass device. The reason is that a motor is mainly a large inductor. It is
not capable of passing high frequency energy, and hence will not
perform well using high frequencies. Reasonably low frequencies are
required, and then PWM techniques will work. Lower frequencies are
generally better than higher frequencies, but PWM stops being
effective at too low a frequency.
The idea that a lower frequency PWM works better simply
reflects that the "on" cycle needs to be pretty wide before the motor
will draw any current (because of motor inductance). A higher PWM
frequency will work fine if you hang a large capacitor across the motor
or short the motor out on the "off" cycle (e.g. power/brake pwm) The
reason for this is that short pulses will not allow much current to flow
before being cut off. Then the current that did flow is dissipated as an
inductive kick - probably as heat through the flyback diodes. The
capacitor integrates the pulse and provides a longer, but lower, current
flow through the motor after the driver is cut off. There is not inductive
kick either, since the current flow isn't being cut off. Knowing the low
pass roll-off frequency of the motor helps to determine an optimum
frequency for operating PWM. Try testing your motor with a square
duty cycle using a variable frequency, and then observe the drop in
torque as the frequency is increased. This technique can help

determine the roll off point as far as power efficiency is concerned.
There are also high frequency PWM systems that work. The low
versus high frequency for PWM of dc motors describes two totally
different approaches. Both are valid. At low frequencies you get a
mechanical averaging. When the drive is turned off, there is a
momentary spike of voltage that the catch diodes clamp but after that
transient dies out the motor is left to freewheel. You will typically hear
the motor buzzing. But this is usually pretty simple to implement with
small motors and low voltages (remember the motor must freewheel
when the drive is off). At high frequencies the inductance of the motor
(armature) does the current averaging. This is similar to a switching
power supply (or a chopper drive). The catch diodes are more critical
here because they carry full motor current a substantial amount of
time (not so if you are driving the motor locked anti-phase). High
frequency PWM is quite sensitive to the motor properties (inductance).
For medium size motors usually 20 kHz or higher frequency works.
There are also applications where you need PWM controlling for
two directions. In those cases you usually combine PWM controlling
with H Bridge. There are many ways to do this in locked anti-phase
system the motor is always driven either forward or backwards, but
always connected to the power. 50% duty cycle has no net current flow
and the motor doesn't move. Because the motor is always being
driven, it always has low impedance across its terminals. A side effect
of this is that the motor, at 50%, not only doesn't turn, but it resists
turning - it is in brake mode: a low impedance (e.g. a short) is across

the terminals. No capacitors are needed. The one drawback is intense
inductive noise at the switching frequency.
MICRO CONTROLLER
Like the microprocessor, a micro controller is a general-purpose
device, but one that is meant to read data, performs limited
calculations on that data, and control its environment based on those
calculations. The prime use of a micro controller is to control the
operation of a machine using a fixed program that is stored in ROM
and that does not change over the lifetime of the system.
The pin configurations, and architecture for a 8051 micro

controller is
Pin Configurations
Total pins : 40
Address pins : 16
Data pins :8
Interrupt pins :2
I/O pins : 32
Architecture
8-bit registers : 34
16-bit registers : 2
Stack size : 128
Internal ROM : 4K
Internal RAM : 128
External memory : 128K
Flags :4
Timers :2
Parallel port :4
Serial port :1
The 8051 architecture consists of these specific features:
Eight-bit CPU with registers A (the accumulator) and B.

• Sixteen-bit program counter (PC) and data pointer
(DPTR).
• Eight-bit program status word (PSW).
• Eight-bit stack pointer (SP).
• Internal ROM or EPROM (8751) of 0 (8031) to 4K (8051).
• Internal RAM of 128 bytes:
1. Four register banks, each containing eight
registers.
2. Sixteen bytes, which may be addressed at the bit
level.
3. Eighty bytes of general-purpose data memory.
• Thirty-two input/output pins arranged as four

8-bit ports: P0-P3
• Two 16-bit timer/counters: T0 and T1
• Full duplex serial data receiver/transmitter: SBUF
• Control registers: TCON, TMOD, SCON, PCON, IP, and IE
• Two external and three internal interrupt sources
• Oscillator and clock circuits
SOME HARDWARE DETAILS
SOLAR PANEL
Solar panels consisting of photo voltaic (PV) cells convert

the solar energy in to electrical energy. The electrical energy produced
by the solar panel is stored in the battery, and the stored energy is
used to drive the system. Since the system consumes more power, the
output of the panel is not sufficient to drive the system. There fore
stored energy is used, for this purpose fully charged condition lead
acid battery could be used. To drive the system directly, without using
battery, huge quantity of solar panels connected in parallel to increase
the currant rating can be used.
The most useful way of harnessing solar energy is by

directly converting it into electricity by means of solar photovoltaic
cells. When sunshine is incident on solar cells, they generate DC
electricity without the involvement of any mechanical generators, i.e.
in this system of energy conversion there is direct conversion of solar
radiation into electricity. In it the stage of conversion into thermo-
dynamic form is absent. The photovoltaic effect is defined as the
generation of an electromotive force as a result of the absorption of
ionizing radiation. Energy conversion devices, which are used to
convert sunlight to electricity by the use of the photovoltaic effect, are
called solar cells.
TACHO ENCODER WHEEL

The name itself specifies that it encode the speed of the motor
by using a wheel mechanism. The wheel is shown below
This wheel is linked to the shaft of the motor and as the motor
rotates the wheel also rotates. As we see the wheel is divided into
sectors and alternate sectors are darkened. Here we need a counter to
count the number of shaded or unshaded parts of the wheel. Whenever
the motor rotates the wheel also rotates and the number of shaded
and unshaded parts is counted and this information is transformed into

pulses (let us take logic 1 for shaded and logic 0 for unshaded sector).
Thus we can get the waveform as below
If 60 cycles = 1rev =360 deg

1 cycle = 6 deg
This information is transferred to the micro controller. There are
two methods to count the pulses
a) Trans reflector
b) Passing through
In both these methods the number of shaded or unshaded
sectors are identified by passing the light through the wheel and
depending on charge in intensity of light in the received signal we will
count the total number of pulses. In both the methods the transmitter
sends the signal and the receiver receives
the signal that is coming from the sector.

Wheel
Wheel
Tx Rx
a) Trans reflector b) Passing through
ELECTRICALLY ERASABLE PROGRAMMABLE READ

ONLY MEMORY (EEPROM):
This ROM is also known as Electrically Alterable PROM

(EAPROM). The contents of the chip can be erased and reprogrammed
by electric signals on a byte by byte basis. It is possible to erase a
signal byte or the total contents. EEPROMs take much time for both
writing and erasing a byte.
Now a days the EEPROM is used as back-up to RAM memory. The

contents of RAM will be lost in power failure. At that time the RAM
contents are copied into EEPROM. After the power is returned, the
EEPROM can be used to replace the lost contents of RAM. Thus the
computer can continue functioning as it was before the power is off.
Now a days, the high speed static RAM and EEPROM are combined in a
single integrated chip to form non-volatile RAM.

Utilization of Solar Energy To Drive DC Motor

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11. UTILIZATION OF SOLAR ENERGY TO DRIVE DC

Industries like textile, cement, paper etc. require

In this work the innovative technology involved is, instead of

One way to utilize the solar energy is to generate electricity

Solar energy has long been regarded as an ideal energy source

As the power generated is dependent on incident radiation and

efficiency is significant enough to make the tracking a viable

The terms “energy-saving” and “quiet-running” are becoming

Now coming to the DC motor, it is an important class of electric

There is great diversity and variety in the components and

The three main objectives of our project are

2.Global user interface

Variation in speed over a wide range is possible. So, there is

2) Global User Interface:

Some products are designed in a closed loop manner, which can

3) Reducing The Hardware:

All these operations can be performed using 555 timer. But it

BLOCK DIAGRAM AND ITS DESCRIPTION

BLOCK DIAGRAM KEYBOARD

1. Trickle charging mode

Now to control the speed of the dc motor, PWM signal is given to

The duty cycle can be varied through keyboard to the desired

SOLAR ENERGY - AN OVER VIEW

In today's climate of growing energy needs and increasing

Solar energy is quite simply the energy produced directly by the

Due to the nature of solar energy, two components are required

Introduction to photovoltaic (solar cell) systems

The above circuit is a solar power center, it can be used to

The kit forms the center of a 12 Volt solar power system. It

Controls and indicators include a momentary action on-off

The kit includes:

Charge Controller Theory

The thermistor modulates the float voltage setting slightly, the

Low Voltage Disconnect Theory

The low voltage disconnect circuit is shown in the lower half of

When the momentary switch is turned on, transistor T4 is turned

The IC4 regulator provides a reference voltage to compare the

If the LVD circuit is on, switching the momentary switch to off

Charge Controller Alignment

Low Voltage Disconnect Alignment

The direct current (DC) motor is one of the first machines

The main parts of the DC motor are:

1.Magnetic frame or yoke

Direct current motor converts electrical energy into mechanical

In either style (wound-field or permanent magnet) the

Permanent magnet (PM) motors are probably the most

between coils within the motor. This action is called "commutation".

Sometimes the rotation direction needs to be changed. In normal

When a DC motor is straight to a battery (with no controller), it

So the current is controlled only by the battery voltage,

no voltage to the motor, so no current flows. As the motor speed

Motor speed control; there are 3 methods

We can vary the speed of the dc motor by varying the applied

A simplest method to control the rotation speed of a DC motor

By varying the duty ratio we can get variable voltage.

There are two methods to vary the duty ratio:

It has some disadvantages as compared to PWM scheme:

2.For the control of duty ratio, frequency variation would be

3.The large off time in frequency modulation scheme may make

torque as the frequency is increased. This technique can help

turning - it is in brake mode: a low impedance (e.g. a short) is across