Proceedings of The Twelfth (2002) International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference

Kitakyushu, Japan, May 26 –31, 2002

Copyright © 2002 by The International Society of Offshore and Polar Engineers
ISBN 1-880653-58-3 (Set); ISSN 1098-6189 (Set)

THE EFFECT OF CHORD PRE-LOAD ON THE STATIC

STRENGTH OF UNIPLANAR TUBULAR K-JOINTS
G.J. van der Vegte
Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
Y. Makino
Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
J. Wardenier
Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands

ABSTRACT To a designer, it is confusing that different approaches should be used

In current design codes, the equations accounting for the effects of
chord stress in circular (CHS) and rectangular (RHS) hollow section
joints are inconsistent. For CHS joints, the chord stress function is
based on the chord pre-stress, while for RHS joints the maximum chord
stress is used. In the framework of a CIDECT programme, it was
decided to re-analyze the effects of chord stress of CHS joints in order
to establish a chord stress function consistent for both circular and
rectangular hollow section joints.
A numerical parametric study has been conducted into the effects of
chord pre-load on the static strength of axially loaded CHS K-joints
where the main variables are the chord pre-stress, the geometric
parameters β, 2γ and the brace angle θ, which is directly related to the
gap ratio ξ. The effects of both tensile and compressive pre-load on the
strength of the K-joints have been made clear. Furthermore, the
ultimate strength data have been compared with the chord stress
functions recommended by (i) CIDECT Design Guide (Wardenier,
1991), (ii) Pecknold (2001) and (iii) Dier (1998). It is concluded that a
better understanding of the effects of chord pre-stress on the strength of
K-joints is obtained by considering the maximum chord stress, rather
than the chord stress due to externally applied pre-loads, as the
governing variable.
KEYWORDS : FE analyses, tubular joints, K-joints, chord pre-load,
static strength
INTRODUCTION
In current design rules, insufficient emphasis is put on the consistency
of various design equations. For circular hollow section (CHS) joints,
no reliable function could be found for the influence of chord stress
based on the maximum compressive chord stress. Hence, for CHS
joints, the external chord “pre-load” (i.e. the additional load in the
chord which is not necessary to resist the horizontal components of the
brace forces) is used to account for the effects of chord loading.
However, for rectangular hollow section (RHS) joints, the chord stress
formulation is based on the maximum chord stress i.e. the stresses as a
result of axial forces and (where applicable) bending moments.
for different categories of joints, which may lead to misinterpretations
and errors. Hence, it has been proposed in the framework of a CIDECT
(Comité International pour le Développement et l’Étude de la
Construction Tubulaire) programme, to re-analyze the effects of chord
stress on the ultimate strength of tubular joints in order to establish a
chord stress formulation as a function of the maximum chord stress,
consistent for both circular and rectangular hollow section joints.
In the past, only a few researchers studied the effects of chord pre-
loading on the strength of tubular joints. In the literature, three
experimental studies are available regarding the effects of pre-load on
the ultimate strength of tubular X-joints : Togo (1967), Boone (1982)
and Weinstein (1986). In 1996, Makino compiled a comprehensive
database reporting all available test data on various types of CHS joints.
From this database it is observed that the number of test data on CHS
K-joints is larger than for X-joints. However, except for the
experimental research carried out by e.g. Kurobane (1965) and de
Koning (1981) where chord pre-stress was a key variable, in most of
the K-joint studies chord stresses were present to maintain static
equilibrium. More recent investigations into the effects of chord pre-
load on the strength of tubular K- and X-joints were conducted by Dier
(1998) and Pecknold (2000 and 2001). A brief description of both
studies is presented in section “Overview of current recommendations
for chord stress effects”.
Numerical tools offer the flexibility to vary various parameters and at
the same time exclude the scatter usually observed between various
series of tests. Therefore, numerical methods have been employed to
generate additional data on axially loaded uniplanar K-joints subjected
to chord pre-load. For the finite element analyses, the software package
ABAQUS/Standard (Hibbitt, 1998) has been used. The geometric
parameter β has been varied from 0.25 to 0.67, while 2γ is taken as 25.4
and 63.5. From the results of a similar study on axially loaded
uniplanar X-joints subjected to chord pre-load (van der Vegte, 2001), it
was found that the influence of 2γ on the chord stress function was less
pronounced than initially expected. Hence, for uniplanar K-joints, only
the upper and lower limit of the 2γ range investigated for uniplanar X-
joints has been considered. The brace angle θ has been taken as 45˚ and
60˚. For each of the K-joints analyzed, the uniformly applied chord
stress has been varied from –0.9 fy to +0.9 fy (tensile pre-stresses are
referred to as positive).

1
The present study addresses the research programme, the FE strategy,
the numerical load-deformation curves, the failure criteria and the
failure modes of the K-joints investigated. The chord stress contours
obtained from the numerical analyses, are presented not only as a
function of the chord pre-stress due to external loads but also as a
function of the maximum chord stress.
Furthermore, comparisons of the numerical results of uniplanar K-
joints are made with the chord pre-stress functions developed by (i)
CIDECT Design Guide for CHS joints (Wardenier, 1991) which chord
stress function is similar to that of the International Institute of Welding
(IIW, 1989) and based on the equation derived by Kurobane (1984), (ii)
Pecknold (2001) and (iii) ISO Draft (Dier, 1998) whose chord stress
formulation is only slightly different from the equation recommended
by API RP2A (1993). Both CIDECT’s and Pecknold chord stress
functions are based on the chord stress ratio due to external pre-load,
while Dier’s chord stress equation utilizes the maximum chord stress as
the main variable.
In future publications, the numerical data obtained in the current study
will be combined with experimental data in order to develop a new
chord stress equation, valid not only for K-joints but also for different
types of CHS and RHS geometries.
SCOPE OF NUMERICAL STUDY
The configuration of uniplanar K-joints and the definition of the
geometric parameters are shown in Fig. 1. The main geometric
parameters of the K-joints analyzed in the numerical research are
summarized in Table 1.
N2
t2 t1
d2 d1
g ξ = g/d0
t0 l2 θ2 θ1
+Nop
d0 e influence of the end caps on the static response of the joints.
angle θ has been taken as 45˚ and 60˚. Since the current programme is
limited to K-joints with positive gap-values, for some configurations,
eccentricities have been introduced to avoid overlapped joints. For each
of the K-joints with eccentricities, the gap size g was taken as 32 mm,
corresponding to t1 + t2 for the thick walled joints. The values of the
gap ratio ξ (= g/d0), g/t0 and e/d0 are also presented in Table 1. The
non-dimensional chord length parameter α (= 2l0/d0) is held at 16,
whereas d0 = 406.4 mm. The length of the braces l1 and l2 is set to 5d1.
For each of the configurations considered, nine values of the external
chord pre-load N0p have been analysed, giving the following chord pre-
load ratios N0p/A0fy0 : +0.9, +0.8, +0.6, +0.3 , 0.0, -0.3, -0.6, -0.8, -0.9
(positive values refer to tensile pre-load).
The steel grade used for the tubular members is S355 with fy = 355
N/mm2 and fu = 510 N/mm2.
FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSES
FE Modelling Aspects
The numerical analyses were carried out with the finite element
package ABAQUS (Hibbitt, 1998). The joints are modelled using
quadratic, twenty noded solid elements employing reduced integration
(ABAQUS element C3D20R). Two layers of elements have been
considered through the thickness of each member.
Due to symmetry in geometry and loading, only one half of each joint
has been analyzed. As an example, in Fig. 2, the overall finite element
mesh for the K-joints with β = 0.48 and θ = 60˚ is illustrated. The
appropriate boundary conditions are applied to the nodes located in the
plane of symmetry.
For all joints, the geometry of the welds at the brace-chord intersection
N1 α = 2l0/d0 has been modelled. The dimensions of the welds in the numerical
β = d1/d0 model are in accordance with the specifications recommended by the
2γ = d0/t0 AWS (1992).
Both ends of the braces and the chord ends have rigid diaphragms. The
l1
length of the members is considered to be sufficient to exclude any

l0

Fig. 1 : Dimensions and non-dimensional geometric parameters of

uniplanar K-joints.

Table 1 : Geometric parameters of the K-joints investigated.

joint 2γ τ ξ g/t0 e/d0

K1 25.4 0.8 0.65 16.4 0.0
β = 0.25
K2 63.5 1.0 0.65 41.0 0.0
K3 25.4 1.0 0.33 8.3 0.0
θ = 45˚ β = 0.48
K4 63.5 1.0 0.33 20.7 0.0
K5 25.4 1.0 0.079 2.0 0.015
β = 0.67
K6 63.5 1.0 0.079 5.0 0.015
K7 25.4 0.8 0.29 7.3 0.0
β = 0.25
K8 63.5 1.0 0.29 18.3 0.0
K9 25.4 1.0 0.079 2.0 0.045
θ = 60˚ β = 0.48
K10 63.5 1.0 0.079 5.0 0.045
β = 0.67
K11 25.4 1.0 0.079 2.0 0.24 Fig. 2 : FE mesh for K-joints with β = 0.48 and θ = 60˚.
K12 63.5 1.0 0.079 5.0 0.24
Loading and Boundary Conditions
For all joints : α = 16, d0 = 406.4 mm
In the first step of the numerical analyses, the chord end is pre-loaded
Three values of the brace-to-chord diameter ratio β and two values of with axial force using the load-control method. During this first step,
the chord wall thinness ratio γ have been considered whereas the brace the chord ends are roller supported i.e. free to move laterally.

2
In the second step of the loading procedure, the appropriate boundary
conditions are applied to the chord ends whereas axial brace loads are
applied to the nodes of the brace tip. Meanwhile, the axial forces at the
chord ends are maintained at the same level as at the end of the first
step.
The effects of boundary conditions on the capacity of K-joints have
been investigated by various researchers e.g. Bolt (1992) and Liu
(1998). Both studies highlighted the effects that boundary conditions
may have on the ultimate strength of K-joints. The boundary conditions
employed in the current study are presented in Fig. 3. Equal, opposite
loads have been applied to both compression and tension braces, using
the Riks algorithm, enabling to monitor the load-indentation behaviour
for declining brace loads. The resulting horizontal forces are reacted at
the pinned end of the chord, giving rise to compressive stresses in the
left side of the chord.
experimental programme to study the static behaviour of uniplanar
CHS K-joints. Out of this programme, two thin walled gap K-joints (β
= 0.33 and 0.65, 2γ ≈ 56, θ = 45˚, e = 0) were chosen to serve as a basis
for validation of the FE model. For each of these joints, two tests were
carried out on identical specimens. The experimental and numerical
load indentation curves are presented in Figs. 5a and 5b for joints CC10,
CC11 (β = 0.33) and CC12, CC13 (β = 0.65) respectively. For both
geometries, the numerical load-deformation response is shown to be in
good agreement with the experimentally obtained curve, not only for
the initial stiffness but also for the peak load and the post-peak
behaviour.
CC -10 N 0p = 0.0
CC -11 β = 0.33
Num erical 2γ = 57.1
160

120

N 1 [kN]
Fig. 3 : Applied boundary conditions.

Material- and Geometric Non-Linearity 80

Since the incorporation of material- and geometric non-linearity in

ABAQUS requires the use of true stress-true strain relationships, the
engineering stress-strain curve is modelled as a multi-linear 40
relationship and subsequently converted into a true stress-true strain
relationship. To describe the true stress-true strain behaviour after the
peak stress in the engineering stress strain curve is reached, the
hardening rule proposed by Ramberg-Osgood has been applied. Both 0
the engineering stress-strain curve and the true stress-true strain 0 2 4 6 8 10
relationship of S355 (the steel grade used in this study) are shown in δ 1 [m m ]
Fig. 4.
(a)
True stress - true strain curve
Engineering stress-strain curve
CC -12 N 0p = 0.0
800
CC -13 β = 0.65
Num erical 2γ = 54.8
400
Stress [N/m m ]

600
2

S355

300
N 1 [kN]

400

200

200

100

0
0 10 20 30 40
Strain [% ] 0
Fig. 4 : Engineering and true stress - true strain curves for S355. 0 2 4 6 8 10
δ 1 [m m ]
Validation of the Numerical Model
(b)
In order to validate the numerical model, comparisons have been made
with experimental results. In 1981, de Koning conducted an Fig. 5 : Numerical and experimental load-indentation curves.

3
 N 0p = 0.0 N 0p = 0.0
N 0p = - 0.3 N y0 α = 16 N 0p = + 0.3 N y0 α = 16
N 0p = - 0.6 N y0 β = 0.48 N 0p = + 0.6 N y0 β = 0.48
N 0p = - 0.8 N y0 2 γ = 25.4 N 0p = + 0.8 N y0 2 γ = 25.4
N 0p = - 0.9 N y0 θ = 45 N 0p = + 0.9 N y0 θ = 45
2100 2100
N 1 [kN]

N 1 [kN]
1400 1400

700 700

de form ation deformation

lim it limit

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
δ 1 [m m ] δ 1 [m m]

N 0p = 0.0 N 0p = 0 .0
N 0p = - 0.3 N y0 α = 16 N 0p = + 0.3 N y0 α = 16
N 0p = - 0.6 N y0 β = 0.48 N 0p = + 0.6 N y0 β = 0.48
N 0p = - 0.8 N y0 2 γ = 6 3.5 N 0p = + 0.8 N y0 2 γ = 63.5
N 0p = - 0.9 N y0 θ = 45 N 0p = + 0.9 N y0 θ = 45
500 500

400 400
N 1 [kN]

N 1 [kN]

300 300

200 200

100 100
d eform atio n defo rm ation
lim it lim it

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
δ 1 [m m ] δ 1 [mm ]
Fig. 6 : Load-indentation curves for K-joints K3 and K4.

4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Load-Deformation Diagrams
Fig. 6 illustrates the load-displacement curves of K-joints K3 and K4
subjected to chord pre-load. In each of the load-displacement plots, the
load N1 applied to the compression brace is displayed against the brace
indentation δ1. Indentation is defined as the change of distance between
point A and point B shown in Fig. 7. Point A is located on the brace
centerline at a distance of 1.5d1 from the saddle position while point B
is on the chord surface at the intersection of the brace and chord
centerlines. The definition of indentation excludes deformations due to
overall chord bending.
N2 N1
A Joints with β = 0.25. Comparing the chord stress contours based on the
B and the 2γ ratio hardly influence the interaction contours.
1.5d1
Fig. 7 : Definition of point A and B to determine indentation.
Failure Criteria
Ultimate load is defined as the force on the compression brace first
exceeding one of the following four failure criteria :
(1) peak load in the load-displacement diagram.
(2) for the joints which curves do not show a clear peak load, the value
at Lu’s deformation limit (indentation of 0.03d0) is taken as the
“ultimate” load (Lu, 1994).
(3) for joints with small gaps, large tensile strains are observed in the
chord wall at the weld toe of the tension brace. Although the load-
indentation curves can be extended well beyond this point, in the
current study, it is assumed that cracks initiate if the strain at the
integration point of the chord element closest to the weld toe of the
tension brace, exceeds 20 %. While the value of 20 % is arbitrary,
the use of such a “crack initiation” criterion enables a comparison
among the different K-joints and identification of those joints
which are vulnerable for fracture.
(4) early termination of the numerical analysis, indicating member
failure (i.e. reaching squash load) or the onset of chord buckling.
Failure Modes
After examining the deformed shapes of the K-joints, various failure
modes are identified which can be characterized as follows :
(1) strong deformation i.e. plastification of the chord cross section
under the tension or compression brace. Severe plastification of the
chord surface was present in almost all joints except for some joints
where member failure occurred.
(2) buckling of the gap area between the braces. This failure type only
occurred for the thin walled joints with large gaps, subjected to
strong compressive pre-load.
(3) large strains in the gap region between the braces, indicating the
onset of cracking. Failure as a result of the initiation of “cracks”
was mainly found in the small-size gap joints (θ = 45˚ and β = 0.67,
θ = 60˚ and β = 0.48 or 0.67) subjected to tensile pre-load.
(4) chord member failure. This type of failure was primarily observed
for the K-joints under strong compressive or tensile pre-load. For
some of the K-joints under compressive pre-load, the chord
5
exhibited buckling while others failed without any distinct
deformation.
Effect of β, 2γ and Brace Angle θ
Fig. 8 displays the chord stress contours of the K-joints presented in
Table 1 both as function of the external pre-load stress ratio n’ as well
as the maximum chord stress ratio n. The diagrams at the left column of
Fig. 8 display the ultimate loads normalized by the corresponding
capacities for N0p = 0 versus the chord stress ratio n’ = N0p/A0fy0, where
N0p refers to the externally applied chord pre-load. The interaction
contours at the right side of Fig. 8 present the effects of chord pre-load
based on the maximum chord stress ratio n including the effects of the
horizontal brace load components. For the boundary conditions shown
in Fig. 3, n refers to the left side of the chord, with n being defined as
n’-2N1,ucosθ/A0fy0.
external pre-load for the joints with β = 0.25, the differences between
the four interaction contours appear to be small. Both the brace angle θ
Joints with β = 0.48. For the joints with β = 0.48, the four chord stress
contours (based on n’) are also similar except for the thin walled K-
joint with θ = 60˚ subjected to tensile pre-load, where, unlike the
corresponding thin walled joint with θ = 45˚, a strength enhancement
becomes clear for each of the chord (tensile) pre-stress ratios
considered.
An explanation can be found by first examining and comparing the
load-indentation behaviour of axially loaded thin and thick walled
joints in general. For thin walled joints K- or X-joints (under zero chord
pre-load), a distinct peak is usually observed at relatively small
indentations. For larger indentations, the load-indentation curve first
decreases rapidly, but rises again later as a result of membrane action.
Thick walled joints exhibit a different behaviour. Due to the smaller
influence of membrane action, the load-indentation diagrams of thick
walled joints are more stable. In case of a peak load, the drop after the
peak level is gradual and limited. These observations are clearly
illustrated by the load-indentation curves of the K-joints under zero
pre-load, shown in Fig. 6.
From Fig. 6, it is found that for the joints with β = 0.48 and θ = 45˚,
failure is defined by either a peak load in the load-indentation curves or
by indentations exceeding Lu’s deformation limit. For these joints,
which have a relatively large gap, membrane action does not seem to
have a significant influence at failure. However, for the small-size gap
joints with θ = 60˚ (and β = 0.48) subjected to zero- or tensile pre-load,
a peak load is found only for the joint under zero pre-load. Although
not illustrated in this study, for each of the thin walled joints under
tensile pre-load, the load-indentation curves show a steep, continuous
rise, due to additional strength caused by the membrane action of the
small-size gap area. As a result, the ultimate strength of these joints is
larger in comparison with the same configuration under zero pre-load.
As explained before, for the corresponding thick walled joints (with θ =
60˚), the influence of membrane action, and hence the increase of joint
strength, is less pronounced.
Comparing the stress contours for the joints with β = 0.25 and 0.48, it is
noticed that the contours for the joints with β = 0.48 under compressive
pre-load, are slightly below the curves for β = 0.25 caused by the larger
values of the equilibrium loads, adding compressive stresses into the
chord, thus reducing the strength of these joints.
Joints with β = 0.67. The four chord stress contours of the K-joints
with β = 0.67 using n’, again look similar. For this set of geometric pa-
 2γ = 63.5, θ = 60 2γ = 63.5, θ = 60
2γ = 25.4, θ = 60 2γ = 25.4, θ = 60
2γ = 63.5, θ = 45 2γ = 63.5, θ = 45
2γ = 25.4, θ = 45 β = 0.25 2γ = 25.4, θ = 45 β = 0.25
1.2 1.2

1 1

0.8 0.8

f(n)
f(n')

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0
-1 -0 .8 -0 .6 -0 .4 -0.2 0 0.2 0 .4 0.6 0 .8 1 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0 .2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
n' n

2γ = 63.5, θ = 60 2γ = 63.5, θ = 60
2γ = 25.4, θ = 60 2γ = 25.4, θ = 60
2γ = 63.5, θ = 45 2γ = 63.5, θ = 45
2γ = 25.4, θ = 45 β = 0.48 2γ = 25.4, θ = 45 β = 0.48
1.2 1.2

1 1

0.8 0.8
f(n)
f(n')

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0
-1 -0 .8 -0 .6 -0 .4 -0.2 0 0.2 0 .4 0.6 0 .8 1 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0 .2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
n' n

2γ = 63.5, θ = 60 2γ = 63.5, θ = 60
2γ = 25.4, θ = 60 2γ = 25.4, θ = 60
2γ = 63.5, θ = 45 2γ = 63.5, θ = 45
2γ = 25.4, θ = 45 β = 0.67 2γ = 25.4, θ = 45 β = 0.67
1.2 1.2

1 1

0.8 0.8
f(n)
f(n')

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0
-1 -0 .8 -0 .6 -0 .4 -0.2 0 0.2 0 .4 0.6 0 .8 1 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0 .2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
n' n
Fig. 8 : Chord stress contours (n refers to the chord stress ratio at the left side of the chord).

6
rameters, both thin walled joints under tensile chord pre-load (θ = 45˚
and 60˚) exhibit the same behaviour as observed for the thin walled
joint with β = 0.48 and θ = 60˚ due to the relatively small gap size,
causing the development of membrane stresses in the gap region.
Comparing the contours of the joints with β = 0.48 and 0.67, it is found
that for the joints subjected to compressive pre-load and β = 0.67, the
interaction contours are lower than for the corresponding joints with β
= 0.48, which again can be explained by the higher level of
compressive chord stresses introduced by the larger equilibrium loads.
Since this effect is most pronounced for the thick walled joints (2γ =
25.4) with θ = 45˚, the reduction in ultimate strength is most severe for
these joints.
Results Based on Maximum Chord Stress. Plotting the chord stress
contours as a function of the maximum chord stress ratio (in the left
side of the chord) rather than the chord stress ratio as a result of
external pre-loads only, reveals significant differences between the
interaction curves, as shown in the graphs at the right column of Fig. 8.
Because of the applied boundary conditions, each contour is shifted in
horizontal direction towards the compression side, whereas the amount
of the transition depends on the magnitude of the equilibrium loads. For
the joints with β = 0.25, the brace forces at ultimate load are rather
small. Hence, the contours using the maximum chord stress ratio are
only slightly different from the diagrams based on the external pre-load.
For larger β values, the differences between the two approaches
become more explicit, especially for the thick walled joints with θ =
45˚, which exhibit substantial equilibrium chord loads. From these
diagrams, it becomes immediately clear that the joints subjected to
strong compressive chord pre-load fail by chord member failure.
OVERVIEW OF CURRENT RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CHORD
STRESS EFFECTS
In the past, only a few researchers studied the effects of chord pre-
loading on the strength of tubular joints. In the early 80’s, Kurobane
(1984) developed various strength formulations for axially loaded K-
joints that included a term accounting for the effects of chord stress.
These equations served as a basis for the chord strength function
adopted by CIDECT (Wardenier, 1991). More recently, Dier (1998)
and Pecknold (2000 and 2001) investigated the influence of chord pre-
load on the static strength of tubular joints. A brief description of each
of these studies and a comparison with the FE data generated in the
present study are presented in the sections below.
CIDECT (Wardenier, 1991)
Kurobane (1984) has established several equations for the strength of
axially loaded K-joints based on statistical analyses of different
databases, whereby one of the strength terms accounted for the effects
of chord load. In most of these databases, however, chord stress was
not a prime variable. After minor simplifications of the coefficients of
Kurobane’s equation, the CIDECT Design Guide for Circular Hollow
Sections (Wardenier, 1991) adopted the following chord stress
function:
f(n' ) = 1 + 0.3 n' - 0.3 n' 2 for n' < 0
(1)
f(n' ) = 1 for n' ≥ 0
with n' defined as N0p/A0fy0 + M0/W0fy0
7
Dier (1998)
In the framework of a joint industry project, an extensive database of
available test data was compiled by MSL on which existing design
equations were re-examined and new strength formulations were
developed. These new formulations are proposed for the new ISO
offshore standard. The database, however, excluded all specimens with
a chord diameter d0 less than 100 mm. In addition, the remaining data
were screened against stringent criteria such as the use of measured
values of the chord yield strength and thickness rather than the nominal
values, etc. Based on the tests of the screened database, Dier proposed
the following function to account for the influence of chord stress :
Q f = 1.0 − λ U 2
where λ = 0.030 for brace axial load
= 0.045 for brace in-plane bending
= 0.021 for brace out-of-plane bending
M 0, ipb 2 M 0,opb 2 (2)
N0 2
U 2 = k1 ( ) + k2( ) + k2( )
N y0 M pl,0 M pl,0
Q f = 1.0 if combined chord stresses due to axial load
and bending moments ≥ 0
Q f = 1.0 for X-joints with β > 0.9
The chord utilisation U should consider the maximum value of the
chord load N0 on either side of the joints. Dependent on the joint
configuration and brace loading conditions, the constants k1 and k2 of
Eq. 2 have the following values :
Table 2 : Recommended factors to use in Eq. 2.
k1 k2
DT/X-joints under any brace loading 25 43
K-joints under balanced axial loading 14 43
In principle, the formulation of Qf is similar to the chord stress function
adopted by the API RP2A (1993). However, the major difference is the
removal of the γ-dependency which was introduced by Boone (1982).
Instead, Dier explicitly added the value of γ = 25 (i.e. the γ value Boone
used in his tests on X-joints) as constant k1 for X-joints in Eq. 2.
Pecknold (2000, 2001)
In 1991, the API Task Group for Tubular Connection Research initiated
a ten years plan to upgrade the API RP2A. As part of this project,
Pecknold (2000) conducted a numerical study into the effects of chord
pre-load on the ultimate strength of X-joints with the braces subjected
to either compression load or in-plane bending moments, while the
chord was pre-loaded by either axial load or in-plane or out-of-plane
bending moments.
After having completed his research on uniplanar X-joints, Pecknold
(2001) conducted a second numerical parametric study into the effects
of chord pre-load on tubular joint strength, this time on gap K-joints.
The braces of the K-joints were subjected to balanced
compression/tension load or in-plane bending moments, while the
chord was pre-loaded by axial load or in-plane bending moments.
Based on the FE results, Pecknold derived a chord stress factor with the
following general, parabolic shape, similar to CIDECT’s chord stress
formulation :
 N 0p M 0p N 0p M 0p Such boundary conditions reduce the effects of compressive pre-stress,
Q f = 1.0 + k 1 [ - ] − k 2 [( )2 + ( )2 ] explaining the over-prediction by Pecknold’s chord stress function.
N y0 M pl,0 N y0 M pl,0 (3)
2 2 CIDECT. For chord stress ratios within –0.6 ≤ n’ ≤ 0.6, CIDECT’s
where M 0p = M ipb + M opb
chord stress equation is either equal to or slightly below Pecknold’s
equation. Hence, a comparison between the FE data and CIDECT’s
Note that the axial load Nop refers to the externally applied chord pre- chord stress function is similar to the observations made above. For the
load. Consequently, for uniplanar K-joints under balanced axial brace K-joints pre-loaded by chord stress ratios beyond the range of –0.6 ≤ n’
loads, Nop does not include the reaction forces required to maintain ≤ 0.6, CIDECT’s equation either under- or over-predicts the chord
equilibrium. stress effects of the joints under large tensile pre-loads. For large
The constants k1 and k2 have different values for each brace loading compression pre-loads, CIDECT gives consistently un-conservative
condition and joint configuration. Based on the FE data obtained from predictions for the chord stress effects.
both studies, Pecknold recommended the following set of constants for
compression brace loading (for X-joints) and balanced axial brace Dier. From Fig. 9, it becomes apparent that for each of the β values and
loading (for K-joints) : boundary conditions considered, Dier’s equation represents the chord
stress effects quite accurately for the K-joints subjected to small tensile
Table 3 : Recommended factors for K- and X-joints subjected to axial or compressive pre-stresses (–0.6 ≤ n ≤ 0.6).
brace loading, to use in Eq. 3. For the K-joints under large tensile pre-loads, Dier’s formulation either
under- or over-predicts the chord stress effects.
DT/X-joints K-joints For large compressive pre-loads, Dier’s chord stress function might be
N 0p M 0p N 0p M 0p un-conservative, especially for thin walled K-joints. This γ dependency
Valid
+ ≤ 0.8 + ≤ 0.6 is introduced by the use of maximum chord stress instead of chord
for : N y0 M pl,0 N y0 M pl,0 stress due to external loads. It is found that, when considering the
0 ≤ β ≤ 0.9 0.9 < β ≤ 1.0 for all β values external chord pre-stress ratio n’, the parameter γ has a minor influence
k1 0.2 3.8 – 4 β 0.2 on the chord stress effects. However, for thick walled joints, the
additional stress ratio as a result of equilibrium chord loads is
k2 0.4 2.2 – 2 β 0.3
significantly larger than for the corresponding thin walled joints, thus
introducing the γ dependency. Hence, for thick walled joints, the
For axially loaded uniplanar X-joints with 0 ≤ β ≤ 0.9 and K-joints, it
transition of the FE data points in the chord stress contours due to these
can be observed that the constants k1 and k2 hardly differ from the
equilibrium stresses, is larger than for the thin walled joints, causing the
current CIDECT chord stress function (k1 = 0.3 and k2 = 0.3). However,
FE-data points to move into the conservative region above Dier’s chord
slightly different from the CIDECT stress equation which is valid for
stress function.
compression pre-load only, Eq. 3 may also be applied for tensile chord
pre-load.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
COMPARISON OF FE DATA WITH RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
Numerical analyses have been carried out on axially loaded uniplanar
CHORD STRESS EFFECTS
CHS gap K-joints subjected to axial chord pre-loading, with the main
variables being the geometric parameters β and 2γ, the brace angle θ
Results
and the external chord pre-load N0p. The FE results have been
compared with the chord stress functions recommended by CIDECT
The contours at the left column of Fig. 9 present the FE data and the
Design Guide (1991), Pecknold (2001) and Dier (1998). Based on the
chord stress functions given by CIDECT Design Guide and Pecknold,
results, the following conclusions can be drawn :
which both use the chord pre-stress ratio n’ as variable. The plots at the
(1) In line with the data obtained for uniplanar X-joints (van der Vegte,
right column of Fig. 9 illustrate the FE data and the chord stress
2001), it is found that compressive chord stresses have a
function of Dier as a function of the maximum chord stress ratio.
detrimental effect on the ultimate capacity of axially loaded
It should be noted that the maximum chord stress depends on whether
uniplanar K-joints. For K-joints under tensile chord pre-load, the
the chord is pre-stressed by tensile or compressive load. For example :
capacity of the joints either increases or decreases compared to the
for the K-joints modelled with the boundary conditions displayed in Fig.
ultimate strength of the corresponding joints under zero pre-load,
3, subjected to compression pre-load, the largest chord stress is found
in the left (compression) side of the chord, since this part includes the dependent on the value of β and 2γ and the amount of pre-load.
stresses due to the equilibrium loads. For the same joints under tensile (2) The CIDECT Design Guide gives reasonably accurate predictions
pre-load, the maximum chord stress is located in the right side of the for the reduction in joint strength as a result of small compressive
chord and is equal to the applied chord stress (for this set of boundary chord stresses but over-predicts the strengths of the K-joints for
conditions, the right side of the chord does not transfer equilibrium large compressive pre-stresses. For joints under large tensile pre-
loads). stresses, CIDECT provides mixed predictions for the effects of
chord stress on the joint strength.
Pecknold. From Fig. 9, it becomes clear that within the range of –0.6 ≤ (3) Pecknold’s chord stress function may over-predict the strength of
n’ ≤ 0.6, the chord stress formulation of Pecknold is reasonably K-joints which are modelled with boundary conditions different
accurate for the K-joints with β = 0.25 and 0.48. However, for the K- from the restraints used in the FE work on which his equation was
based.
joints with β = 0.67 subjected to a chord pre-stress ratio n’ = -0.6, the
(4) The chord stress function developed by Dier, which uses the
FE data indicate a significantly stronger reduction in strength than
maximum chord stress as variable, either over- or under-predicts
recommended by Pecknold’s equation. The under-prediction of
the chord stress effects of the K-joints subjected to tensile pre-load.
Pecknold’ chord stress function is primarily caused by the boundary
For the joints under compressive pre-load, Dier’s chord stress
conditions. In Pecknold’s FE analyses, both chord ends were pinned.
formulation is reasonably accurate for the thick walled joints.

8
 2γ = 63.5, θ = 60 2γ = 63.5, θ = 60
2γ = 25.4, θ = 60 2γ = 25.4, θ = 60
2γ = 63.5, θ = 45 2γ = 63.5, θ = 45
2γ = 25.4, θ = 45 β = 0.25 2γ = 25.4, θ = 45 β = 0.25
1.2 1.2
Pecknold
1 1
Dier
f(n')

f(n)
0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6
C IDECT
0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0 .2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0 .2 0.4 0.6 0 .8 1
n' n

2γ = 63.5, θ = 60 2γ = 63.5, θ = 60
2γ = 25.4, θ = 60 2γ = 25.4, θ = 60
2γ = 63.5, θ = 45 2γ = 63.5, θ = 45
2γ = 25.4, θ = 45 β = 0.48 2γ = 25.4, θ = 45 β = 0.48
1.2 1.2
Pecknold
1 1
Dier
f(n')

f(n)

0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6
C IDECT
0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0 .2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0 .2 0.4 0.6 0 .8 1
n' n

2γ = 63.5, θ = 60 2γ = 63.5, θ = 60
2γ = 25.4, θ = 60 2γ = 25.4, θ = 60
2γ = 63.5, θ = 45 2γ = 63.5, θ = 45
2γ = 25.4, θ = 45 β = 0.67 2γ = 25.4, θ = 45 β = 0.67
1.2 1.2
Pecknold
1 1
Dier
f(n')

f(n)

0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6
C IDECT
0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0 .2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0 .2 0.4 0.6 0 .8 1
n' n
Fig. 9 : Comparison between FE data for K-joints and various chord stress equations.

9
 However, for the thin walled joints under compressive pre-load, American Welding Society (1992). “Structural Welding Code”, AWS
Dier’s equation becomes un-conservative. The 2γ dependency is D1.1-92.
caused by describing the chord stress effects as a function of the Bolt, HM, Seyed-Kebari, H and Ward JK (1992). “The Influence of
maximum chord stress (instead of the external pre-load). Chord Length and Boundary Conditions on K-Joint Capacity”, Proc
(5) The chord stress contours generated for K-joints clearly Second International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference,
demonstrate that a better understanding of the effects of chord pre- San Francisco, USA, Vol IV, pp 347-354.
load is attained by considering the maximum chord stress as the Boone, TJ, Yura, JA and Hoadley, PW (1982). “Chord Stress Effects
governing variable, rather than the chord stresses due to external on the Ultimate Strength of Tubular Joints”, Phase 1, PMFSEL
pre-loads. Report No. 82-1, Phil M Ferguson Structural Engineering
(6) In future publications, the FE data generated in this study will be Laboratory, the University of Texas, Austin, USA.
combined with available experimental data and a proposal for a Dier, AF and Lalani, M (1998). “New Code Formulations for Tubular
new chord stress function will be made. Joint Static Strength”, Proc Eighth International Symposium on
Tubular Structures, Singapore, pp 107-116.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Hibbitt, Karlsson and Sorensen, Inc. (1998). “ABAQUS/Standard
User’s Manual”, Version 5.8, USA.
The first author would like to express his appreciation to the Japan International Institute of Welding (1989). “Design Recommendations
Society for the Promotion of Science for the opportunity to present the for Hollow Section Joints – Predominantly Statically Loaded”, IIW
research reported herein. Doc. XV-E-701-89, 2nd Edition.
Koning, CHM de and Wardenier, J (1981). “The Static Strength of
LIST OF SYMBOLS CHS K-Joints”, TNO-IBBC Report BI-81-35/63.5.5470, Stevin
Report 6-81-13, Delft, the Netherlands.
CHS : circular hollow section Kurobane, Y and Makino, Y (1965). “Local Stress in Tubular Truss
RHS : rectangular hollow section Joints”, Research Report, Kyushu Branch of Architectural Institute
FE : finite element of Japan, No 4, pp 75-80 (in Japanese).
A0 : cross sectional area of chord Kurobane, Y, Makino, Y and Ochi, K (1984). “Ultimate Resistance of
M0 : chord bending moment Unstiffened Tubular Joints”, Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol
M0p : applied chord pre-bending moment 110, No 2.
Mipb : in-plane bending moment Liu, DK and Wardenier, J (1998). “Effect of Boundary Conditions and
Mopb : out-of-plane bending moment Chord Preload on the Strength of RHS Uniplanar Gap K-Joints”,
Mpl,0 : plastic moment capacity of chord Proc Eighth International Symposium on Tubular Structures,
N0 : axial chord load Singapore, pp 223-230.
N0p : applied axial chord pre-load Lu, LH, Winkel, GD de, Yu, Y and Wardenier, J (1994). “Deformation
Ni : axial brace load (i = 1, 2) Limit for the Ultimate Strength of Hollow Section Joints”, Proc
Ny0 : squash load of chord Sixth International Symposium on Tubular Structures, Melbourne,
Qf : chord stress factor Australia, pp 341-347.
U : chord utilization ratio Makino, Y, Kurobane, Y, Ochi, K, Vegte, GJ van der and Wilmshurst,
W0 : elastic section modulus of chord SR (1996). “Database of Test and Numerical Analysis Results for
d0 : outer diameter of chord Unstiffened Tubular Joints”, IIW Doc XV-E-96-220.
di : outer diameter of brace i (i = 1, 2) Pecknold, DA, Ha, CC and Mohr, WC (2000). “Ultimate Strength of
e : eccentricity DT Tubular Joints with Chord Preloads”, Proc Nineteenth
fy : yield strength International Conference on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic
fu : ultimate tensile strength Engineering, New Orleans, USA.
fy0 : yield strength of chord Pecknold, DA, Park, JB and Koppenhoefer, KC (2001). “Ultimate
g : gap Strength of Gap K Tubular Joints with Chord Preloads”, Proc
l0 : length of chord Twentieth International Conference on Offshore Mechanics and
n’ : non-dimensional chord pre-stress ratio N0p/A0fy0 + M0/W0fy0 Arctic Engineering, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
n : non-dimensional maximum chord pre-stress ratio Togo, T (1967). “Experimental Study on Mechanical Behavior of
t0 : wall thickness of chord Tubular Joints”, Doctoral Dissertation, Osaka University, Osaka,
ti : wall thickness of brace i (i = 1, 2) Japan (in Japanese).
α : chord length parameter 2l0/d0 Vegte, GJ van der and Makino, Y (2001). “The Effect of Chord
β : brace to chord diameter ratio d1/d0 Stresses on the Static Strength of CHS X-Joints”, Memoirs of the
2γ : chord diameter to wall thickness ratio d0/t0 Faculty of Engineering, Kumamoto University, Vol 46, No 1.
τ : brace to chord wall thickness ratio t1/t0 Wardenier, J, Kurobane, Y, Packer, JA, Dutta, D and Yeomans, N
δ1 : indentation of brace (1991). “Design Guide for Circular Hollow Section (CHS) Joints
under Predominantly Static Loading”, Published by Verlag TUV
ξ : gap ratio g/d0
Rheinland GmbH, Köln, Germany, ISBN 3-88585-975-0.
Weinstein, RM and Yura, JA (1986). “The Effect of Chord Stresses on
REFERENCES
the Static Strength of DT Tubular Connections”, Proc Offshore
Technology Conference, OTC 5135, Houston, USA.
American Petroleum Institute (1993). “Recommended Practice for
Planning Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms -
Working Stress Design”, API RP 2A-WSD, 20th Edition.

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