Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Contents
I. Arc Welding
a) What is Welding? 1
h) DC Arc Welding 6
i) AC Arc Welding 7
a) Introduction 8
b) Electricity 8
c) Radiation 9
d) Fumes 9
e) Heat 10
g) Slag 10
a) Introduction 11
b) Electricity 12
c) Radiation 13
d) Fumes 13
e) Heat 14
g) Slag 14
IV. Electrocution
a) Introduction 15
b) Causes of Electrocution 15
V. Bibliography 20
Arc Welding
What is Welding?
Welding is the process used when two metals are required to be joined together. It
uses the principle that when the edges of the two metal parts to be joined are melted,
they mix together and a molten pool is formed. The pool is then allowed to cool
down, which solidifies into one structure and the two metal parts are joined together.
The solidified molten pool forms the weld.
There are two main types of welding, gas welding and arc welding. They both weld
metals by heating up the edges so that some of the metal melts, and then allowed to
cool down and forms one structure. However, the way the welding equipment
provides the intense heat in order to melt the edges of the metal parts being joined to
create the molten pool is different. In gas welding, an intense flame is used to melt
the metal parts, which is produced by combustion of a mixture of Oxygen and
Acetylene, usually in the ratio of 1:1. It is also called oxy-acetylene welding. In arc
welding, electricity is used instead, which produces intense heat with the use of high
resistance of the air. In this report, only arc welding is considered.
In electric arc welding, there is a small gap between the two electrodes, which
produces a break in the circuit. Since air is a poor conductor of electricity, it has a
high resistance, thus a high voltage is required in order to allow current to flow
through the gap. Providing a high enough voltage is supplied at the electrodes, the
air in the gap can be ionised and current can flow from one electrode to the other
through the gap. Due to the very high resistance, intense heat will be built up at the
electrodes, which is sufficient to melt the edges of the metal parts, as the temperature
of the heat generated can be as high as 6000 °C.
When the arc is established, although the air is ionised and allows current to flow, it
has a very high resistance. As a result, intense heat is developed at both ends of the
arc, where the upper end is at the electrode and the lower end is at the metal part being
welded. The heat that is being developed at the upper end of the arc heats up the
electrode. In the case of consumable electrode, which is a type of electrode that
would be used up during welding, the heat developed melts the electrode. Heat that is
being developed at the lower end of the arc heats up the metal part to be welded.
The other method of striking an arc is to line up the electrode at the point to be welded
and tap down on the metal part to be welded. After the electrode made contact with
the metal work, it must be instantly raised to the required arc length. This is shown in
figure 3 below. This is the method that operators or welders normally used, since it is
more accurate. However, the electrode is susceptible to sticking onto the metal work.
This is avoided in the first method by the movement of the electrode. When the
electrode does stick then it should be moved firmly from side to side to release it. If
this method fails to release the electrode, then the welder needs to be turned off and
then release the electrode holder before removing the electrode.
Fig 2 – Striking an arc by scratching the Fig 3 – Striking an arc by tapping the
surface of the metal part. surface of the metal part.
resistance between the operator’s body and the electrode, which means there is a high
potential difference between them. However, providing a high enough voltage is
applied, current may be able to flow from the electrode through the operator’s body.
When striking the arc, the electrode makes contact with the metal parts being welded
for a short time. During the period of contact, the circuit is completed, so a large
amount of current is flowing from the welding power supply to the electrode through
the metal parts back to the welding power supply. At this time, the voltage drops
almost to zero. This is shown in figure 5 below.
Fig. 5 – Current and voltage readings when the electrode makes contact
with the metal part being welded
The electrode is lifted away slightly instantly after it made contact with the metal
parts being welded. At this time, a small air gap forms between the electrode and the
metal parts. The arc is produced when the air particles are ionised and current flows
from the electrode to the metal parts through the gap. The current decreases slightly
to a value called welding current, which is the value specified or set on the welding
set. At the same time, the voltage increases to a value known as the arc voltage,
which is usually between 20 and 45V. It is the e.m.f. that is required in order to
maintain the arc during welding. According to V=IR (ohm’s law), as the voltage
increases and current decreases, resistance must increase, which is true since air is a
When the arc voltage was as high as the open-circuit voltage, the arc is very violent
and unstable, so arc machines are designed to increase the current to the setting on the
machine and lowers the voltage at the same time, typically down to between 22 and
24V. However the precise arc voltage depends on three factors:
1) Open-Circuit Voltage
When the open-circuit voltage is low, the arc voltage will be low.
3) Length of Arc
Since air is a poor conductor of electricity, when the length of arc increases, there
are more air between the electrode and the metal part, so the resistance increases.
Again according to V=IR, as the resistance increases, the arc voltage increases.
However, when the arc voltage is varied by changing the arc length, there would
be a corresponding change in the welding current. When the arc length decreases,
there are less air between the electrode and the metal part, so the resistance
decreases, causing a corresponding decrease in voltage and resulting in an
increase in current.
In DC, the current flows in the same direction. As a result, there is a positive and
negative terminal. In arc welding machines that runs on DC, the electrode can be set
as the positive or negative terminal, while the metal part has the opposite terminal to
the electrode.
DC Arc Welding
In DC arc welding machine, there is a set positive and negative pole, since the current
always flow in the same direction. Due to the high resistance at the arc between the
electrode and the metal part being welded, heat is generated at the arc. In practice, ⅔
of the heat is generated at the positive (+ ve) pole, while ⅓ of the heat is generated at
the negative (– ve) pole. As a result, depending on the polarity the electrode and the
metal part being welded is connected, one will be heated more than the other.
Because of this feature, the heat input can be varied by connecting the electrode to the
positive or negative pole. This effect is put into practice and the polarity of the
electrode is specially selected for different purpose.
Fi 9
acting as a filler for the weld.
Since the polarity of the electrode influences the heat distribution, the polarity of the
electrode is very important, and each electrode must be connected to the polarity
designed, and is specified by the manufacturer. For example, electrodes that are
designed to be connected to the positive pole are specified ‘Electrode Positive’.
For most DC arc welding machine, the mains power supply is used as the power
source. However, the mains power source is in AC. As a result, a rectifier is used,
which is connected to the mains power source and converts AC current to DC current
for arc welding.
AC Arc Welding
In AC arc welding machine, there is no set positive or negative pole. This is because
the current changes magnitude and direction 100 times a second, when a 50 Hz AC
current is used, so the polarity change 100 times a second. Due to this constant
change, both electrodes of the arc welding machine (the electrode and the metal being
welded) will be positive for 50 times and negative 50 times. As a result, the heat
generated at the electrode and the metal being welded would be the same, thus no
polarity is specified for electrodes that are used for AC arc welding machines.
Similar to DC arc welding machines, most AC arc welding machines uses the mains
power supply as the power source. However, usually the mains power supply voltage
is 110 V, 240V or 400V, which is too high for arc welding to be used. As a result, a
transformer is used, which is connected to the mains power supply and step down the
voltage to the required voltage for arc welding, usually at 80V.
1. Electricity
2. Radiation
3. Fumes
4. Heat
6. Slag
Electricity
Electrocution or electric shocks arise mainly when a person completes or forms part
of a circuit, or when the person ‘earths’ the circuit by providing a path that current can
flow from the circuit to the ground through the body.
In arc welding, although the welding equipment generally uses low voltage, the
danger of electrocution still exists. An arc welder is most likely to be electrocuted
when using an arc welding equipment when the welding set is turned, which
sometimes the welding set is described as ‘live’, but before striking the arc. This is
sometimes referred as the ‘danger period’. At this time, there’s no current flowing
from the electrode to the metal part being welded. The welder may be electrocuted
when he closes the circuit, for example, by placing one hand on the bench or work
and the other hand on the exposed part of the electrode holder, which the current will
attempt to find a path to flow through the body. Alternatively, the welder may touch
the ‘live’ holder while he is standing on the ground. The current may then attempt to
find a path to flow through the body to earth, and the welder may be providing a path
to earth, especially when he is working outside in wet conditions, since water
decreases the resistance of the body.
Once the arc is established and welding is underway, the current already established
the path, which hopefully is the intended circuit, which is from the electrode to the
metal part to be welded through the established arc. At this time, it is most unlikely
the current will seek alternative path through the welder.
People are sometimes injured or killed by the electric shock itself, especially when the
shock is large, which can cause brain damage. However, even a small shock can
injure or kill a person, as the shock causes secondary effect, such as falls and
accidents, which is far more disastrous than the shock itself.
Radiation
There are three types of radiation that is emitted from the arc: infrared radiation
(heat), visible light and ultra-violet (UV) radiation.
There are three main ways heat is transferred: conduction, convection and radiation.
Of the three methods, radiation is the most effective. Heat is transferred by radiation
in the form of infrared rays. The infrared rays that are emitted from the arc are of
high magnitude and temperature. This can cause severe skin burns and when it
penetrated into the eyes it may cause damage to the cornea.
The visible light that is emitted from the arc is extremely intense. It causes severe
damage to the retina of the eye.
Out of the three types of radiation emitted, the UV radiation might be the most
dangerous to welder. It can cause severe skin burns similar to sunburn, and increases
the risk the welder have skin cancer. However, the UV radiation also causes severe
damage to the eye, calls ‘arc eye’ or ‘welder’s flash’. It occurs when the eye is
exposed even for a very short time, less than one minute, and in arc welding, it is
usually caused when the arc is viewed with naked eye, or when the UV radiation from
the arc is reflected off the surrounding materials to the workers nearby. Initially after
exposure, the iris contracts to compensate for the radiation, and the person’s view is
basically darkness but may see some bright light. The view is gradually restored after
10 to 40 seconds. However, the symptoms occur many hours after exposure, usually
4 to 6 hours. The person feels intense pain in the eye, with a feeling of sand or grit.
Also, the person will have blurred vision, burning in the eye, tearing and headache.
Fumes
Welding fumes generally contain a mixture of very fine particles and gases. The
particles are mainly the fluorides and oxides of metals, and some of them can be very
toxic.
Welding fumes and gases generally comes from the metal being welded or the
consumable electrode that is used in welding, coatings and the paints on the metal
being welded and the electrode, such as cellulosic coated electrodes, and chemical
reactions that occurred as a result of the heat and UV light produced in the arc during
welding.
Inhalation of the fumes by the welders is possibly caused because the welder was
working in a confined space, or when there are many welders working in a small
workshop.
There are no immediate obvious effects when the welders inhaled the welding fumes.
However, the fumes actually do more damage in the long term. The early signs that
the welders are affected by the fumes are when the welders feel drowsy and full-
headed like having a head cold. The fumes can cause a lot of different damages to the
body depending on the types of substances the fumes contain. However, the main
damage that it causes, especially to the arc welders, is the lungs, caused when the
welders inhaled fumes with a very high metal contents. For most of the damages that
the fumes do to the body, they are irreparable. As a result, prevention is better than
cure.
Heat
Intense heat is emitted during arc welding. The main sources of the heat comes from
the arc, the metal parts being welded, the weld spatter, and the slag, when it burns
through the clothing or setting the clothing on fire, or when the chipped slag from the
welding lodged inside the clothing.
The heat causes severe skin burns, which is very painful and the heat of the arc on the
burns cause severe discomfort and difficulty for further arc welding. The heat can
also cause the welders to have thermal stress, which occurs when the welders has
prolonged exposure to heat, especially when they are working in a confined space or
when they are working in a hot and humid environment. The heat in the confined
space can also cause dehydration of the welders and heat stroke, which is shown when
the welders feels abdominal pain, nausea, fatigue, dizzy and loss of appetite.
Slag
Slag is the impurities on the surface of the weld, usually deposited from the coating of
the consumable electrode. After welding the slag is very hot, and it is the heat that
causes damage to the body, usually due to carelessness of the welder. The effect of
slag is very much like burns, with a very long period of pain.
One of the main way welders can protect themselves against injuries, as with other
types of industries, is to wear appropriate protective clothing. In arc welding, this
protects welders against burns by the intense heat, slag, spatters and the metal work.
Figure 10 below shows some of the protective clothing that welders wear during arc
welding.
Fig. 10 – List of protective clothing that are usually worn by welders during arc welding
The protective clothing is made of wool or specially treated cotton fabrics, so the
clothes do not ignite easily. When the welders are wearing the clothing, the sleeves
and collars should be kept buttoned, and shirts and pants should be uncuffed. The
welding helmets should have appropriate filter lenses to filter out the intense visible
and UV light from the arc, instead of a hand-held screens.
However, the list of clothing worn differs with different countries and practices. For
example, the usual practice of arc welders in Hong Kong is to wear aprons only
during arc welding.
Electricity
Electrocution is one of the main hazards for welders during arc welding. There are
four main areas to be considered when safety precautions are to be carried out:
working environment, working practices, welding equipment, and personal protective
equipment.
Working Environment
Impure water, such as tap water and rain, contains ions that can conduct electricity, so
it is a good conductor of electricity. As a result, welders must only work in dry
conditions. When welding outdoors, the welding equipment must be protected against
any water, foreign objects and dust. When welding in slightly flooded work area, stay
on non-conductive stand or insulated mat. Don’t weld in seriously flooded area.
When welding large steel structures, welders should wear insulated clothing and use
any suitable insulation devices to avoid making contact with the work piece.
Working Practices
Welders must ensure their body is dry and avoid making any direct contact with the
exposed part of the electrode or conductive part of the work piece. Welding power
supply should be placed at the welding area so it can be turned off quickly in case of
accident. When welding at high level, welders should stay at safe working platform
or use suitable equipment to prevent falling. The electrode holder should be properly
placed, especially when the electrode is in place, to prevent the electrode making any
contact with the conductive live part, and when the welding machine is not in use, it
should be switched off.
Welding Equipment
The welding equipment should be well designed, properly installed and well
maintained, to ensure the safety of the welders. Welding cables should be properly
protected during storage to prevent accidental damage to the insulation cover. Cables
should be chemical resistant. Welding power supply should be protected by a steel
casing that is properly and efficiently earthed to protect it against damage.
Radiation
The best way to protect the welder from infrared radiation, or radiated heat, is to wear
leather gauntlets or leather gloves, which protects the hands and wrists from burns.
To protect the welder, especially the eyes, from the intense visible light and UV
radiation, a filter should be used during welding. UV light is filtered out as it passes
through any piece of glass, while the intense visible light can be reduced when it
passes through a specially coloured glass. The welding filter glass is specially
coloured and designed so that it is effective in reducing the intensity of the visible
light emitted from the arc and filters out the harmful UV light. This also reduces the
risk of ‘arc eye’, providing the welders adopt a safe working process, which is to
ensure the eyes are protected before striking an arc.
The co-workers that work with or near the welding sets are particularly susceptible to
‘arc eye’ because they are not prepared for and not in control of welding, so they are
not prepared to protect themselves from the intense light emitted from the arc.
Suitable and adequate screening should be set up in welding areas and the walls
should be painted in dark and non-reflective colours, so the harmful radiation will not
reach the co-workers. The operators that assist the welders should have a welding
screen when welding, or look away at 180º to the arc.
Fumes
Inhalation of fumes by the welders can be reduced or avoided by removing the fumes
from the work area and/or provide the welders with clean air, such as using an ‘air-
stream’ helmet, which provides the welders with a supply of fresh air. Of the two,
removing the fumes is a better measure, which can be achieved by providing proper
and effective ventilation. Some of the methods of achieving ventilation are to weld
outdoors, ensure the work area has good ventilation by opening doors and windows
and allow draught of air through the area, or use a fume extractor, which can be
portable or a part of a fixed installation.
The fume extractor is the best method in providing a good ventilation. This is
because it removes the fumes from the welding area and filters out contamination
existing in the air, making the air safe before releasing it back into the atmosphere. It
should be used when welding indoors and outdoors. Precautions should be taken to
ensure the fume extractor is effective at providing a good ventilation, by making sure
it is properly set up so that it removes fumes at the source before reaching the
welder’s face. Also the filters need to be maintained to ensure the air is properly
filtered before releasing into the atmosphere.
Heat
One of the best methods to protect the welders from heat is to wear protective clothing
to protect the body from burns. Good ventilation should also be used to prevent the
work area becoming too hot and humid, preventing heat stress or heat stroke. The
welder should also take care not to become too exhausted by taking rest breaks and
drinks frequently.
After welding, it is necessary to make sure that the welding equipment is completely
shut down. Any spent electrodes that are still hot needs to be disposed of properly in
a proper container that is made of flame retardant materials. Before leaving the work
area, any sparks and hot slag from the welding work must be extinguished and ensure
that the work piece has cooled down. A fire inspection should also be performed.
Near the work area, suitable fire-fighting equipment such as fire extinguishers or sand
buckets must be provided ready to use. Fire watchers should also be appointed, which
needs to be present during and after welding operations. It is required especially
when electric arc welding is carried out in lifts and escalators.
Slag
The only way to protect the welders from slag is to wear protective clothing to prevent
the body from burns. Goggles must be worn during welding to prevent slag from
flying into the eyes.
Electrocution
Introduction
Electricity is one of the most common and useful power sources for industries and
personal use worldwide. However, it is very dangerous and can cause serious injury
or death when it is improperly used or when accidents occur.
Electric shock occurs when current flows through a person’s body, when the person
accidentally forms part of an electrical circuit or when it provides a path to earth.
Electrocution is electric shock that caused death.
Causes of Electrocution
The most common cause of electrocution is overhead wires. When people misjudge
height of the overhead wires and the distance between the ground and the wires, and
carries tall or long equipment, such as poles or ladders, or operating equipment such
as cranes that have height extension, below the wires, the equipment or operating
equipment might be taller than the distance between the ground and the wires, so they
make contact with the wires. When this occurs, the person is still making a contact
with the ground, so the current may find a path to earth through the person’s body and
the equipment. Although the person and the equipment have a high resistance, current
may be flowing through the person and equipment, causing electrocution, if the wire
carries a current with a high enough voltage.
In general, current can cause electrical burns, when the strong current may damage the
tissues, tears arteries and destroys the nervous system, etc. It can also cause muscle
contractions, which may cause the person immobile and don’t have strength to pull
away from the live part. Muscle contraction may also cause suffocation, which may
result in death, when the muscles in the respiratory function are affected, thus
disturbing the rhythmic inhalation and exhalation of the lungs. Current can also
disturb the rhythmic and coordinated contraction and expansion of the heart, when the
muscular fibres are affected. This may cause the heart rate to become irregular and
may cause total cardiac arrest or stoppage of heart. This may result in irreversible
damage to the heart muscles and the brain tissues and may cause death.
1 mA – Threshold of Perception
1 mA to 3 mA Weak Sensation
3 mA to 10 mA Painful Sensation
More than 200 mA Severe burns and muscular contractions; heart more likely to stop
than to go into fibrillation
The table shows clearly that ventricular fibrillation of the heart occurs when a relative
small current of 50 mA passes through the body, which may even cause death.
Ventricular fibrillation is a very rapid and uncoordinated contractions of the heart
muscles, which disrupts the synchronisation between the heart beat. Figure 11 below
shows the difference in heart beat with a healthy heart and one with ventricular
fibrillation. Since ventricular fibrillation will continue once started, so resuscitation
techniques must be carried out, otherwise the person will sure die within a few
minutes.
Fig. 11 – Electrocardiograms of a healthy heat (top) and one with ventricular fibrillation (bottom)
However, the effect the current has on the body also depends on the resistance of the
body. In humans, the main form of resistance is the skin, and a body with dry skin
has resistance as high as 100,000 ohms. However, when the skin is wet or broken, the
body’s resistance may drop as low as 1,000 ohms. Consider ohm’s law V = IR, where
V is the voltage of the body, I is the current through the body, and R is the resistance
of the body. Providing the voltage of the body is constant, when the resistance of the
body increases, less current can flow through the body, thus less damage is caused.
As a result, while a particular amount of current flows through a body with wet or
broken skin might be very dangerous and may cause a lot of damage to the body, the
same amount of current may be safe and has no severe damage to a body with dry
skins. This also means a body with wet or broken skins can be affected by lower
current and thus is more susceptible to electrocution.
The route or pathway that is taken by the current as it passes through the body also
affects greatly the degree of injury of the person. A small current that passes through
the heart is very dangerous and can cause severe injury or even death. However,
some people survive after making contact with extremely large current. This only
happens when the current passes through a single limb and not through the body,
especially the heart. In this case the person survives from the accident but the limb
current flowed through is lost.
The graph shows that an adult human may die from electrocution when a 100 mA
current flows through the body for 2 seconds. The graph also marks the ‘let-go
range’, which is another important factor in electrocution. This marks the amount of
current that causes the person not able to let go of the ‘live’ conductor, or causes the
person to ‘freeze’ onto the conductor. Table 1 showed that 2.5% of the population
wouldn’t be able to let go of a ‘live’ conductor at 10 mA, and 50% of the population
wouldn’t be able to let go of the ‘energised’ conductor at 15 mA. The graph above
also shows that even a small current can cause a person to ‘freeze’ to the conductor.
Bibliography
Arc Welding
1) Pages 442 to 445, ‘Fundamentals of Fabrication and Welding Engineering’ by
F.J.M. Smith, Longman Group UK Limited, England, First Published 1993
2) Pages 37 to 38, 62, ‘Basic Welding’ by Stuart Gibson and Alan Smith, The
Macmillan Press Limited, England, First Published 1993
4) Pages 7 to 9, 14, 22 to 23, 26, 28 to 33, ‘Code of Practice – Safety and Health at
Work for Manual Electric Arc Welding’ by the Occupational Safety and Health
Branch, Labour Department, Hong Kong, First Published July 2002
10) U.S. Department of Labour Occupational Safety and Health Administration Arc
Welding and Cutting
http://www.osha-
slc.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDARDS&p_id=10
697&p_text_version=FALSE
Electrocution
1) ‘Electronic System Maintenance Handbook’ Chapter 28 – Safety and Protection
Systems by Jerry C. Whitaker from http://engnetbase.com
2) Electrical Safety
http://www.minerals.csiro.au/safety/electrl.htm