Ebook Computer Repair For PC Owners Ver 1.04

–
E-book edition Version 1.04
www.TechBooks.Books.Officelive.com
CESAR A BALLADARES
Electronic Engineer
Computer
Repair for
PC Owners
Hardware: Networking, desktop repair and
Cesar A Balladares
notebook repair.
TechBooks@live.com
Software: Windows XP, Windows Vista,
Windows 7 and Linux.
Level: Beginners to intermediate.

Note to the E-book edition
The e-book edition is a pre-edition of the printed version aim to
future buyers, reviewer, editors and publishers. The e-book edition is for
edition and marketing purposes and the content can be different in
comparison to the final printed version.
If you are reading this version and you believe that something is
wrong or that something can be improved, pleased do not hesitate in
contact me directly.
I must warn that this e-book only has some selected chapters taken
from different sections of the printed edition. Some sections such as
safety, tools and troubleshooting are not present in this e-book. Therefore,
the content of this e-book edition will not give you enough knowledge in
order to repair a computer for yourself.
The printed version of this book use a „hand on approach‟ with a lot
of interaction and step-by-step guides for resolve hardware and software
problems. I recommend buy the printed edition if you want repair hardware
components or manipulate software.
Finally, I recommend using the printed edition of the book in order

to get a fully understanding of safety procedures, tools and
troubleshooting techniques. The author is not liable or responsible for any
loss or damage arising from information contained in this e-book.
Note: Content in color blue only appear in the E-book edition.
ii
About the author
Cesar A Balladares holds a bachelor‟s degree in Electronic

Engineering and a post degree in Telematics both from the National
University of Engineering, Nicaragua. He is an expert in the field of
computers and computers networks. He has been involved with
computers since 1990.
The author was born in Nicaragua. Some years ago, a communist

dictatorship took the power of the country. The communists forced him
into exile, he moved to the USA in the year 2000.
Dedication
To my mother Rosa Blanco Gonzalez
R.I.P
Tell me what you think!
As a reader, you are the most important critic and commentator of

my books. I value your opinion and want to know how I could do it better.
I look forward your comments and advices. You can contact me by e-mail
at the following address:
TechBooks@live.com
Cesar A Balladares
iii
Where can I buy a copy of this
book?
Where can I get a free e-book?

The staff of Techbooks is constantly testing new programs,

applications, hardware and computer tools. If you are a company
representative and want test your products please write to Techbooks,
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iv
Trademark Acknowledgment
The author has made every attempt to supply trademark
information about company names, products and services. The author
cannot attest accuracy in trademark information.
Many of the pictures use in this book have been taken from
brochures, manuals and public information such as consumer‟s forums or
manufacturers support pages. The author cannot claim ownership in any
picture taken from a commercial product or from a private web site, most
pictures used in this book are public content but others are licensed and
have been made available for this publication. In the Internet, licenses and
copyrights sometimes get misapplied. Therefore, if I have taken something
of yours that is copyrighted or I have not acknowledged your authorship,
send me an email, and I will promptly remove the offending material in
future publications.
The author made most of the diagrams but some diagrams have
been taken from others sources. The pictures and diagrams information
are exposed at the final of the book.
Warning and Disclaimer

This book was written in order to provide valuable information and
advice to the people who want maintain, repair and upgrade PCs. Every
effort has been made in order to provide accurate information but no
warranty is implied.
The information is provide “as is” basic. The author is not liable or
responsible for any loss or damage arising from information contained in
this book.
If you are reading the e-Book edition please read „Note to the
ebook edition‟.
Copyright
Copyright © 2011 Cesar A Balladares, 531 NW 44 AVE, Miami, FL
33126. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be stored in a
retrieval system, transmitted, or reproduced in any way, including but not
limited to photocopy, photograph, magnetic, or other record, without the
prior agreement and written permission of Cesar A Balladares.
v
Sections at a Glance
1 Getting Started
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Brief histor y of computer s
1.3 Wor king with computer s
1.4 Hard ware and Software
2 Hardware
2.1 PC Components
2.2 Motherboards
2.3 Micr oprocessor s
2.4 Memor y
2.5 Hard Drives
2.6 Optical Drive
2.7 Power supplies and Batteries
2.8 Input Devices
2.9 Monitor s
2.10 Video cards
2.11 Sound Cards
2.12 Cases
2.13 Printer s and scanner s
2.14 Flash memories
2.15 MP3 Player s
2.16 Digital Cameras
vi
3 Software
3.1 Operative Systems
3.2 Installing Windows
3.3 Installing Linux
3.4 Software Applications
3.5 Wor king with W indows XP
3.6 Wor king with W indows Vista
3.7 Wor king with W indows 7
3.8 Wor king with Linux Ubunto
3.9 Installing Multiple Operative Systems
4 Networking
4.1 Computer Networ ks
4.2 Wired networ ks
4.3 Wireless Networ ks
4.4 The Inter net
5 PC Maintenance
5.1 Computer Tune-up
5.2 Cleaning PC Components
5.3 Backing-Up Infor mation
5.4 Antivir us and Security
vii
6 Troubleshooting
6.1 The ar t of Troubleshooting
6.2 My computer does not star t
6.3 Windows does not star ts
6.4 Perfor mance Pr oblems
6.5 Troubleshooting hardware components
6.6 Problems with networ ks and Inter net
7 Your New Computer

7.1 Buy a new computer or build a new one?
7.2 Buying a new computer
7.3 Building your own computer
7.4 For new PC owner s
8 Appendix
8.1 Bit and Bytes
8.2 Kilo, Mega, Giga and Tera
8.3 Numeric system
8.4 ASCII Table
8.5 Bios set up keys
9 Photographs and Illustrations credits
10 Index
viii
Table of Contents
Only chapters with page numbers appear in the E-Book
version. In order to access the whole book you must buy
the printed edition.
1 Getting Started
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 How to use this book .......................................................................2
1.1.2 What is a computer? ....................................................................... 4
1.1.3 Different types of computers ............................................................4
1.2 Brief history of computers

1.2.1 Mechanical Calculators ....................................................................5
1.2.2 Mechanical Computers ....................................................................6
1.2.3 Electronic Computers ......................................................................8
1.2.4 The Personal computer ...................................................................9
1.3 Working with Computers

1.3.1 Electricity
1.3.2 Safety
1.3.3 Basic Tools
1.3.4 Intermediate Tools for PC Repair
1.3.5 Networking Tools
1.3.6 Software Tools
1.3.7 Data Recovering Tools
1.3.8 Cleaning Tools
1.4 Hardware and Software

1.4.1 What is Hardware
1.4.2 What is Software
ix
2 Hardware
2.1 PC Components
2.1.1 Desktop External Parts ................................................................. 14
2.1.2 Desktop Internal Parts .................................................................. 16
2.1.3 Laptop Internal parts ..................................................................... 17
2.1.4 Laptop External parts .................................................................... 19
2.2 Motherboards
2.2.1 What is a Motherboard? ............................................................. 20
2.2.2 Motherboard form factors ........................................................... 22
2.2.3 Chipset ........................................................................................ 22
2.2.4 Processor Sockets ...................................................................... 22
2.2.5 Memory Slots .............................................................................. 23
2.2.6 Expansion card Slots .................................................................. 24
2.2.7 Bios Chip ..................................................................................... 27
2.2.8 Disk drive connectors.................................................................. 32
2.2.9 USB and Firewall connectors ..................................................... 33
2.2.10 Power connectors ....................................................................... 36
2.2.11 I/O connectors ............................................................................ 39
2.2.12 Keyboard and Mouse connectors ............................................... 41
2.2.13 installing a new motherboard ...................................................... 42
2.3 Microprocessors
2.3.1 Processors History ....................................................................... 45
2.3.2 Math Processor ............................................................................. 48
2.3.3 Clock Speed .................................................................................. 48
2.3.4 Data I/O bus .................................................................................. 49
2.3.5 Internal registers ........................................................................... 50
2.3.6 Address bus .................................................................................. 50
2.3.7 Cache memory .............................................................................. 51
2.3.8 Processor sockets ......................................................................... 51
2.3.9 Heatsinks and processors fans .................................................... 54
2.3.10 Installing a new processor ............................................................ 56
x
2.4 Memory
2.4.1 RAM ............................................................................................. 59
2.4.2 Different types of RAM ................................................................. 60
2.4.3 Memory Category ....................................................................... 60
2.4.4 Memory Types ............................................................................ 62
2.4.5 Memory Standards ..................................................................... 63
2.4.6 Memory Speed ............................................................................ 64
2.4.7 Memory Size ............................................................................... 65
2.4.8 Installing desktop memory ........................................................... 67
2.4.9 Installing notebook memory ......................................................... 68
2.5 Hard Drives

2.5.1 What is a hard drive
2.5.2 Hard drives History
2.5.3 Bits and Bytes
2.5.4 IDE interface
2.5.5 SATA Interface
2.5.6 Formatting hard drives
2.5.7 Hard drives barriers and RAID
2.5.8 Installing desktop hard drives
2.5.9 Installing notebook hard drives
2.5.10 Boot Process
2.5.11 External Hard Drives
2.6 Optical Drives

2.6.1 Optical Storage
2.6.2 CD-ROMs
2.6.3 DVD ROMs
2.6.4 IDE optical drives
2.6.5 SATA optical drive
2.6.6 Installing desktop optical drives
2.6.7 Installing notebook optical drives
2.6.8 External optical drives
xi
2.7 Power supply and Batteries
2.7.1 Introduction to Power supply
2.7.2 Electrical Recommendations
2.7.3 Changing your power supply
2.7.4 Installing Power supplies
2.7.5 Notebook Power
2.7.6 Notebook Batteries
2.7.7 Protection and UPS
2.8 Input devices

2.8.1 Keyboards
2.8.2 Mice
2.8.3 Trackballs
2.8.4 Touchpads and Input Tablets
2.8.5 Touch Screens
2.8.6 Games controllers and Joysticks
2.8.7 Port replicators
2.8.8 KVM
2.9 Monitors
2.9.1 Displays history
2.9.2 Monitor specifications
2.9.3 Types of monitor
2.9.4 CRT
2.9.5 LCD
2.9.6 Plasma
2.9.7 Touch screen Monitors
2.9.8 TV as monitors
2.9.9 Monitor connectors
2.9.10 Choosing a new monitor
2.9.11 Installing a new monitor
xii
2.10 Video cards
2.10.1 What is a video card?
2.10.2 Video card history
2.10.3 Video card Memory
2.10.4 Video card connectors
2.10.5 Video Capture cards
2.10.6 Multiple monitors
2.10.7 Video card interfaces
2.10.8 Choosing a new Video Card
2.10.9 Installing a new video card
2.11 Sound Cards

2.11.1 What is a sound card?
2.11.2 Sound card history
2.11.3 Multimedia
2.11.4 Sound card components
2.11.5 MIDI Interface
2.11.6 Sound card connections
2.11.7 Recording
2.11.8 Speakers
2.11.9 Installing sound cards and speakers
2.12 Cases
2.12.1 What is a compute case?

2.12.2 Case form factors
2.12.3 Computer case components
2.12.4 How to buy a computer case
xiii
2.13 Printers and scanners
2.13.1 What is a printer?
2.13.2 Different types of printers
2.13.3 Printing media
2.13.4 Printer consumables
2.13.5 Printer Communications
2.13.6 Printer Properties
2.13.7 Printing documents
2.13.8 Scanners
2.13.9 Printers as a copy and fax machine
2.13.10 Photo programs
2.13.11 Buying a new printer
2.13.12 Installing a new printer
2.14 Flash memories

2.14.1 What is a flash memory?
2.14.2 USB Flash drives
2.14.3 Memory cards
2.14.4 Flash memory accessories
2.14.5 How to use flash memories
2.15 MP3 Players

2.15.1 What is a MP3 player?
2.15.2 MP3 players history
2.15.3 Media formats
2.15.4 Getting music from the internet
2.15.5 Sound and video editors
2.15.6 Buying a new MP3 player
2.15.7 How to use a MP3 player
xiv
2.16.1 Digital cameras
2.16.2 Types of digital cameras
2.16.3 Web cameras
2.16.4 Camcorders
2.16.5 Camera connectors
2.16.6 Image file formats
2.16.7 Photo and Movies programs
2.16.8 Camera functions and specifications
3 Software

3.1.1 What is an operative system? ................................................... 70
3.1.2 Operative System components ................................................. 71
3.1.3 Family of operative Systems ..................................................... 74
3.1.4 MS-DOS ..................................................................................... 74
3.1.5 Microsoft Windows ..................................................................... 75
3.1.6 Linux........................................................................................... 78
3.1.7 Apple Mac OS ............................................................................ 79
3.1.8 Choosing an Operative System ................................................. 80

3.2.1 Preparing the hard drive ............................................................ 81
3.2.2 Installing Windows XP ............................................................... 82
3.2.3 Installing Windows Vista
3.2.4 Installing Windows 7
3.2.5 Using Restore CD‟s
3.2.6 After Installing Windows
3.2.7 Installing drivers for Windows XP
3.2.8 Installing drivers for Windows Vista and Windows 7
xv
3.3.1 What is Linux Ubunto?
3.3.2 Different ways to install Linux Ubunto
3.3.3 Installing Linux Ubunto
3.3.4 Installing drivers for Linux Ubunto

3.4.1 What is a Software application?
3.4.2 Types of software applications
3.4.3 Getting software
3.4.4 How to install software applications
3.5 Working with Windows XP

3.5.1 Introduction of Window XP
3.5.2 The desktop
3.5.3 Windows XP Basic
3.5.4 Managing files
3.5.5 Control Panel
3.6 Working with Windows Vista

3.6.1 Introduction of Window Vista
3.6.2 The desktop
3.6.3 Windows Vista Basic
3.6.5 Control Panel
3.7 Working with Windows 7

3.7.1 Introduction of Window 7
3.7.2 The desktop
3.7.3 Windows 7 Basic
3.7.5 Control Panel
xvi
3.8 Working with Linux Ubuntu
3.8.1 Introduction of Ubunto
3.8.2 The desktop
3.8.3 Linux Ubunto Basic
3.8.4 Installing Ubunto Applications

3.9.1 Why install multiple operative systems in the same PC?
3.9.2 Multiple operative system configurations
4 Networking
4.1 Computer networks

4.1.1 What is a Computer Network? .......................................................90
4.1.2 Types of Computer Networks ........................................................91
4.1.3 Network Architecture ......................................................................92
4.1.4 Network Topologies........................................................................93
4.1.5 Network Protocols ..........................................................................94
4.1.6 Network standards ........................................................................94
4.2 Wired Networks

4.2.1 Wired Network Components ............................................................ 96
4.2.2 Networks Interface Card (NIC) ......................................................... 96
4.2.3 Cables ............................................................................................. 100
4.2.4 Connectors ...................................................................................... 103
4.2.5 Hubs
4.2.6 Switches
4.2.7 Routers
4.2.8 Ethernet Configurations
4.2.9 Techniques for building your own twister pair cables
4.2.10 Wall jacks and patch panels
4.2.11 Powerline Networking
4.2.12 Home Wired Networks Installation
4.2.13 Home Wired Networks Configuration
4.2.14 Network Devices
xvii
4.3 Wireless Networks
4.3.1 Wireless Network Components
4.3.2 The Wireless Router
4.3.3 The Broadband Modem
4.3.4 Wireless Adapters
4.3.5 Home Wireless network Installation and configuration
4.3.6 Wireless Devices
4.3.7 Bluetooth
4.4 The Internet

4.4.1 The Internet Development
4.4.2 The World Wide Web
4.4.3 Social networks
4.4.4 Popular Web sites
5 PC Maintenance
5.1 Computer Tune-Up

5.1.1 What is a computer Tune-Up
5.1.2 Optimizing the disk Space
5.1.3 Defragmenting Your Hard Drive
5.1.4 Registry Cleaning
5.2 Cleaning PC components

5.2.1 Cleaning a PC
5.2.2 Cleaning the System Unit
5.2.3 Cleaning the Monitor
5.2.4 Cleaning Peripherals
5.2.5 Cleaning Printers
5.2.6 Cleaning Optical Drivers
xviii
5.3 Backing-Up and Transfer Information
5.3.1 Why you must back up your information?
5.3.2 Methods for transfer files
5.3.3 Back up connecting two computers directly
5.3.4 Back up using Internal hard drives
5.3.5 Back up using External hard drives
5.3.6 Back up using Network drives
5.3.7 Back up using optical drives
5.3.8 Back up using Internet services
5.4 Antivirus and Security

5.4.1 Malware
5.4.2 Computer Virus
5.4.3 Computer Worms
5.4.4 Trojan Horses
5.4.5 Adware
5.4.6 Spyware
5.4.7 Firewalls Programs
5.4.8 Internet Security
6 Troubleshooting
6.1 The art of Troubleshooting

6.1.1 Troubleshooting is an art
6.1.2 Remember the obvious
6.1.3 Isolate the problem
6.1.4 Document the problem
6.1.5 Seek Information
6.1.6 Try different solutions
6.2 My Computer does not start

6.2.1 My computer is dead
6.2.2 The boot Process
6.2.3 BIOS Password
6.2.4 My computer is not dead but it does not boot
xix
6.3 Windows does not start
6.3.1 Boot Devices
6.3.2 Windows Tools
6.3.3 Windows Advance Options
6.3.4 Blue Screen at Windows start
6.3.5 Windows does not start
6.3.6 Windows starts with problems
6.4 Performance Problems

6.4.1 Techniques for speed up your computer
6.4.2 My computer is slow
6.4.3 My computer freezes
6.4.4 Blue Screen Problems
6.4.5 Overheating Problems
6.4.6 My computer shut off itself
6.5 Troubleshooting Hardware components

6.5.1 Electrical Troubleshooting
6.5.2 Power supply troubleshooting
6.5.3 Motherboard troubleshooting
6.5.4 Hard drive troubleshooting
6.5.5 Memory Troubleshooting
6.5.6 Sound Troubleshooting
6.5.7 Video Troubleshooting
6.5.8 Printing Problems
6.5.9 Data Retrieving from dead computers
6.6 Problems with networks and Internet

6.6.1 Network Problems
6.6.2 Internet Problems
xx
7 Your New Computer
7.1 Buy a new computer or build one?

7.1.1 Reasons of building your own computer
7.1.2 Reasons of buying a new computer
7.2 Buying a new computer

7.2.1 Buy what you need
7.2.2 What to look for when buying a new computer
7.3 Building your own computer

7.3.1 Choosing your system
7.3.2 Buying the parts
7.3.3 Assembling your computer
7.4 For new PC owners

7.4.1 Setting your new PC
7.4.2 Updating your computer
7.4.3 Creating Restore CDs/DVDs
7.4.4 Creating image discs
7.4.5 Creating Windows repair discs
7.4.6 Installing programs
7.4.7 Retrieving data from your old computers
7.4.8 Epilogue
xxi
8 Appendix
8.1 Bit and Bytes ...................................................................................... 601

8.2 Kilo, Mega, Giga and Tera ................................................................. 601
8.3 Numeric systems................................................................................ 603
8.4 ASCII Table ........................................................................................ 604
8.5 BIOS set up keys ............................................................................... 605
Photographs and Illustrations credits.............................. 607
Index ...................................................................................................... 615
xxii
G E T TI N G S TA R T ED
Section
1
1.1 Introduction
1.3 Working with computers
1.4 Hardware and Software
1
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 How to use this book
Sixty years ago, you required a PhD in Physic or Mathematics in order to understand what a
computer can do. We have advance so much since then. Now we use computers every time. We use
computers at home, work, school and in every moment of our life.
We have learned how to use the computer but many people still have numerous problems
with them. I have been involved with computers for twenty years and I have fixed hundreds of PCs. I
must confess most of the computers problems are easy to fix. Everybody with some knowledge in
computers can resolve most of the problems.
The objective of this book is to teach the PC owner how to repair his PC. In this book I will
teach how the PC works, how they can be fixed and how keep them running. One important thing
about this book is that you will learn how to repair and how to use the computer and accessories, for
example, besides teach you how to repair a printer I will teach how you can use the printer. I
dedicated many parts of the books in teaching the use of hardware components and software
applications. I think you need learn to use your computer before you tried to repair it.
I produced this book thinking in the people that can use a computer but do not have any idea
in how to fix it. Therefore, if you never in your life have opened a PC, if you do not know the
difference between hardware and software, this book is for you. Most of the work in this book refers
to desktop computers, but we are going to study how repair notebooks too.
The first section of this book is an introduction of the computer history, some people think
that computers were invented 15 years ago, others think the Internet and Windows have always been
part of the computers. In the first section, you will learn that computer science have been part of
human history for thousands of years and that computers today are quite different of computers some
years ago.
The second part of this book is hardware; I will teach about the different components that
computers have how to install them and how to repair them. In the hardware section I will talk about
the different devices a PC owner use with the computers such as MP3 players and digital cameras; In
my opinion these devices are part of the computer and people must now how to work with them.
2
The third section of this book is software. I know that many people that own a computer do
not have a deep knowledge of Windows. I will begin this chapter with a small introduction of
operative systems. I will talk about Windows XP, Windows Vista and Windows 7 and then I will give
an introduction of Linux. At the end of this section I will include some basic techniques in how
install many operative system in the same computer.
The fourth section is about computer networks. I will explain what a computer network is
and which component a computer network has. I will explain computer networks installation and
configuration. Finally, I will talk about the Internet.
The fifth section is about PC maintenance. I will teach some techniques and procedures in
how keep your computer without problems.
The sixth section is about troubleshooting, this section is a guide to resolve computers
problem. I will teach software and hardware troubleshooting.
In the seven and last section, we are going to compare the advantages and disadvantages of
building a computer by yourself. Then we will build a computer from scratch. I will give you tips,
recommendations and step-by-step pictures of the construction. We will have a complete working
PC system. At the end of this chapter, I will give some recommendations for people that just bought
a new computer.
WWW.TECHBOOKS.BOOKS.OFFICELIVE.COM
After you read this book you will have the knowledge to resolve commons problems in the
areas of hardware and software, you will be able to do PC maintenance, upgrades and build your own
computer system.
Since the computer is a changing industry, you really will never finish learning; there always
COMPUTER REPAIR FOR PC OWNERS

will be a new technology, a new operative system or a new technique you will need to learn.
As a final point, you must be aware that repair computers is a technique, the knowledge that
you obtain depend in great part of the time that you spend fixing a computer. Although this book
offers you a theoretical guide, hands on practice and real life problem solutions is what will teach you
the most.
Do not forget register your copy of this book at
Book ID: PCO1
Now that you know how this book is designed, we can begin our study of computers. In
order to fix a computer there are some important concepts that you must learn.
3
1.1.2 What is a Computer?
It is very difficult to give an exact definition of what a computer is. At the beginning, computers
were machines that helped resolve mathematical problems. Now the computer performs
manipulation of data, this data could be numbers, words, music, pictures etc. In the last years, we
have seen a merge of the computers with the telecommunications and entertainment.
One simple definition of computer is, computer is a programmable machine that store and manipulate
digital data. Computer can be mechanical or electronic and the data can be stored using mechanical
gears, magnetic material or transistors.
Although computers have existed for thousands of years, the first electronic computer was
invented in the mid 20th century. For many decades, computers were used only for military, business
and academic purposes. PC or personal computer was developed in massive scale in the early „80s.
1.1.3 Different types of computers

There are many kind of computers and many way of classified them. We can classified a
computer by
 Architecture: Mac or PC
 Operative Systems: Windows, Mac or Linux
 Processor: Intel or AMD
 Size: Desktop, laptop or netbook
There are a lot of architectures, processor and operative systems but the studies of these
topics are beyond the scope of this book. There are also computers such as the mainframes or
supercomputers used by universities, governments, etc. We also have the Mac family of computer.
Several of these computers are clearly superior of a PC nevertheless is not the objective of this book
to cover them.
In this book, I will focus my attention to the PCs; these are the mass consumer‟s computers. I
am talking about the computer you see in electronic store such as IBM, DELL, Gateway, HP, etc.
Most of those computers use Windows and they can be upgraded and fixed very easy.
I will be give emphasis to Windows base computers and Windows problems but I will do an
introduction to Linux operative systems as well.
4
1.2.1 Mechanical Calculators
The development of the computer is linked to the history of the humanity. Since the
invention of the mathematics, humankind has had the need of counting. With the past of the time,
this counting becomes more difficult and then the man invented ways to perform complex
calculations.
One of the first machines that humankind uses for counting was the abacus. The abacus was
used for several centuries. Many ingenious machines were developed like the astrolabe. The
Antikythera Mechanism from about 150-100 BC is considered the first single purpose analog computer.
The castle clock from 1206 was the first programmable single purpose computer.
Abacus and astrolabe, early computing mechanism
Many automatic machines were built in the antique world. Until the renaissance, most
devices were calculator or single purpose machine. In the XIX the first multipurpose programmable
computer were created.
5
Antikythera Mechanism, the first single purpose computer original and reconstruction
1.2.2 Mechanical Computers

The industrial revolution paves the development of mechanical computers. Analytics
machines were built in the XIX century. In this time the first computer programs were created, it was
the born of the programming and computer science. In this period many machines were build. The
most important develop in this time was the Analytic Machine by Charles Babbage, this was the first
programmable mechanical computer. The construction of this machine began in the year 1837 but
never finished. Although many machines were very advance none was build for commercial use.
Babbage Difference Machine Analytical Engine
6
The beginning of the XX century brought a vast amount of data and the necessity of
manipulate this data. In order to control this information new ways of storing and computing the
data was needed. IBM spearheaded the develop of computer using new inventions like the punched
cards, Boolean algebra and later the vacuum tube. It was the beginning of the commercial computer.
Early IBM Tabulating Machine 1890
7
1.2.3 Electronic Computers
In 1936 Alan Turin the father of the computer science, formulate the concept of algorithm
and design the modern computer architecture, his model is still use in computers today. The
invention of the vacuum tube started the development of the electronic computers in the 40‟s and 50‟s.
Generally, only the government and the military could afford those machines.
The invention of the transistor was the key in the developed of the mainframes and business
computers in the 60‟s. A lot of big business bought those machines generally for accounting and
payroll. The invention of the IC marked the introduction of the personal computer in the „70s.
ENIAC first general purpose electronic computer build in 1946
The electronic computer progress follows the development of these electronic devices:
 Vacuum tubes (40’s and 50’s): Vacuum tubes were the first electronic amplifier.
 Transistors (60’s and ‘70s): Transistors were the first solid-state amplifier, and successor of
the vacuum tube.
 Integrate circuits or IC (‘70s): IC is a technology which consist in integrate many electronic

components like transistors, diodes, capacitors and resistors in one package.
 Processor (from the ‘80s to today): Processors are electronic devices composed of a
control unit, arithmetic-logic unit an instruction-decoding unit.
8
IBM 407 computer from 1953
1.2.4 The Personal computer
What is a personal computer? The term personal computer refers to a computer designed for
an individual use. From the mid 40‟s to the „70s the peopled used mainframes. Mainframes were huge and

expensive computer owned by the government and big corporations, hundreds of staff members ran them,
therefore there were no personal. No individual person owned a computer; a computer in that time
was like a space rocker today, huge, complex and expensive.
In the decades of the „70s the development of the processor made possible the miniaturization
and posterior commercialization of the home computers, at the beginning these computers where
sold by mail and they arrived as do for yourself kits, only technicians could ensemble them. At the
end, you had a wood box without operative system, monitor, keyboard or mouse.
These computers had buttons instead of keyboard and little lights instead of monitor. The
users had to invent their own operative systems and programs. No everyone could use these devices.
In the early „70s these build by yourself computers were called „home computers’.
9
Altair is considered the first line of personal computer but was Apple the first company that
introduced a computer cheap enough for mass consumer.
Altair 8800 from 1975 one of the first microcomputers
Apple II from 1977
The invention of the microprocessor in the early „70s paved the way of the introduction of the
microcomputers in the late „70s and early „80s. In 1977 Apple launched one of the first successful
commercial microcomputers the Apple II, the main consumer target in that time were middle and
small business and not individuals. The personal computers from late „70s were called ‘microcomputers’;
this term was used for more than 10 years.
10
IBM responded to the success of the Apple II with the launch of the IBM PC in 1981. The
introduction of the IBM PC was a great success; therefore, two companies leaded the market in this
time, Apple and IBM.
The Apple operative system was the Apple DOS it was used only with Apple computers. The
IBM operative system was the PC-DOS’; nevertheless an almost identical operative system MS-DOS
was available for any computer manufacturer.
In that time, many manufacturers like Wang, HP and Compaq launched their own line of
personal computers. In order to use the successfully Microsoft DOS operative system all these
companies copied the IBM hardware, these family of computer were know as IBM compatibles.
The original IBM PC model 5150 from 1981

The development of the Intel processor brought us the Intel architecture and the production
of the 286, 386,486 and Pentium processors. Intel processors were the key in the development of the
PC hardware. The introduction of MS-DOS and later Windows operative system marked the
beginning of the use of computer for the general people. Microsoft software played a key role in the
development of the PC software, although Window like applications were used for Apple computers
long time before Windows.
In the early „90s most manufacturers were IBM compatibles, companies like DELL, Compaq,
HP controlled the marked. In this time almost all computers used Windows and Intel processors, it
was the beginning of the Wintel architecture. Wintel was the technology responsible of the development
of the computers since the early „90s.
11
Today a big share of the computer marker belongs to “clones”. A clone is computer build
with parts of different companies, a clone company does not build they own hardware they only
assemble computers parts then sell the whole product under their brand.
After this introduction, some reader can wonder why the people still call most computers PC,
after all PC is really the line of IBM personal computers build in the early „80s. Most of the times the
term PC is used for describe a no Apple computer, which means if it is no Apple is a PC. I prefer the
old term, a personal computer is a computer designed in order to satisfy the needs of a person and
not a group.
The computer become personal thanks of the shrinking and falling of prices of the processors
and memories, those advances make possible the mass production of computers. PC are cheaper
every day and now they are a just a gadget like a phone or TV.
The merger between computers and entertainment brought us the MP3 players, DVDs and
digital cameras. The blending of computers and telecommunication has created new forms of
computing like the Internet, social networks and the smartphones. The advances in electronic have
given computers power to almost all electronic devices. We can find computers in the auto, in the
phone and in most appliances.
We can say; Computers today are beyond doubt personal.
You can continue reading the rest of the section in the

printed edition of this book.
12
HARDWARE Section
2
2.1 PC Components
2.2 Motherboards
2.3 Microprocessors
2.4 Memory
2.5 Hard Drives
2.6 Optical Drive
2.7 Power supply and Batteries
2.8 Input Devices
2.9 Monitors
2.10 Video cards
2.11 Sound Cards
2.12 Cases
2.13 Printers and scanners
2.14 Flash memories
2.15 MP3 Players
13
2 .1 PC Components
2.1.1 Desktop External Parts
A desktop computer is the type of computer you set in a desk; generally, it comes separate in
modules such as system unit, monitor, keyboard, mouse, etc. The first generation of personal
computers were desktops. The objective of this section is to have a first look of the desktop computer
and connections. The following pictures show us what a desktop computer looks like.
Monitor System Unit
Keyboard Mouse
Desktop computer
The System Unit is the PC main part; here is where the processor, memory and hard drive are
located. Here is a typical system unit with all its parts.
System Unit front view
14
Older computers used to have the USB ports and audio connectors at the back, now all the
models have these connectors at the back and at the front, sometimes there are covers with small
doors. If it is possible, try to identify the connections in your own computer.
System unit rear view
Modern computers lack of dedicate keyboards and mouse connectors instead they used the
USB ports for connect the keyboard and mouse.
You can note the colored plugs at the back of the computer, for example, green for speakers
and pink for microphone, the color of the keyboard and mouse connectors are respectively purple
and green.
15
2.1.2 Desktop Internal Parts
In this section you can observe what you will find when you open a desktop computer. In
the picture, we can observe the system unit interior; we can see the motherboard, the memories, the
power supply, the hard drive and the optical drive. These are the typical parts in every computer.
If you feel ready, you can now open your PC following the safety procedures like unplug
the power. Try to identify the components in your own PC without touching or removing anything.
System unit inside view
The advantage of repair and upgrade computers is that the parts come in modules.
Therefore, if you for example need more memory or a bigger hard drive, it is easy buy the
components by separate and install them whenever you want.
When you need repair a computer, most of the times it is easy to buy a new part and
discharge the old one. It is no worthy trying to fix a CD drive, a mouse or a keyboard. Laptop
computers have the same parts that a desktop have but in most cases, there are more difficult and
expensive to repair.
16
2.1.3 Laptop External parts
Laptops computers are portable computers, this type of computers are becoming very
popular. Like their desktop counterparts, you can repair or upgrade its components.
Other name that a laptops receive is notebooks. Generally, a laptop is more expensive than a
desktop with the same specifications, nevertheless their size allowed a great versatile. In recent years
majority of sales in the PC have been laptops.
If you are a laptop owner, try to identify your laptops parts and connectors.
Laptop computer external view
17
You can note that in laptops computers, the screen and keyboard are embedded in the device;
therefore, it is very difficult exchange screens and keyboards among laptops. Generally, you must
order the parts from the manufacturer.
Laptop computer connectors
Recently we have seen a new device called netbook, a netbook is a cheap laptop without DVD
ROM, low memory, slow processor and small hard drive. These devices are more suitable for internet
browser and light applications. The price and size have made these devices very popular.
Laptop computers have the same connectors that desktops have. It is very easy to connect an
external monitor, keyboard or mouse to a laptop. Some laptops accept port replicators; a port
replicator is a connector that let connect the power, one monitor, one mouse, one keyboard and
several accessories using only one cable.
18
2.1.4 Laptop Internal parts
The procedures to disassemble notebooks are different in each notebook model. In this
section I want show you a first look of some internal notebook parts. If you feel right you can now
open your laptops cover in the bottom of your laptop. I want that you locate the hard drive and
memory without taking them off or touch them.
Before serving a notebook, you must always unplug the power cord and remove the battery. If
you try fixing a notebook without removing the battery first, you could damage it.
Laptop computer parts
Replacing a laptop memory, battery or hard drive is very easy. Other part like the
motherboard is very complicate because you must literally take the whole laptop apart.
Every component inside a desktop computer is also present inside a notebook computer.
Notebooks have motherboards, network cards, modems, optical drives, etc. In the next chapters, we
will study notebook components further.
19
2.2 Motherboards
2.2.1 What is a Motherboard?
The motherboard is the circuit board where the processor, memory and expansion cards are
located. The motherboard together with the processor is one of the most important components in
the computer. The motherboard also receives the name of system board. In the next pictures, we can
see a motherboards with all its parts.
Motherboard top view
20
Motherboard Rear View
In the last pictures, we can see the typical components of the motherboard such as:
 Chipset
 Processor sockets

 Memory Slots
 Expansion card Slots
 Bios Chip
 Disk drive connectors
 USB and Firewall connectors
 Power connectors
 I/O connectors
 Keyboard connectors (Keyboard and mouse connectors are used less every time)
21
2.2.2 Motherboard form factors
The motherboard physical size and slots position depends of the form factor. There have been a
lot of different form factors, most of them are obsoletes now. Right now, the most used form factor
is the ATX. Some variant of the ATX exist like the EATX (extended ATX) and µATX (micro ATX).
Motherboard form factors
2.2.3 Chipset
The most important factor in a motherboard is the chipset. The Chipset is the interface
between the processor, the memory, expansion cards and others components of the motherboard.
The chipset has several components such as the processor bus interface called front side bus or FSB,
memory controllers, I/O controllers, etc. The chipset is not a component that you can exchange or
upgrade like the processor or RAM, the chipset is the motherboard itself. If the processor is the brain
of the PC, the chipset is the nervous system. The chipset determine what kind of processor or
memory the computer can have.
2.2.4 Processor Sockets

The processor socket is the motherboard part where the processor set. Every socket can hold
only a specific type of processor. Sockets vary in size, form and number of pins, for example the
Socket 1 has 169 pins and wasdesigned for the processor 486, whereas the socket 370 has 370 pins and
was designed for the processors Celeron and Pentium III.
Every socket has a key, which consist in a triangle or arrow in one corner.
The processor has also a key, which consist in one triangle or arrow in
one corner. The holes much match the pins; in this way we can set the
processor in the right position. You will learn more about processor in
the section 2.3’Processors’.
Socket 370
22
2.2.5 Memory Slots
The motherboard has two different types of memory ROM (Read Only Memory) and RAM
(Random Access Memory). The ROM memory is an electronic chip with information about the system;
this information will not change. The computer uses the RAM memory every time it runs a program,
this means always. In order to run a program some information has to be stored in the RAM
memory. The information in the RAM memory is changing continuously.
The RAM memory is one of the principal parts of the computer. The velocity of the
computer will depend in how much memory it has, you must have the biggest memory you can
afford.
The memory slots are the physical connectors where the memory chips are set. The memory
bus transfer information between the RAM and the CPU.
Every motherboard has different slots numbers and size. There are motherboards with two
slots other have 4 or 8. The slots have different sizes depending of the type of memory. Right now
most of the memories have 240 pins, but we can find older systems with memories of 204 or 184
pins. We will study more about memory in the section 2.4 ‘Memory’.
Memory slots
23
2.2.6 Expansion card Slots
Before talking about expansion card, we must know what a bus is. A Bus is a signal pathway;
the signal uses this pathway for carry information between components inside and outside the
computer. There are different kinds of buses, but we will focus our attention to the expansion bus.
The expansions bus is very easy to identify because it uses cards slots. In these slots, we can
connect the expansion cards. The expansion card could be a modem, a video card, a network card, a
USB hub card, etc.
Card Slots
Expansion card slots
There are many types of buses, the most popular is the PCI, the PCI bus has evolve in many
subcategories like the PCIe and PCI-X.
PCI: The Peripheral Component Interconnect developed some years ago in order to replace the ISA
bus. The PCI bus supports 32 and 64 bits data path. It is still very popular nevertheless; we can find
superior buses like the PCIe and PCI-X.
PCI-X: PCI-X is known as PCI expanded it is a doublewide version of the PCI, it has higher
bandwidth and is used mainly in servers. Modern PCI cards can be inserted in PCI-X connector but
older PCI cards cannot. The PCI-X slot support many speeds that mean some are fasters than others.
24
PCIe: PCIe is Known as PCI express or PCI-E, it was created recently for replace the PCI
and PCI-X. It is more popular every day; it comes in many sizes like PCie x1, PCie x4 or PCie x16.
The x1 is the smallest and the x16 the biggest. One advantage of this bus is that small cards can be fit
in biggest slots, that mean you can insert an x1 card in one x4 slot.
PCIe X4
PCIe X16
PCIe X1
PCIe X16
PCI
Expansion card slots

AGP: Stand for Accelerated Graphics Port. It is an old bus used for video card. The slot is
physically similar to the PCI but generally is darker in color. In the past, it was the standard for video
card but now the PCIe has replaced it.
Laptop computers also use expansion buses in their design.
Mini PCI is based in the PCI but smaller. It is used in laptop computers.
Mini PCIe is based in the PCIe but smaller. It is used in laptop computers since the year
2005 and is the replacement of the mini PCI.
25
Laptop Expansion cards
PCMCIA: PCMCIA is an expansion card for laptop computers, the name PCMCIA stand
for Personal Computer Memory Card International Association. The card has been renamed lately to PC card.
The card is about the size of a credit card.
The card has evolved in various types such as type I, type II and type III, every type has a
different size. Right now, it is used mostly for network cards, modems and hard drives.
PCMCIA TV turner card,

you can watch TV in your
laptop using this card
PCMCIA or PC card
26
2.2.7 BIOS Chip
So far, we have studied a little bit about hardware and software. We know hardware is all the
physical components inside a computer like hard drives, networks cards, etc, whereas software is the
operative systems and programs. Since many hardware manufacturers use many software programs it
must exist one way that allow hardware and software communicate between them, this is done using
the BIOS.
BIOS: It stands for Basic Input/Output System. This chip on the motherboard allows an
operating system run the same application using different hardware. We must visualize a PC system
like a system of layers; the most basic layer is the hardware layer, above that is the BIOS Layer, then
the operative system layer and finally the application Layer.
APLICATIONS APLICATIONS
Example: Word 2007 Example: Word 2007
OPERATIVE SYSTEM OPERATIVE SYSTEM
Example: Windows
Example: Windows
Vista Vista
BIOS “A” BIOS “B”

Example: HP BIOS Example: Dell BIOS
Hardware “A” Hardware “B”
Example: AMD Example: INTEL

processor Processor
PC System of layers
In the last table, we can observe that a word application running in Windows Vista can work
with an AMD or Intel processor, the BIOS work like a translator between the operative system and
the processor.
27
The BIOS is a chip that store information about many hardware devices such as network
cards, modems, DVD drivers, etc; as well as many operative systems like windows XP or windows
Vista. The BIOS is the translator between hardware and software. This is the reason why you cannot
run a Windows XP 64 bits with a 16 bits processor because the BIOS cannot do the translation from
software to hardware. It is the same reason why sometimes you cannot run hardware for windows 7
in a computer with windows XP.
Since the BIOS stand between the hardware and software it receives the name of firmware, the
meaning of firmware has evolved dramatically in recent years. Firmware is basically software embedded in
a chip.
The BIOS depend of the manufacturer of the

motherboard. We have HP BIOS, DELL BIOS,
Gateway BIOS, etc: Many times the PC manufacturer
use third part BIOS like American Megatrends or
Phoenix Technologies.
AMIBIOS
Some years ago, the BIOS cannot be updated, but now in modern PCs you can update the
BIOS, this attribute allow the use of new hardware and new operative systems features. Therefore, if
you are installing a new hardware like a new video card sometimes you must update the BIOS in
order to take full advance of the hardware features.
Older BIOS cannot be upgraded because they used ROM chips, ROM stand for read only
memory that means theirs content cannot be changed. Now all BIOS used EEPROM chips, EEPROM
stand for electrically erasable programmable read-only memory; that means the BIOS can be upgraded.
Nevertheless, people continue call the BIOS ROM memory. Sometimes people confuse BIOS with
CMOS RAM.
CMOS RAM: The CMOS RAM is also a chip in the motherboard, and the real name is
RTC/NVRAM or real-time clock/ nonvolatile memory. The name CMOS stand for complimentary
metal-oxide semiconductor, this is a family of chips. The name CMOS is not appropriate because
most of the chips today use CMOS technology.
28
Although the CMOS RAM chip stores the BIOS set up, the BIOS firmware is stored inside
the BIOS chip. We are talking about two different chips.
The CMOS RAM stored the BIOS set up information and setting such as.
 Date and time
 Drives information
 Hardware information
 Boot order
 User password
In order to enter the BIOS set up you must restart the computer and during the boot process
press one key or a combination of keys. Usually the keys are F1, F2, Del, Esc or F10. Every computer
is different; you can find the right combination in the computer manual. Sometimes you can also see a
message like for example Press <F2> to enter BIOS setup. In the appendix of this book, you can find
some combination keys for most computers.
System BIOS screen
Manipulate the bios information is not a good idea for students that are beginning to learn
how to repair a computer, therefore I will postpone the bios manipulation for later sections.
29
We will learn to reconfigure the BIOS set up in many sections of the book like the sections
about hard drivers, video cards, operative system, troubleshooting and building your own computer
but first you must get a little bit more information about how a computer works.
CMOS Battery: In order to keep all these information the CMOS need a constant source of
power, that is the reason a CMOS battery must be used, this battery is generally a regular CR2025, the
same of many calculators. The charge in this battery last approximately 5 years, when it is discharge
you must enter the CMOS information manually every time you power up the system until buying a
new battery. We will study how resolve battery problems in the section of troubleshooting.
CMOS battery
Password Protection: Almost all the CMOS set up have a section about Password Protection,
this password is wrote in the CMOS. When you power up a system with password protection, the
first screen you see is the Set up screen asking you about the password. If you do not write the
password correctly, you cannot enter to the System.
We will study how to clear password in the section of troubleshooting.
 Note: The password in the Set Up is not

the same that the password in Windows.
30
POST: Another important function handle by the BIOS is the POST or Power On Self Test.
The function of the POST is identified the computer components and set them in such a way, the
operative system can use them. Here is a list of the POST function.
 Test the BIOS itself
 Discover and test the computer hardware such as processors, hard drives, network
cards, etc.
 Verify memory
 Test the buses
 Discover expansion cards
The POST must identify if a system was turned off correctly. If all the hardware is good then
the operative system will initialize. If there is something wrong in the POST process, the Operative
System will not start.
If something is wrong, the computer will show screen messages and emit a series of beeps
indicating the type of failure. These messages are generally some codes like 300,1100 or 1700; every
BIOS manufacturer have different codes therefore the code in one computer has a different
meaning in another computer. The beeps are a series of long and short beeps and they are very
useful when you have problem with the video card and you cannot see the codes in the monitor.
One tool that you can use for identified POST codes is the BIOS POST card, you can
connect this car to the expansion bus and see the code with the help of some LEDs.

You can see the POST codes in the screen.
POST BIOS card
31
2.2.8 Disk drive connectors
Computers use hard drive (HD) in order to storage information, in this moment there are
mainly two interfaces for connect hard drive inside a computer, there are:
 ATA know as IDE, Parallel ATA or PATA
 SATA know as Serial ATA
Older computer systems used ATA but now modern computer use mostly SATA. Another
disk connector is the floppy disk (FD) connector, FDs are obsolete know therefore we will not
studied them in this book.
ATA connector
SATA connectors
Floppy connectors
Typical Motherboard with ATA, SATA and floppy connectors
In a modern computer, you will find only one IDE connector and many SATA connectors;
older system generally had two IDE connectors. Usually you can connect two HD using one IDE
connector but only one HD using one SATA connector.
Besides HD you can also connect CD drives and DVD drives, in recent years many
motherboard have external SATA connectors called eSATA which you can use like an USB
connector in order to connect a great variety of hardware like camcorders or external hard drives.
If you motherboard does not have build in SATA connectors, you can use an IDE to SATA
adapter or an expansion card with SATA connectors in order to use SATA devices. I will talk about
IDE and SATA configuration in section 2.5 ‘Hard drives’.
32
2.2.9 USB and Firewall connectors
Since the born of the electronic computer, we have used peripherals devices such as input
devices, output devices, storage devices, etc. For many years each company design their own
connector and every device had a different connector. For example, a printer could use a parallel port,
another printer used a serial port and an external tape unit could use a proprietary system with special
adapters. Therefore, connect peripherals was difficult and expensive. Last part of the „90s saw the
development of the USB.
USB: Universal Serial Bus is a standard for connect peripheral devices such as printers,
keyboards, mice, external hard drives, camera, etc. USB eliminate the need of have different
connectors. You can use the same USB connector for many devices and if you need more connectors
you can buy hubs for expand your computer ports. USB is now the standard in connect peripherals
from Flash memory to camcorders.
USB 1.0 was the standard since the introduction of windows
98.
USB 2.0 is the standard now.

Besides the Type A, we also have the type B,
mini-A, mini-B, micro-AB and micro-B
USB connectors
33
Before the developed of the USB, a high-speed serial bus standard was under development,
this serial bus is called Firewall.
Firewall: IEEE-1394, Firewall or i.Link is a high-speed serial standard, the firewall is not such
as popular as the USB but it is faster. IEEE-1394 is used in high-end music and video applications.
No all motherboards have Firewall ports, but they can be

installed using an expansion card.
IEEE-1394 connectors
Warning: USB and IEEE-1394 connectors look

different outside the computer but they look the same
inside the motherboard. In fact, a USB connector in
a motherboard will fit a Firewall but it will not work.
Read the connectors labels before connect USB and

Firewall cables to the motherboard.




34
In the next pictures, we can see some USB and Firewall connectors in the motherboard. The
Firewall connector has the same size of a USB connector but they always have the letter 1394
whereas the USB connector has the word USB. They also use different color. The connector colors
varied in every motherboard. As you can see in the pictures, one end of the cables are connected to
the motherboard, the other ends of the cables are the USB and Firewall ports in the PC‟s case.
USB connectors
Firewall connector
PC‟s case
USB and IEEE-1394 connectors
35
2.2.10 Power connectors
In order to work the motherboard needs power. All motherboards have a connector where you can
connect the power supply; this connector has evolved with time. 15 years ago, motherboards used a
connector called P8 and P9, really there were two connectors in one, then we had the 20 pins ATX
connector and now we have the 24 pins ATX connector.
ATX 20 pins connector
The difference between the 20 and 24 pins is that a motherboard with 24 generally consumes
more current. A power supply connector with 20 pins can fix in a motherboard with 24 connectors,
but sometimes it cannot provide enough current. Sometimes you can plug the 20 pins power supply
to the 24 pins motherboard and they work perfectly. However if in the future you plug a new
expansion card in the motherboard, the power supply could be burned because the power supply
does not support the extra load.
20 Pins power supply connector in a 24 pins motherboard connector
36
You can find adapters for connect 20 pins power supply into 24 pins socket, but I do not
recommend them because they do not resolve the extra power problem. The use of adapters can be
dangerous because the motherboard will try to get extra power and this could burn the power supply.
24 Pins power supply connector in a 20 pins motherboard connector
Modern 24 pins power supply can fit in old 20 pins motherboard connectors, there is not
problem if you do this, because modern power supply have more power and have higher current rates

than old ones.
All the power supply connectors have small keys, with these keys they can only be connected in
one direction. I will teach more about power supply in the chapter 2.7 ‘Power supplies and Batteries’.
37
Besides the main power connector, a motherboard has the following connectors:
 ATX12V Connector: This is an auxiliary power connector developed many years ago; it is a
standard in all modern motherboard. This connector power up the processor.
 System Fan connector: This is a connector for power up the case fan.
 CPU Fan connector: This connector controls the processor fan.
 Power Jumpers: In this jumper, you connect the cable coming from the chassis front panel.
Generally, it has four pairs of cables; the cables have the following functions.
o Power button
o Reset button
o Power indicator LED
o Hard drive indicator LED.
I took the chassis power button off in order to show

the connections.
Motherboard Power Jumpers
38
2.2.11 I/O connectors
In this section we will study the motherboard Input and Output connectors, we have many
connectors depending on the motherboard manufacturer. In the next picture, we can see the rear part
of one typical motherboard.
Motherboard I/O connectors
Some times the motherboards or the computer case have bays, these bays can
support a great variety of components such as USB ports, Firewall ports, speakers, microphones, etc.
The bay must be connected to the motherboard using a variety of cables. These bays can be bought
by separate.
External I/O bay
39
We have studied the USB and Firewall connectors; now in this section we will study the audio
connectors. Usually all computers have the following audio connectors.
 Speaker: In this port, you connect the speaker system. Normally they consist in two
speakers or two speakers with one subwoofer the last one is called a system 2.1. This
jack is generally color green.
 Microphone: You can connect a microphone to do sound recorders in the

computer. This Jack is generally color pink.
 Line in: It is very useful when you try to convert external music to MP3 files or when
you edit a video content from a camcorder. This Jack is generally color blue.
CD Connector
Auxiliary Connector
Audio Connector
Firewall
USB
Inboard motherboard connectors
In systems that are more complex, we can find 5.1 audio out, this jacks let us use 5.1 audio
equipment. Most 5.1 has audio 3 connectors, one for the front speakers, one for the rear speakers and
the last one for the central speaker and subwoofer.
Besides the audio components, we have the video components. Most motherboards use the
VGA video connector, some uses the DVI video connector. We will talk about these connectors in
the section 2.10 ‘Video Cards’.
Modems and Networks connector are also I/O connectors we will cover them in the section
4 ‘Networking’.
40
2.2.12 Keyboard and mouse connectors
Keyboards and mice are the primary input device used in computers. Modern keyboards and
mice use USB connectors. If the device is corded, you must plug the device to the USB Port, if the
device is cordless you plug an adapter to any USB port and the adapter receive signals from the
device. In this section, we will study the keyboards and mice connectors in the motherboard.
Keyboard connector: Some years ago, PC used the DIN connector, today if you buy a
motherboard with keyboard connector possible it has the PS/2 called also mini DIN.
Mice connector: Since the development of the GUI (Graphic User Interface), mice have
become a standard in all computers, first in the Macintosh systems and now in Windows systems. At
the beginning mice used the motherboard serial port as connector, later it used the PS/2 connector
and now they use the USB port.
The Keyboard and mouse connectors look the same, both are PS/2 connectors, nevertheless
the keyboard connector is purple whereas the mouse connector is green.
Keyboard and mice connectors, USB adapter
41
If you have a standard mouse or keyboard, you can buy adapters in order to connect them to
USB ports. You can also buy adapters for connect USB input devices to standard keyboards or mice
ports.
Trackballs use the same port that mice, keyboard and mouse combo use the keyboard port. I
will tell you more about keyboards, mice and other input device in the section 2.8 ‘Input devices’.
 Note: If you are installing Windows, I recommend

use a PS/2 mouse and keyboard instead of a UBS
mouse or keyboard. In many USB devices you need
install drivers after the operative system is installed.
The computers in some cases will not recognize USB
devices without the drivers.
2.2.13 installing a new motherboard

Although buying a motherboard is one of the most important factors in building a PC, the
installation itself is very easy. Before continuing, we must understand why somebody needs to buy a
motherboard and the factors to take in consideration. The reasons to buy a motherboard are:
 The motherboard in your system does not work.
 You need upgrade your computer.
 You are building a new system.

My experience tells me that motherboards almost never go wrong. In many cases the
motherboard is the last part in the computer to be replaced and when it is replaced is because is old
and not because it does not work.
In the case that you need replace a motherboard because it does not work anymore, you
must know that it is almost impossible to find one with the same characteristics and generally, you
will have to replace the processor too. The problem is motherboards are made for a specific
processor, and processors evolve very fast. That means if you have an old processor it will be almost
impossible to find a modern motherboard that work with that old processor.
You can know if a motherboard works properly using a POST card. If you have another
computer, you can test the components of the motherboard individually, if all the components are
good the problem is the motherboard or processor. You must note that sometimes a motherboard
component like the inboard video card fails. In this case, you do not need change the whole
motherboard; you can simply install a new video card. We will study motherboard problems and
solutions in the section 6.5.3 ‘Motherboard troubleshooting’.
42
The bottom line is if you have an old system and your motherboard dies, it is better replace
the motherboard and processor all together. If you have problems trying to buy a motherboard that
support your old memory, replace the memory as well.
Cheap motherboards can cost less than $100, but if at the same time you are replacing the
processor and memory, the expenses will be more. If you are building a new system, it is possible
that you do not need to look for a motherboard that work with old parts, this give you a big array of
options from where to choose.
In order to remove your old motherboard, you must follow the next steps:
 Unplug the power cable in the computer.
 Open the case.
 Discharge your static and hold the motherboard by its sides, do not touch any
electronic components.
 Unplug the power supply, hard drives and optical drives cables.
 Unlock and pull the memory modules.
 Unplug all the expansions cards.
 Unlock and pull the processor fan.
 Unlock and pull the processor.

 Unscrew the screws that hold the motherboard to the computer case. Keep the old
screws as well as any spacers and washers.
In order to install a new motherboard the installation is reversal to the removal.
 Note: Sometimes you had an old video card and

now you are using the in-board video card from your
new motherboard. In this case, you must find an
expansion card cover; otherwise, dust will enter inside
your computer.
If you are reusing your same processor, you will need to put a little bit of thermal compound
between the top of processor and the bottom of the heatsink. New processors come with a little bit
of thermal compound, but you can buy it in any computers supply store, we will talk more about this
in 2.3 ‘Microprocessors’.
43
Some cooling systems have different heatsink bases if this is the case you must change the
heatsink base before you attach the motherboard to the case. I will teach you more about heatsinks
in the section ‘2.3 Microprocessors’.
The back of the motherboard must never touch the

case. In order to avoid this problem you must put
spacers between the motherboard and case.
If you install new expansion

cards, you must take off the
expansion card covers. If you
eliminate an expansion card,
you must get an expansion card
cover.
Installing a motherboard
In the case of notebooks, the motherboards are very expensive. If the motherboard inside
your laptop does not work properly, you will have to buy one exactly the same, you cannot upgrade it
with a better motherboard model. You will have to buy it from the manufacturer and you must now
that the production of new motherboards could last only a pair of years. Therefore, you cannot buy a
new laptop motherboard for old models. If you have and old notebook and you need replace your
motherboard I recommend buy a new notebook instead.
44
2.3 Microprocessors
2.3.1 Processors History
The 17th and 18th centuries marked the beginning of the modern mechanical computers. In the
19th century Charles Babbage drafted the blueprint of the Analytical Machine, this machine would have
been the first programmable computer but it was never finished. This computer would have been
programmed using punched cards similarly to the card used by computer 150 years later. Ada Lovelace
did the programming for this machine, she was an extraordinary mathematician and considered the
first programmer.
Part of Babbage difference engine early XlX

century.
Part of a 19th century computer
Mechanical computer continued been developed until the middle of the 20 century, which
marks the beginning of the electronic computer. John Von Neumann is considered the father of the
modern computer architecture. Most computers today use Von Neumann architecture. One key
concept in modern computer is the development of the CPU.
This Computer used Vacuum tubes in its

design, circa 1951
45
EDVAC Computer
The CPU or Central Processing Unit is the computer brain. The CPU performs the calculation
and processing. In order to do this processing, the CPU has to follow the instructions written in the
computer program.
In the 40‟s early CPUs were designed specifically for a single computer, they used vacuum
tubes and electrical relays, transistor were used in the „60s and integrate circuits or IC in the „70s.
This computer used ICs

in its design, circa 1965.
CPU, memory and external bus interface of a DEC PD-8/l
In the „70s the processor or microprocessor was introduced. The developed of the processor
changed dramatically the advance of the PC. The importance of the processor is that all the CPU
architecture in now embedded in the processor. The processor became the CPU.
Intel 4004, the first processor early ‘70s
46
Intel 80486DX2 early ‘90s
AMD (Advance Micro Devices) and Intel (Intel Corporation) are the two biggest
manufactures of processors. The development of the processor has been very fast. The 8086 from
1978 had 29,000 transistor, the 486 from 1989 was had 1.2 million transistors, right now the
processors manufacturers companies are working in the firsts 1 billion transistor processor.
Before continuing study the processor there are some concepts we need to understand.
 Math Coprocessor

 Clock Speed
 Data I/O bus
 Internal registers
 Address bus
 Cache memory
 Parallelism
 Processor sockets
47
2.3.2 Math Coprocessor
One important part of the processor is to carry floating-point arithmetic operations, these
operations are used for resolve complex mathematical problem such as CAD (Computer Aided
Design) software, video games, video modeling, scientific research and engineering calculations. One
way to give the processor more computing power was add a math coprocessor.
A math coprocessor is a special processor used to help the main processor with the complex
mathematical functions. Many old systems prior to the 486 processor had a slot where you can add a
coprocessor. Since the 486 processor all the math coprocessor is embedded inside the processor.
Today if you need more processor power the favorite way to get it is using multiprocessing or video
card with dedicate Graphic Processing Units or GPUs.
2.3.3 Clock Speed

A computer executes instructions following a determinate program, these instructions are a
series of steps that the computer must follow. The processor executes these steps triggered by a clock
signal, the clock speed is the frequency in which the processor executes these instructions. The
processor clock rate or speed is measured in millions of cycles per second or megahertz (MHz).
You must take in consideration that no all the processor have the same speed, therefore in
order to execute a instruction the processor may need many clock cycles, for example the processor
8086 needs an average of 12 cycles to execute an instruction whereas the processor Celeron can
execute three or more instruction per cycle.
Therefore, you cannot compare a Pentium 4 running a 1000 MHz with an Atlon running also
a 1000 Mhz. Compare the velocity of different processor is difficult.
The processor speed must always match the motherboard speed, some years ago you needed
set some jumpers in the motherboard in order to set the right speed, now in modern motherboards
you can set the speed via software. Sometimes this software is also used for overclocking.
48
Overclocking: If you need a faster system, the best way to do it is buying a new processor.
However, since buy a new processor is expensive; many computers enthusiasts use a technique called
overclocking. Overclocking a processor means running the processor at a higher clock rate.
When you over clock a processor you have the advantage of gain more speed but you have
some disadvantages as well; the processor becomes hot, the computer can become instable and
sometimes this instability is difficult to diagnose.
If you decide use an overclocked system, you can overclock the processor by yourself or buy
an already overclocked system from a retailer. Nowadays you can overclock a processor using
software, the uses of software let control the processor speed and measure the processor temperature.
 Warning: Over clocking a system could in

most cases void the manufacture warranty.
2.3.4 Data I/O bus

The data bus is used to send and receive data, the processor has internal data bus and external

data bus, before continuing learning about data you must understand the meaning of “bit”
The data inside a computer is stored in bits, a bit is a unit of information a bit has two distinct
states “On” and “Off”, generally these states can be represented by voltage, light intensity or

magnetization. For example, a voltage of 5 volt could represent the state of “on” whereas a voltage of
0 volt could represent the state of “off”. A bit can be “On” or “Off”. If you want know more about
bits you can get more information reading the appendix of this book.
The external data bus is composed by a series of pins or wires. These pins are used to send

and receive data. The data bus width indicates how much data it can handle. For example, a bus with
16 wires can handle 16 bits, the data bus can be of 4, 8, 16, 32 or 64 bits depending of the processor.
The external and internal bus could have different width. Generally, when the people talk
about the data bus they are really talking about the external data bus.

 49
2.3.5 Internal registers
The internal data bus is made of registers. A register is a series of cells where data is stored. For
example if you want add two numbers, you will use three registers; in the first register you store the
firs number, in the second register you store the second number and in the third register you store the
result. All the information inside a computer is stored in binary.
Binary is a numerical system, this system uses only two values “0” and “1”, therefore all the
information like letters and numbers must be translate in binary. For example, the number 2 in one
computer will be translated as 10 and the number 3 as 11. You can read more about numerical system
in the appendix of this book.
The size of the register varies in each processor, in a 16 bits processor the registers have 16
bits and in a 32 bits processor the register have 32 bits. Therefore, a processor could be a 16 bits
processor, a 32 bits processor, etc. Most processors now are 64 bits.
Examples of 32 bits processor are Celeron, Pentium 4, Pentium 4 Xeon, Duron and Atlon.
Examples of 64 bits processor are Intel core i7, core 2 duo, Core 2 quad, Athlon 64 X2 and Phenom
ll.
In order to use the full potential that a 64bits processors offers you must use a 64 bits
operative system such as windows XP 64 bits, windows Vista 64 bits or windows 7 64 bits.
2.3.6 Address bus

In order to access the data the processor must know where the data is stored; the address bus
carries the information representing the location of the memory cell where the data is stored. In the
next table you will see a representation of a 2 bits address bus with a 4 bits data bus.
Address Data
00 1001
01 1110
10 1101
11 0001
2 bits Address bus with 4 bits data bus
50
In the previous table, we saw a representation of a 2 bits address bus, the address has four
possible values from 00 to 11, the address 00 has the data 1001, and the address 10 has the data 1101.
In this example, the address bus has 2 bits and the internal bus has 4 bits, if you want read all the
information at once, you will need a 4 bits external bus with a 4 bits processor.
You can note that all the information is stored in binary for example the data 0001 in binary
represent the number „1‟; the data 1001 represent the number „9‟. Each number, character or letter has
its representation in binary. This is the way computers use for stored information.
2.3.7 Cache memory

Generally the processor speed is faster than the memory speed, therefore in order to keep up
with the speed, the processor uses the cache memory. The cache memory is a high-speed memory buffer which
temporary stored data.
There are generally two types of cache level 1 and level 2.
 Level 1 cache memory holds the data that is more probably to be used. Sometimes
the data stored in cache 1 is not the date the processor needs.
 Level 2 cache is used in the case the level 1 cache fails.

2.3.8 Processor sockets
We already know the motherboard uses sockets in order to connect the processors in the
motherboard. Now we will study the different sockets in detail.
Each family of processors uses a distinct type of socket. We have different types of sockets
such as socket 1, socket 2, socket 3, etc. Others sockets receive the name of slots like slot 1 and slot 2,
super socket 7, slot A, Slot B, socket AM2+, Socket AM3, Socket LS, etc.
 Warning: Never confuse Socket 1 with slot

1 or socket 2 with slot 2; the names are
similar but they are different.
 51
Since the type of sockets determines the processor type and the processor evolves very fast,
they become obsolete very fast. Therefore, in any moment you can only find a bunch of socket
families for a bunch of processors. In this moment, we can find the following processors families:
 AMD: AMD Phenom and AMD Atlon.
 Intel: INTEL Xeon, INTEL Core, INTEL Dual Core, INTEL Core i3, INTEL
Core i5 and Intel Core i7.
The socket determines also the velocity the processor can run. For example, the motherboard
Biostar 945GC-M with Socket 478 can run the processors Intel Core 2 Duo, Pentium 4 and Celeron
up to 800/533 MHZ FSB System Bus; the motherboard Gygabyte G41M-ES2L with socket 775 can
run the processors Intel Core 2 Duo and Intel Core 2 Quad up to 1333/1066/800 MHZ FSB System
Bus.
Therefore, if you want a system with a processor Intel Core 2 Duo, you can use any of the
two motherboards but the second one is a lot faster. One motherboard can accept different types of
processors. However, one processor is made for a specific type of Socket. For example, a processor
Core 2 for socket 478 is different from a processor Core 2 for socket 775.
The socket 775 is the replace of the socket 478, the

775 socket has not holes instead it has pins.
Processors for socket 775 have contacts points

instead of pins.
Socket 775
52
The motherboard and the processor generally remain together for the live of the PC. It is
common upgrade the memory and the hard drive but almost nobody upgrade the processor, this is
because the processor technology change very quickly and the motherboard technology has to keep
the pace. Therefore if you buy a computer today and you want upgrade the processor three years
later, is almost sure you will need upgrade the motherboard also. For this reason a lot of
motherboards are sold in bundle with the processor, this is often a very good deal.
Zero insertion Force: This is the design used in all modern processors. With this deign you
lift a handle in the socket; you set the processor and lock it dropping the handle. You must align the
processor with the socket using the indicator in the motherboard and the notch in the processor.
Indicator key
Handle
Zero insertion force system
53
2.3.9 Heatsinks and processors fans
We cannot talk about processors without talk about heatsinks and processor fans. Since the
processors have million of transistors, one physical phenomenon is the heat inside the processor. In
order to dissipate the heat, all modern processors use heatsinks and fans. The heatsink is a metallic
component that you install above the processor in order to dissipate the heat and avoid the processor
overheating, above the heatsink you must also install a fan.
There are many types of heatsinks and fans. High-end heatsinks use liquid cooler in order to
dissipate the heat, modern fans use software in order to control the fan spin and processor
temperature.
Fan
Heatsink
Fan power cable
The processor is under the

heatsink
Integrated processor heatsink and fan unit
Heatsinks and processors fans
54
Fan bottom view
Fan side view You must apply the thermal compound here
Heatsink Thermal compound
Heatsink bases for different sockets
High end heatsink and processors fan
55
A thermal compound must be applied between the heatsink ant the fan. One important note
is that generally you can buy heatsinks and fans together in one package. New processors sometimes
are sold with their own cooling system.
The cooling system attaches to the base, this base is around the processor socket, and these
bases have different size. The size and shape of the base depend of the processor socket for example
a cooling system for a socket AM2 is different to a cooling system for socket 775.High end system
are sold with interchangeable bases, in this way you can use the same cooling system in many
motherboards. If you are upgrading your motherboard and want to use your old cooling system
sometimes, you will need change the heatsink base first.
The fan is attaching to the hetsink using screws, the heatsink is attached to the processor
socket using brackets, sometimes is a little difficult attach the heatsink to the bracket. The fan must
be powered using the motherboard fan connector. Generally, you can control the fan velocity and
processor temperature using software, this software comes for free when you buy a new
motherboard or a new cooling system.
2.3.10 Installing a new Processor

One of the best ways to improve a computer is upgrading the processor. You can find cheap
processor in the range of $100 and possible those cheap processors are faster than most old system
processors. However, change a computer processor is not an easy decision.
The problem in upgrading a processor is that most of times you will have to upgrade the
motherboard. If you are the owner of an old system and your processor fails, it will be a little bit
difficult to find a new processor for your old motherboard.
The processor and motherboard are the most reliable components inside a PC. I must
confess, in all my years of experience I have seen hundreds of PC components that do not work
anymore such as monitors, HDs, keyboards, mice, modems, etc. Nevertheless, I never have had
problem with processors except with some wrong overclocked systems or processors fan problems.
A modern computer system is designed to last for five years, this means after five years you
must upgrade to a modern system. I still have my 7 years old Dell and I have upgraded the hard drive,
memory, video card, keyboard, mice and monitor but I cannot upgrade the processor because my old
motherboard does not accept modern processors, therefore the next upgrade will be a new
motherboard with a new processor.
The bottom line is that most people buy new processors in order to be installed in new
systems and not because they are changing a processor that does not work anymore. If you are
upgrading an old system or building a new one, I recommend buy a bundle system of motherboard
and processor. These bundles come with a discount and you can avoid compatibility problems.
56
Try to buy the fastest processor you can. In general, expensive processors are better than
cheaper ones. There is no much difference between Intel or AMD processors both have a top line
and a bottom line of processors. Example of economical processor are the Intel Dual Core and the
AMD 64 X2 both under the $100, examples of high end processors are Intel core i7 or the AMD
Phenom II both cost more than $500.
So, which processor is the best? It depend of the use, if you want a system only for surf the
internet and do some word processing, a economical processor will be fine, if you want a computer
for high end gaming or business a most advance processor will be necessary.
Since you probably are buying a motherboard, you must take in consideration others
components like memory and video card. That is the reason that the change of the processor is
considered a major upgrade although the installation of the processor itself is very easy.
If you want install a new processor in a new motherboard, you must follow the next steps:
1. Make sure your motherboard accept the processor you want to install.
2. Make sure you have a heatsink, fan and thermal compound for the processor,
sometimes there are sold together with the processor.
3. Sometimes high end heatsinks have different bases in order to be reused in different
motherboards sockets. If you are reusing your old high end cooling system make sure
you have the right heatsink base for your motherboard socket. You will not have
problems if your heatsink comes with the processor.
4. Discharge your static and never touch the processor pins, handle processor by its

sides.
5. Align the processor with the processor socket. In the socket generally you will see an
arrow or a notch and in the processor itself you will see some missing pins in one
corner.
6. Raise the arm of the processor socket.
7. Carefully set the processor in the socket.
8. Low the arm socket and lock the processor.
9. Put a little bit of thermal compound at the processor top
10. Set the heatsink, remember the heatsink must have the fan attachet with screws.
11. Connect the fan power cable to the motherboard fan connector.
57
12. Once you have the system running and the operative system installed you can run
some software where you can control the fan speed or overclock the processor.
Remember that overclocking is very useful if you are a gamer and need accelerate
your processor performance but if is done incorrectly you can burn the processor.
Processor
Processor socket
Place where heatsink base will be set
Changing the heatsink base
 Advice: Sometimes is a little bit difficult attach

the heatsink to the base. When you finish the
installation try to pull the hatsink in order to be
sure it is attached correctly
Modern motherboards comes with software where you can control many processor
and fan functions one of the most important is controlling the processor speed and
temperature. If you are a beginning, I recommend left the default setting or do not install the
program at all.
Controlling the processor speed and temperature.
58
2.4 Memory
2.4.1 RAM
We already studied a little bit about memory, now we will study memories in more detail. In
this section I will cover the memory know as RAM or Random Access Memory.
Back in the „80s 64 KB to 256KB of RAM was the norm in personal computers, those
memories modules cost hundreds or thousands of dollars, today most equipment uses more than 4
GB of memory which cost in some cases $10 by GB.
 Note: I will explain about GB (Gigabytes),

bits and other units of information in the section
2.5.3 ‘Bits and Bytes’ and in the appendix at
the end of this book.

Memory modules are maybe the PC components that have experience the fastest progress.

Memory density has grown exponentially and memory prices have dropped dramatically. Right now
RAM is so cheap that adding memory to a slow system is a very convenience way to speed up the
computer performance.
One import concept you must understand is that the computer stores the information in the
hard drive. HD are very slow so in order to keep pace with the processor speed, the processor take
the information it needs from the hard drive and copy it temporary to the RAM; therefore the
processor interchange data with the RAM very fast.
The processor uses the data in the RAM memory, this data change in nanoseconds (Every
second the information could change a billion of times). When the computer is off the RAM has not
data at all. When you turn on the computer and begin running the OS and applications, all the data
needed by the processor is stored in the RAM memory. When you turn off the computer again, all
the data in the RAM memory is erased, this means the RAM memory needs power in order to store
the data.
59
2.4.2 Different types of RAM
Now you will learn about the different types of memories. The memory marked is so big and
diverse that it is very difficult try to classify the memory using only one characteristic, therefore I have
made the following classification using the most important features. We must remember that each
memory module share many characteristics, for example a memory module could be a DIMM
PC3200 DDR2 with 800 MHz or it could be a DIMM PC2700 DDR2 with 533 MHz.
We can catalogue the memories in different ways, for example:
 By Category: DIMM (Desktop) or SODIMM (laptops)
 By type: DDR, DDR2, SDRAM, etc
 By standard: PC133, PC2700, PC3200, etc
 By speed: 400 MHz, 533 MHz, 800 MHz, etc
 By size: 1 GB, 2 GB or 4GB.
2.4.3 Memory Category

Right now, there are two categories of memory;
 DIMM that stand for dual in-line memory module, which is used in desktop computers.
 SODIMM that stand for small outline dual in-line memory module, which is used in Laptop
computers.
168 Pins DIMM
DDR2 SODIMM
184 Pins DIMM

DIMM and SODIMM memory modules
60
DIMM: These modules are the replacements of the SIMM modules used in the „90s. DIMM
modules have different number of pins; 172 pins, 184 pins and 240 pins are the most common. All
memory modules have notches in order to avoid setting an incorrect memory module type.
 168 pins DIMM SDRAM
 172 pins DIMM DDR SDRAM
 184 pins DIMM DDR SDRAM
 240 pins DIMM DDR2 SDRAM
 240 pins DIMM DDR3 SDRAM
DDR, DDR2 and DDR3 have different notch positions; therefore you cannot use a DDR3
module in one DDR2 slots.
Some years ago in systems using SIMM, the memory slots were divided in memory banks.
One memory bank was formed by two memory slots. In order to use one bank you must filled each
slot. In other words, you had to order the memories in pairs. Now the systems of banks are not used
anymore. In a modern system, you can set the memory individually in the slot that you want.
DIMM motherboard slot
SODIMM or SO-DIMM: These modules are used in laptops, netbooks, printers and some
small PCs. SODIMM modules also varied in the numbers of pins, they could be:
 100 pins SODIMM DDR
 144 pins SODIMM DDR 2
 200 pins SODIMM DDR 3
61
2.4.4 Memory Types
Another way to classify the memory is by the type of technology it uses.
DRAM: The first DIMM memory used a technology called dynamic random access memory, this
technology used a series of capacitors in order to store the information. Since the voltage of the
capacitor drains in time, this memory has to be refreshed constantly this task slowed down the
processor speed.
SDRAM: In order to resolve the problem with the refreshing time in the DRAM memory, a
new technology called SDRAM or synchronous dynamic random access memory emerged. It used the system
clock for refresh the memory. This type of memory is a lot faster but in order to control the signal it
used six transistors instead of one capacitor, therefore this chip is bigger and expensive.
Rambus RDRAM, RDRAM, or nDRAM: This type of memory uses an advance

technology that allow read the bits in packets at a very high speed.
DDR SDRAM or DDR1: This memory uses the same technology of the SDRAM but it has
an interface for read or write two words of data per clock cycle instead of one. This memory uses
lower voltage than the SDRAM. Examples of DDR are the memories PC-2100 and PC-2700.
DDR2 SDRAM or DDR2: They are similar to the DDR1 but reads or write 4 consecutives
words. Examples of DDR2 are the memories PC2-3200 and PC2-6400.
DDR3 SDRAM or DDR3: They are similar to the DDR1 and DDR2 but reads or write 8
consecutives words. Examples of DDR3 are the memories PC3-3200 and PC3-6400.
Note that the name PC, PC2 and PC3 denotes the type of memory.
62
2.4.5 Memory Standards
Another way of classified the memory is by the bus clock frequency that the motherboard
uses.
DDR: It uses the same bus frequency for data, address and control lines.
 PC 100 = 100 MHz

 PC 133 = 133 MHz
DDR1:
 PC 2100 = 266 MHz data & strobe / 133 MHz clock for address and control
DDR2:
 PC2 8000 = 1000 MHz data & strobe / 500 MHz clock for address and control
DDR3:
PC3 12800 = 1600 MHz data & strobe / 800 MHz clock for address and control


The speed of the address bus in the standards DDR, DDR2 and DDR3 is half the speed of
the data bus.
63
2.4.6 Memory Speed
Memory speed refers to the velocity a processor read or writes the information in the
memory. The definition sound simple but in the practice this definition is more complex.
First, we know that the information is stored in cells, the velocity the processor uses for read
the content of this cell is the data speed, but in order to access this data the processor must read the
address first. We know the address is also stored in a cell, the velocity for handle the address is known
as address speed, these two velocities are different.
Second, the processor uses the data in the L1 cache and L2 cache this cache speed is very
different. The cache speed depends of the processor type whereas the data and address speed depend
of the Motherboard memory slots.
Third, the processor and bus speed is measure in MHz (megahertz) which means millions of
cycles per second but the memory speed is measure in ns (nano seconds or one billionth of a second).
Since it is difficult classified the memory using only their speed, generally when you buy a
memory you look at the standard, for example you could buy a PC 3200 which has a velocity of 400
MHz of data and 200 of address, the PC2 3200 has the same velocity in data and address, but you
cannot interchange them.
When you buy a motherboard, many times the motherboard specified the velocity of the
memory supported instead of the standard supported. Here is an example a typical motherboard
specification:
Memory supported:
 1066 MHz DDR3
 1333 MHz DDR3
 1600 MHz DDR3
The specification does not say but it always uses the data speed. Since they used the data
speed the first memory supported will be a PC3 8500, the second one will be a PC3 10600 and the
third one a PC3 12800, therefore sometimes the manufacturer gives you the memory speed and others
times the memory standard.
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When you know the standard of memory you need such as PC3 8500 or PC3 10600, then
you can go to a retailer and buy the memory module. If you only know the speed you must figured
first what standard of memory do you need.

Warning: Besides knowing the memory speed, you
must know the memory type. For example the PC2
8500 and PC3 8500 have the same speed of 1066
MHz but both are incompatibles. Therefore you must

know if you need a DDR2 (PC2) or DDR3 (PC3).

2.4.7 Memory Size
The most important factor in choose the memory is without doubt the memory size. We
measured the memory in KB in the „80s, MB in the „90s. Today we buy memories in the order of
GB, most desktop system have at least 4 GB of memory. You must buy the biggest memory you can
afford.

Some people get confuse about the memory sizes, for avoid the confusing you must
remember this table.

1 Kilobyte = 1 KB = 1 024 bytes
1 Megabyte= 1 MB = 1 024 Kilobytes = 1024 x 1024 bytes
1 Gigabyte = 1 GB = 1 024 Megabytes = 1024 x 1024 KB = 1024 x 1024 x 1024 bytes
 Memory capacity comparisons

 65
If you check the table, you will realize that a computer with 1024 MB of RAM has the same
capacity of a computer with 1 GB or RAM. Memories modules right know come in the range of 512
MB, 1 GB, 2GB and 8GB. Older system used to have memories in the range of 56 MB, 128 MB and
256 MB.
If for example one computer has 2 GB of RAM, it could have two memories modules of 1
GB each, or could have only one 2GB memory module. You can know the total memory size that a
computer has using Windows or checking the manufacturer web site. Sometimes you will need open
the computer in order to be sure how many memory modules it uses and the size of each one.
 Note: One important thing of remember is do not

mix different memories standards. For example if a
motherboard accept PC3 8500 and PC3 10600,
you must install the PC3 8500 or the PC3 10600
but not both. Remember this when you upgrade or
add memory to any system.
Operative systems generally have a limitation of the memory they support although some
tools for overcome this limitation exist. The following table illustrates the memory limitations.
Operative System Maximum memory it Maximum memory it

supports 32 Bits supports 64 Bits.
Windows XP 4 GB 4 GB
Windows Vista Home basic 4 GB 8 GB
Windows 7 Home basic 4 GB 8 GB
Windows Vista Enterprise 4 GB 128 GB
Windows 7 Professional 4 GB 192 GB
Operative systems memory limitations
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2.4.8 Installing desktop memory
The installation of memory modules is very easy. Since memory modules are cheap, installing
new memory is one of the best ways to upgrade your system. In order to install a new memory you
must follow the next steps:
1. Check the memory capacity in your system, you can do this in windows checking the
computer properties.
Memory capacity
Memory capacity using My Computer properties
2. Unplug the power to the computer.
3. Open the case.
4. Discharge your static and never touch the memory components, hold it by its sides.
5. Open the two clips that are located at each side of the memory modules.
6. Pull the old memory modules.
7. Compare the old memory modules with the new ones; make sure that they have the same
pins numbers and notches position.
8. With the clips opens align the new memory module with the notches, remember the memory
will fix only one way.
9. Press down the memory in position, it will lock itself. Sometimes you will need apply a little
bit of force in order to set the memory right.
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10. Close the case and connect the power back.
11. Check the new memory capacity using My computer properties.
Only touch the sides
Memory clips
Installing a memory module
2.4.9 Installing notebook memory

Installing a laptop memory is very easy, you can follow the same steps of installing a desktop
memory, but you need take in consideration the following notes:
 Besides unplugging the power, you need also

take off the battery.
 The memory is located at the bottom of the

notebook and sometimes they have a second memory
slot under the keyboard.
 Sometimes you need use a small flat

screwdriver in order to open the clips.
 When you install the memory, you must insert

it at 45 degrees angle and then push it down.
Installing a laptop memory

68
SOFTWARE
Section
3
3.5 Working with Windows XP
3.6 Working with Windows Vista
3.7 Working with Windows 7
3.8 Working with Linux Ubunto
69
3.1.1 What is an operative system?
The operative system or OS gives us an interface with the computer hardware. The operative
system allows the communication between the user and the computer. The user controls the
computer using the OS. An operative system must perform many tasks such as:
 Give information to the user
 Receive commands or instructions from the user
 Allocate memory space
 Allow device access and control
 Organize Files and disk space
 Run application commands
 Manage networking devices
 Control the access and security
 Manage interrupt events
 Manage the processor instructions
Because the operative system is in control of the hardware, the user can concentrate in
running applications. For example if you are saving a document using a word processor, you do not
have to worry in how the computer will save your file to the hard drive. You know that if you click
the save button, the operative system will copy your letter to the hard drive. The hard drive could be
ATA or SATA, big or small, fast or slow, the operative system is the one that take in consideration all
these factors. Windows Vista, Windows 7, Linux and Mac OS are example of operative systems.
70
As you can see the operative, system must show the information to the
user. When you use Windows you see a lot of information in the screen
such as menus and icons, you can give commands to the computer using
the mouse or keyboard. The computer will storage the information in files
and copies the files to the hard drive.
In order to do any computation the computer will use the hardware such as
the processor and memory. The computer runs applications in order to
perform tasks. For example if you need write a letter, you must use a word
processor; If you need modify a picture, you must use a photo program.
The OS is the intermediary between the hardware and applications.
Operative system placement
3.1.2 Operative System components

Early computers were single task machines; they followed a set of instruction from a punch
card. Computer evolved very fast and new techniques were added such as interrupts, parallel
processing and libraries. Although at the beginning punch cards were used in order to load libraries
and control input and output, all this function where incorporated later to the operative system.
Operative systems have two main components the shell and the kernel. The whole OS code is
known as the Source. For example, when you install Windows 7 in your computer, you are coping the
Windows 7 source to the hard drive. The source defines how the OS works. If the code is open
source, you can modify it, one example of open source OS is Linux. The source includes the shell and
kerned.

Shell: The shell is the user interface, the shell allow the user, give commands to the
computer. The shell could be a command-in-line shell such as Unix and DOS or a graphical shell
such as Window. Today most shells use a Graphical User Interface or GUI. Most GUIs such as Windows
use a monitor in order to visualize the OS functions and a keyboard or mouse to give the commands.
Command-in-line interface Graphical User Interface
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Kernel: The kernel is the core component in all operative systems. The kernel is in charge of
the communications between the applications and hardware components. The kernel also organizes
the file system.
Kernel
Now we will study a little bit more about the kernel.
Process: The computer task consists in executing process, every mouse click or every
application command is a process. The kernel assigns memory, resources and priorities to every
process.
Multitasking: In systems with one processor, the processor can execute only one instruction
at the time. In order to run many programs at the same time the OS divide the programs in tasks and
assign different slots of time to the different tasks. Therefore, the processor can run many programs at
the same time but it only can run one process at the time.
Suppose that you are playing a video game, surfing the web and printing at the same time.
Because the processor will run only one process at time, it will execute the game instructions, then it
will execute the web instructions and finally it will execute the printer instructions. Because the time
needed for execute each instruction is very fast, it looks as if the computer is executing many
instruction at the same time but it only execute one instruction at the time. Systems with multiple
processors can indeed execute many instructions at the same time.
Interrupts: One of the most important functions of the OS is interrupt process. The OS
must track all the input orders and processor instructions. If one interrupt instruction is received, the
OS must stop the program that is running and run the code associated with the interruption. For
example if one program enter to one infinity loop, the OS must stop the process.
Modes: Most OS have different modes, although the use of modes varied in every OS, most
of them have at least two modes. One mode will control and access everything and another mode that
will limit the access of the recourses.
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File system: The kernel is the responsible for the file system. Most of the times the files are
stored in the disk drive. The kernel needs a file system driver in order to translate the commands and
use the files. Therefore, when you need open, close or delete a file, the kernel is the one that access the
drive and make the changes.
Device drivers: The software cannot interact directly with the hardware. The reason of this is
that all companies make the hardware in different ways: for example, one company can make a mouse
with two buttons and another company a mouse with three or more button. It will be impossible for
every programmer write an application that recognizes all the mice models in the world. Therefore if
you buy a three or four button mouse you will need a driver, the driver will tell the OS what to do if
you use press of the buttons. Since most mice are two buttons mice, all the OS have build in drivers
that will recognize all two-button mice.
All hardware components such as modem, NIC or video cards need drivers. Some hardware
such as mice, keyboards and monitor are so common that generic drivers are build in most OS. One
important thing you must remember is that in order to work the driver must translate the OS
commands to the hardware. Therefore, the driver will be different in every OS, for this reason you
cannot use the same drive for Windows XP and Windows 7. In fact there are driver for different OS
version and for different processor architecture.
In order to repair a computer, you need use the
internet in order to download drivers. The picture
at the left shows the Windows drivers for an
Epson printer 220. You can see how many

versions there are.
Note that 32 bit OS and 64 bit OS use different

drivers, this means a driver made for window 7 64
bits will not work for Windows 7 32 bits.
If you use Mac or Linux, you need download

drivers specifically for Mac or Linux.
Many times the same driver has different versions;

always use the most recent version.
Epson driver downloads
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3.1.3 Family of operative Systems
There are many families of operative systems. It is not the objective o this book give you a
curse about OS, therefore I will focus in the four families of OS that dominate or have dominated the
modern PC industry. The four OS that we will study are:
 MS-DOS
 Windows
 Linux
 Mac OS
3.1.4 MS-DOS
From 1981 to the middle „90s, MS-DOS dominated the desktop environment. In order to
understand the importance of the MS-DOS we must study a little bit of history. In the „60s all
computer were mainframes. Mainframes were huge computers that cost millions of dollars and only
governments and big corporations could buy. At the end of the „70s a new kind of computer was
developed, the microcomputer. Apple did a great job developing a cheap microcomputer for small
business. For the first time in the history, a small enterprise or individual could buy a computer. The
success of the Apple computers was so significant that IBM the bigger computer company of the
time decided enter into the microcomputer maker.
When IBM began to develop its first microcomputer, a bunch of microcomputer companies
were already established, therefore the timing to develop a new microcomputer was critical. IBM
decided use off-the-shelf components in this way they would reduce the develop time. IBM decided
to buy a third company operative system. In this time and small and unknown company called
Microsoft made a deal with IBM to develop a new OS. Microsoft bought and already developed OS
called Quick-and-Dirty Disk Operative System and renamed it as MS-DOS.
The Microsoft-IBM deal was very interesting because Microsoft would kept the MS-DOS
license. In fact the Microsoft deal consist in develop two versions of the OS; PC-DOS for IBM
computers and MS-DOS for others manufacturers. Microsoft would receive a small fee for each copy
sold. MS-DOS and PC-DOS are practically the same OS; there are only some minors difference.
In 1981, the first PC was released; it ran MS-DOS developed by Microsoft. Few years later
thousands of IBM PC and IBM compatibles were sold, each of one with a copy of MS-DOS. MS-
DOS becomes the most popular OS in the world and Microsoft becomes the biggest software
company in the world.
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Although MS-DOS was inferior in comparison to the OS used by mainframes of the times
such as UNIX, the importance of the MS-DOS was that for first time you could buy a
microcomputer with software include. Before MS-DOS all microcomputers were sold in kits without
OS; If you wanted and OS you had to invented one by yourself.
MS-DOS Prompt cmd in Windows XP
Windows replaced the command-in line MS-DOS in the mid „90s. Although MS-DOS is not
use anymore, you can still run MS-DOS commands running cmd.exe in Windows XP, Windows
Vista and Windows 7.

3.1.5 Microsoft Windows
Windows is the family of operative systems developed by Microsoft. The history of
Windows is very interesting. In the late „80s and early „90s MS-DOS become the leading OS.
Although MS-DOS was present in almost all PCs, it still was a command-in–line shell, therefore it
was difficult to use. The solution to make a computer easy to use was implementing a Graphical User
Interface (GUI) instead of command-in-line shell.
The idea of use GUI was not new; In the „70s Xerox
invented the first GUI, it was the Xerox 8010 Star
Information System. The first GUI used a mouse as the
preferred input method.
The first GUI was years ahead of its time. When Xerox
showed the system to IBM, IBM dismissed the idea of
the GUI.
8010 Star Information System 1981
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The GUI was implemented by Apple and then by Microsoft. The first Windows version was
a copy of the GUI used in Apple Lisa and Apple Macintosh. Even though Windows was clearly
inferior in comparison to Macintosh, Windows GUI began to dominate the PC software.
In the early „90s many companies were building PCs, but only Apple build Macs. Thanks of
the competition PCs become cheaper than Macs. PCs began displacing Mac systems very fast, this
fact contribute to the spread of Windows worldwide.
Early version of a GUI using MS-DOS Kernel
Windows was not and operative system for itself, it was a shell for DOS. This means you had
to install DOS and then you run Windows above DOS. Windows was more a file manager
application but improved in every version. Windows 95 was a real OS because it did not need a
previous installation of MS-DOS.
Windows 95 1995
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Today most computers use a version of Windows XP, Windows Vista or Windows 7,
Windows XP share most of the 50% of desktops in the world. Besides the home market, Microsoft
developed many Windows version for the business market such as Windows NT in 1993, Windows
2000 and Windows server 2008.
There are many other Windows systems such as Windows Media Center, Windows Tablet
PC edition and Windows CE for mobile phones. Most Windows OS have many versions, for
example, Windows 7 has the following versions.
 Windows 7 Starter
 Windows 7 Home Basic
 Windows 7 Home Premium
 Windows 7 Professional
 Windows 7 Enterprise
 Windows 7 Ultimate
Windows 7

Most Windows versions have a 32 bits version and a 64 bits version; they also have the
upgrade and the full installation version.
Windows 7 Starter is the simple Windows version and available only for netbooks, many
features such as Windows Aero are not included.
Windows 7 Home Basic is a simple Windows version sold in developing countries such as
Latin America and India.
Windows 7 Home Premium is the most popular version; most retail stores sell computers
with this Windows version.
Windows 7 Professional is the version for small business; this version included remote
desktop and Windows XP mode.
Windows 7 Enterprise is a versions aim to big business. This version is not available
through retail channels; you must buy it through volume licensed only.
Windows 7 Ultimate has the same features of Windows Enterprise. If you have Windows 7
Professional, you can upgrade to Windows 7 ultimate using Windows Anytime Upgrade.
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3.1.6 Linux
Linux is a family of UNIX-like operating systems. Linux is open source OS, this mean it is
free to modify. You can get a free copy of Linux in many web sites. Because Linux is open source,
anybody can modify it or create new components. Some modified Linux version are sold to
enterprises and business but most home versions are free of charge.
Only Microsoft develops Windows and only Apple develops Mac OS but many companies
develop Linux. Red Hat develops „Red Hat Linux‟, Canonial develops „Ubuntu Linux‟ and Novell
develops „Suse Linux‟. Therefore, Red Hat, Suse and Ubunto are Linux OS from different companies.
Linux Ubuntu
The name Linux comes from its creator name Linus Torvalds. Linux popularity has
increased in the last years. Many netbooks, notebooks and desktops have Linux instead of Windows.
Many PC manufacturers offer Linux as an option. Servers, web servers and supercomputers use
Linux as its main operative system.
The main benefit of Linux is its reliability in comparison to Windows. The fact that most
desktop Linux versions are free is a great advance although many businesses prefer a paid business
version with extras and technical support such as SUSE Enterprise Linux. Many devices such as
Phones, PDAs and video game consoles use Linux as OS.
The major drawback in Linux system is that many applications such as video games do not
have Linux versions. One solution for this problem is the use of emulators such as Wine. With Wine
you can run many Windows programs in Linux. In the past, there was a lack of drivers for Linux, but
today most manufacturers release Linux drivers for most devices.
As a say before, there are many Linux versions. These are the web sites of two free Linux
versions. You can download the DVD for free and install a copy of Linux in your PC. If you want,
you can have Windows and Linux installed in your computer at the same time.
 Open Suse Linux http://www.opensuse.org/en/
 Ubuntu Linux http://www.ubuntu.com/
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3.1.7 Apple Mac OS
Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak founded Apple computers in the „70s. In the beginning, Apple
was a small company. The key of their success and later downfall was that they build both the
hardware and software without licensing their technology. In the early „80s Steve Jobs visited Xerox
labs and saw the first GUI and He immediately realize that the graphical interface was the future.
In 1984, Apple released its Macintosh computer, Macintosh computers or Macs were very
advanced but expensive. In the times that most people use DOS, Macintosh users have graphical user
interfaces before Windows ever existed.
Mac OS 1984
The advent of Windows and the fall of PCs prices brought many problems for Apple.
Nevertheless, Apple continued develops its Mac OS. Mac OS is more reliable and safe that Windows.
Today Mac OS X is the last version and for many it is the best Operative System in the world. Apple

also produces the iOS, which is a Mac OS X version for the iPhone and iPad.
Mac OS X Snow leopard
79
3.1.8 Choosing an Operative System
With so many OS sometimes is difficult to choose the right one. You must understand that
there is not a right OS for everybody. Everyone has different needs therefore one OS could be ideal
for one person and a bad choice for another person. Choosing an OS is just as important as choosing
the right hardware.
For business, one of the best choices is Linux, if you have a server or web server I definitive
would choose Linux. Linux is more robust and cheaper that Windows. If you are a computer expert
or geek Linux is the best option. Linux is reliable, affordable and you can customize it very well.
Sometimes beginners have problems with Linux because many hardware and software are not Linux
compatible. With Linux the user must find the right drivers and software updates, even though you
can find most drivers and updates in the internet for some people this task is difficult.
If you are beginning with computers and want something easy to use, MAC OS would be the
best option, but remember a Mac system cost the double than a Window system. Mac is user friendly
and reliable but very expensive. Some industries such as journalism, photography and science use
mostly Mac computers therefore in such industries the operative system to choice will be Mac OS.
If you are a beginning but you cannot afford a Mac, Window will be your option. If you play
videogames you will have to use Windows because most games have only Windows although lately
many manufacturer release games for Mac. I use Windows mainly for video games, but for other
applications, I prefer Mac OS and Linux.
If you are thinking in upgrade your OS, you must also thing about the hardware and software
you already have. For example if you have Windows XP and want upgrade to Windows 7, you must
be aware that some of your hardware such as web cams, printers and some programs may not work
under Windows 7. It is common that someone upgrades to a „better‟ OS but then he realizes that his
hardware and application do not work with their new OS.
If you are using Windows, I recommend try Linux, Linux is free, reliable and you can get
many free applications. You can install Linux inside Windows. If you want removed it later, you can
do it very easy.
Really, you do not have to choose between many operative systems. You can have different
OS in different computer or install several OS in the same computer. I personally prefer have two or
more OS in the same Machine. For me have a multiple operative systems is the best solution because
you can use the best of each OS and you can have applications for multiple platforms. We are going
to study how to install multiple operative systems in one machine in the section 3.4 ‘Installing Multiple
Operative Systems’.
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3.2.1 Preparing the hard drive
Today install an operative system is very easy, but you must be carefully if you have important
information in your computer. I always recommend backing up your information before doing any
big change in your computer. Installing an OS is definite a big change.
In this chapter I will not talk about a particular OS, I will talk about OS in general. The idea is
give you knowledge that you can apply in any installation, it does not matter if you are installing
Windows Vista, Windows 7 or Linux.
First, you must know exactly what do you want? May be you want reinstall the operative
system, or maybe you want an upgrade or perhaps you want install and extra OS in your computer.
Second, any OS has its own hardware prerequisites such as processor speed, memory size and
hard drive Size. One of the most common errors people make is try to install an advance OS in an
old machine. For example, you cannot install Windows Vista in a 10 years old machine. Some systems
cannot handle some OS; for example, you cannot install Windows 7 professional in a netbook. In
fact, I do not recommend upgrading OS in netbooks.
Finally, if you have a lot of applications and hardware that run a specific OS, sometimes it is
not worth make the transition to a different OS.
We are going to study the steps for install a new OS in your computer. Note that we are not

talking about upgrade, neither install two OS at the same machine. In this chapter, we are assuming
that maybe you bought a new hard drive and you are doing a full clean installation. As reference, you
can read the section 2.5.6 „Formatting Hard Drives’.
These are the steps for install a new operative system.
 Back up your information.
 If you are installing a new hard drive, install the new hard drive first.
 If your hard drive is big or if you will install more than one OS you must considerer make
partitions. Remember that partitioning means assign part of the driver for a specific use. For
example, if you have a 500 GB HD you can leave 100 GB for applications and 400 GB for
data. You can do the partitions with a hard drive utility or with the same OS installation disc. I
prefer disc utilities because you have more options.
81
 Windows Vista and Windows 7 have a disc utility tool; this utility can create partitions and
resize partitions after you install Windows in your system. In the case of Windows XP you
must create the partitions before installing the OS.
 Tip: If you do not have a disc utility, you can download

one from your hard drive manufacturer. You can also
format and make partitions if you have a standalone copy
of the operative system such as Windows. However, in most

Windows restore CD you cannot make new partitions, this
is the reason I recommend do the partition with a hard
drive utility before installing the OS.
 You must consider the type of format your OS needs; For example, Windows use the
NTFS. If you are installing Linux sometimes is better format the HD using the Linux
installation DVD.
 After you have finish setting the hard drive and you have the partitions, you can
proceed to install the OS following the installation instructions.
3.2.2 Installing Windows XP

The installation of Windows XP is very easy. Here are the steps that you must follow in order
to perform a clean installation:
1. Back up all your information.
2. Turn on your PC.
3. Using the Bios, make sure the CD is the first boot device.
82
4. Insert the Windows XP installation disc.
5. Reset the computer
6. Press any key from boot from the CD
7. Read the license and Press F8 if you agree
8. If you already have a copy of Windows XP, you have the option of repair it, for a fresh install
press Esc.
9. In this moment, you can install Windows using the existing partition, create partition or delete

partitions.
10. You can create many partitions at different sizes.
11. Now Windows will format the hard drive using the NTFS file system.
12. You need format all the new partitions.
83
13. Windows begins to copy files to the hard drive then the computer will reboot itself.
14. The installation will take approximately 40 minutes
15. Set the region and languages options.
84
16. Type your name and organization; you can change your name later. Remember to turn on the
“Num lock” in your keyboard if you want type numbers.
17. Type the computer name and administrator password. If only you use the computer, you can
leave the space in blank. In this case the computer will not ask for passwords anymore; You
can set or change the password later.
18. Set the date and time, remember set the time zone also and leave the check in automatic
adjust clock.
85
19. Leave the network setting as typical.
20. Write the computer domain. Remember that you can change the domain later.
21. The computer will restart then Windows will adjust the monitor resolution.
22. If the resolution is good pres ok, then press next when you see the welcome screen.
86
23.
24. Turn on automatic updates.
25. Windows will check the Internet connection. In order to have internet you must install the

network card drivers first. We are going to configure the Internet in the section 4.3 ‘Network
and Interned configuration’. If you want, you can skip this section for this moment.
87
26. If you have internet you can register with Microsoft now or you can register later.
27. Write the name of the people that will use the computer.
28. You just finish installing Windows XP. The computer will restart and you will see the
Windows desktop.
29. Sometimes you need reenter your Windows XP product activation key.

88
N E TW OR KI NG Section
4
4.1 Computer Networks
4.2 Wired Networks
4.3 Wireless Networks
4.4 The Internet
89
4.1 Computer Networks
4.1.1 What is a Computer Network?
This section is about networking, first we will study the installation and hardware components
in a typical computer network then we will cover the configuration and software components, finally
we will study the Internet and some Internet application such as social networks, video on demand
and Internet security.
Because networking is a changing area, I have decided give a small introduction about
computers networks, I will talk a little bit about networks architecture, topologies and protocols. In
order to make this chapter easy for people that never have worked with computers networks, I have
omitted some topics such as the OSI model and I have made the definitions short an easy. Computer
networks are a big subject, therefore I will try to focus in home networking and Internet.
A computer network is a group of two or more computers linked together in order to communicate and sharing
resources. The idea of computer networks is not new. It was in the 70‟s when commercial computers
were introduced, they had small hard drives, and therefore they needed external tape storage. Each
computer had an external storage unit and printer. One department cannot access the information of
another department. In order to low costs and boost productivity computer networks were
implemented.
In a network computer, each computer can share theirs recourses. For example, you do not
need attach one printer to each computer, instead you can attach the printer to one computer, then
any computer of the network can print to this printer. Many resources can be shared such as:
 Printers
 Hard drives
 Optical drives
 Files
 Internet connections
 etc
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4.1.2 Types of Computer Networks
There are many types of computer networks and many ways to identified them. A network
can be classified by scale, architecture or topology however the scale classification is the most proper.
Scale varied according of the size and use of the network. Here is a list of computer types by scale:
 Personal area network or PAN: PAN is a computer network for devices that are
very close, generally a few meters or feet. A typical PAN network consists of one
cellphone connected to one PC using Bluetooth. A PAN could include peripheral like
printers or cameras; the favorite connection method is Bluetooth although USB
cables are also used.
 Local area network or LAN: LAN is the network used in offices and consists in a
group of computers linked together inside a single office or building. They generally
are structured networks using Ethernet connections.
 Home Area network or HAN: HAN are a low scale and cheaper LAN used in
home. Although HAN and LAN have much in common, HAN networks used only
few components and one of the most important functions is sharing the internet
access.
 Metropolitan area network or MAN: MAN are large computer networks that span
many buildings, they can cover one whole university campus or corporate
headquarters. Generally the MAN consist in many LAN linked together. There are
many technologies in use to connect these networks such as fiber optic, microwave,
radio or infrared. The size of MAN networks are between LAN and WAN.

 Wide area networks or WAN: WAN are very large computers networks that span
cities, countries or continents. WAN are used for big organization and government,
generally they consist in many MAN linked together. They used high-speed
communication devices such as fiber optic and satellite.
 The Internet or World Wide Web or WWW: The internet is the biggest computer
network in the world. The WWW consist in many individual computers, cellphones,
LAN, MAN and WAN linked together. They use the Internet Protocol or IP in
order to differentiate each computer.
 Intranet: Intranet are very similar to the Internet, they use the same web browsers
and protocols but they belong to private companies or government, all the
information is located in the company server and the organization decides what
information is made public. One typical example is the law enforcement
departments; police officers can check information using any web browser, but only
police officers can access the information. Intranet is like a private Internet.
91
 Extranet: They are very similar to the Intranet, all the information is private and
belongs to the organization but they made a portion available to customers, suppliers
and partners. For example if you want buy a new car, the dealer can contact the
manufacturer to order a specific car from the factory, the car manufacturer allows the
dealer to put the order using the Internet, but they do not allow individuals to contact
the manufacturer directly. Extranet is like a semi-private Internet.
 Virtual Private Network or VPN: VPN is a network that use open public
networking infrastructure such as the Internet to provide access to the organization
network. One example is when one person accesses his office computer from their
home using the Internet. The VPN can be considered an extension of the private
office using external communications channels.
4.1.3 Network architecture

Computers networks may be classified by architecture, architecture is the relationship of the
elements based in communication patterns, two types of network architecture exist:
Client-Server: The client server model is one of the most used

network architectures, it consist in servers and clients. The server run
many programs and share resources such as files and printers. The
client computer request a service like access a file or print, the server
listens and process the request. If you have many computers in your
home a client server architecture is very practical. You can configure a
PC as a server, then the PC will share files as music and videos and
share printers, finally you can retrieve the information using other
computers, which become the clients or workstations. A client–server
model is essential in small business with more than 10 computers.
One example of Client Server architecture is networking using
Windows Server 2008.
Peer-to-peer or P2P: The P2P model distributes all the information

among the entire network peers, there is not server. The peers are the
computers and they are both the suppliers and consumers. P2P is
popular in file sharing applications such as e-Mule. Another example
or P2P is the Bluetooth network and home networking using
Windows Vista and Windows 7.
92
4.1.4 Network Topologies
Topology refers to the way the network is lay out, or the way they are arranged. The
arrangement is logical and not physical. We will study the most used topologies.
Bus: In the bus topology, one cable connects all the

computers. Generally, coaxial cables are used, old Ethernet
networks used this topology.
Star: In the start topology, all Computers are connected to a
central Switch or hub. Twister pair cables are used; most home
networks, structured networks and wireless networks use this
topology.

Ring: In the ring topology, the computers or nodes are
connected forming a ring. This model is foun in WAN
networks.
Mesh: In the mesh topology each node is connected to every

other node. This model is no used very often in LAN
networks, but is found in WAN networks. Bluetooth
networks are another example of mesh topology
93
4.1.5 Network Protocols
A protocol is a set of formal rules describing how to transmit data, a protocol define the
syntax for signaling, authentication and error correction. There are many protocols such as:
 Internet Protocol or IP: IP is used widely for Internet connections; each computer
in the network must have a different IP address.
 Transmission Control Protocol TCP: TCP complement the IP protocol, TCP

control the communication between web servers and web browsers.
 POST Office Protocol or POP: POP is used for retrieve e-mail from servers over
TCPO/IP connections, POP is used in some email programs such as Outlook and
for receive email directly in cellular phones.
 Hypertext Transfer Protocol or HTTP: HTTP is use in web browser for retrieve
information from HTML pages.
 File transfer Protocol of FTP: FTP copies files from the internet.
4.1.6 Network standards
The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) have defined many standards for
networks, these standard are covered by the IEEE 802 specifications:
 IEEE 802.1 Internetworking
 IEEE 802.3 CSMA/CD LAN Ethernet
 IEEE 802.5 Token Ring LAN
 IEEE 802.6 Metropolitan Area Network
 IEEE 802.9 Integrated Voice/Data Networks
 IEEE 802.11 Wireless Networks
 IEEE 802.15.1-2005 Bluetooth
94
For homeowners or small business owners the most important standards are the 802.3 that
define the Ethernet (wired networks) and the 802.11 that define the wireless networks.
IEEE 802.3 CSMA/CD LAN or Ethernet networks: The original 802.3 was called
Ethernet 10Base 5 and was used for home wired networks and small business networks, it consisted in a
bus topology networks using coaxial cables. Today we use Ethernet 10BaseT and it consist in a
physical star topology using twisted-pair cabling.
Ethernet is the most use wired network in the word. Almost all homes and businesses
network use this protocol. Some new fast Ethernet standards are used in enterprises, datacenters and
communications such as the Fast Ethernet or 100Base-TX and the Gigabit Ethernet or 100Base-T these
networks use mostly fiber optic cables.
Ethernet signals cannot travel more than four repeaters or hubs and the maximum distance is
100 m or 328 ft, for bigger distances you must use a repeater.
IEEE 802.11 Wireless Local Area Network or Wireless Ethernet Standard or WLAN
or Wi-Fi: The 802.11 or Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) is the standard for wireless Ethernet. Wi-Fi 802.11b
and 802.11g use the 2.4 GHz spectrum, this spectrum is the same of wireless phones, microwaves
and Bluetooth devices. Wi-Fi 802.11n uses the 5 GHz and 2.4 GHz spectrum.
Although wireless networks are very popular generally there are slower than wired networks.
The wireless Ethernet signals are translate to wired Ethernet signals and vice versa, therefore a
wireless network is an Ethernet network without wires. The 802.11 is really a family of standards that
includes the 802.11b, 802.11g and 802.11n. A new wireless network is the Bluetooth network.
IEEE 802.11b was the first widely accepted wireless standard although is obsolete now. The

802.11b networks reach a speed of 54 Mbps using the 2.4 GHz band.
IEEE 802.11g is the most popular wireless protocol now, almost all wireless routers and
notebook computer use the 802.11g wireless protocol. The 802.11g networks reach a speed of 54
Mbps using the 2.4 GHz band.
IEEE 802.11n is the successor of the 802.11g, most new wireless adapters are 802.11n
although 802.11g devices are still popular because of their lower prices. The 802.11n networks reach a
speed of 600 Mbps using the 5 GHz band but they can use the 2.4 GHz as a backward compatibility.
Most 802.11 devices have backward compatibility; this means you can connect to a wireless
802.11n router using a notebook with an 802.11 g wireless card. Wireless devices are known as A, B,
G or N, this means if you need a wireless IEEE 802.11n router you only need say that you need a
“N” router. Today you can buy only “G” and “N” Wi-Fi devices.
Bluetooth protocols are defined by the trade organization Bluetooth SIG. Bluetooth is a
wireless personal area network (WPAN). Bluetooth use the mesh configuration and P2P architecture.
Bluetooth is present in many devices such as phones, video games consoles, printers, headset, etc. A
master Bluetooth device can communicate with up seven devices in a wireless user group.
95
4.2 Wired Networks
4.2.1 Wired Networks Components
Computers network have many components such as:
 Network interface cards (NICs)
 Cables
 Connectors
 Routers
 Hubs
We are going to study all the components in detail.
4.2.2 Network Interface Card (NIC)

NICs are the network interface adapters; these adapters are Ethernet PCI or Ethernet PCIe
expansion cards although most computers have networks cards build in the motherboard. You can
buy NICs from less than $50 to hundreds of dollars; the expensive ones are indented for servers and
not for home computers. Most NICs have only one RJ-45 port but some have two ports. PCMCIA
network cards are available for old notebooks although today USB network cards are becoming
popular because of the easy set up.
The procedure of installing a PCI or PCIe network card is

similar to install any other expansion card. Is very probably that
you already have a build-in NIC installed in your computer;
nevertheless you can installed a new NIC in any computer. You
can have many NICs installed in your system, this means you do
not need disable the build in network adapter if you are installing
a new NIC card.
PCIe network card
96
PCMCIA network card USB network card
Do not confuse a network card with a modem, the modem generally have a RJ-33 connector
whereas the network card have a RJ-45 connector. Although similar, the RJ-45 is bigger and usually
has one pair of LEDs. Many NICs have also modem integrate; this means you could have RJ-45 and
RJ-33 connectors at the same card.
If you want to install a new NIC these are the procedures you must follow:

1. Be carefully you have the right card, remember you can get PCI or PCIe cards.
2. Read the network card instructions.
3. You do not need disable the build in network card from your motherboard.
4. Shut down the computer and unplug the system unit.
5. Remove the chassis cover
6. Ground your body and discharge your static.
7. Knock out or unscrew the slot cover in order to attach your new card to the case.
8. Set your new network card, some cards have external connectors such as RJ-11, USB or a
secondary Rj-45 jack.
97
Some network cards come with USB and others connectors
9. Put the chassis cover back and reconnect your accessories.
10. Turn on your computer.
11. Windows will recognize many networks cards immediately. If your card is not recognized use
the CD that come whit the NIC, you can also obtain most drivers from the manufacturer
web site.
12. If you are having problems with your old NIC, that means that you probably does not have
internet in that computer. In this case, you can get the driver from another computer with
internet connection.
13. NIC cards generally do not have software or applications, the only software that you need is
the driver.
14. If you are adding your computer to your home network, you must set the computer
description, full computer name and workgroup. Try to use meaning names and have only
one workgroup for your home network.
98
System properties
15. You must install the driver then reset the computer.

16. If you have a working internet and network connection, you can plug a network cable and
your computer should be connected to the network.
17. Sometimes after you connect the computer to the network for the first time, you could have
some problems with the IP address. In most cases the solution is simple restart the computer
again.
18. You must configure your network for example share files, share printers, set permits, set
passwords, etc. We are going to study more about network configuration in the section 4.2.13
‘Home Wired Networks Configuration’.
19. Finally, install or configure antivirus, firewalls, spywares, etc.
99
4.2.3 Cables
For many decades cables have been used to connect computers. Even so wireless network
are very popular, the preferred method of interconnect computers is using cables, here is a list of the
most popular cabling technologies.
Coaxial cable: The original Ethernet network used coaxial cables with BNC connectors,
BNC was used until the mid 90‟s and is obsolete now.
Coaxial Cable
Network card with BNC connector BNC connectors
100
Twister Pair cables: After the initial use of coaxial cables, the computer industry wanted a
better cabling system for use in computer networks. Telephone twisted cables have been used for
more than one hundred years. Alexander Graham Bell used twisted cables in 1881. Because the twister
pair technology was well know, it was borrowed for being implemented in computers networks.
The twister pair technology consists in twist one pair of wires in order to cancel the
Electromagnetic Interference or EMI. At the beginning shielded cables were made, shielding cables have a
metal shield surrounded the wires and ground single wires. The use of shielded of cables had some
problem therefore Unshielded Twisted Pair or UTP are used today. UTP for computer networks have
four pairs of cables and there are divided in many categories.
Unshielded Twisted Pair Shielded Twisted Pair

Twister pair cables have many categories such as Cat 5 or Cat 6, they look identical but the
specifications are very different, you can buy the cables in rolls or in sections. If the cable is short for
example 2 feet or 60 cm the cables is called patch cord, and a very short cable is called pigtail. The cable
is bidirectional this means you can connect any end to the computer and any end to the router.
Patch cord Cat 5 UTP roll
101
Category 3 cable or Cat- 3: Cat-3 is an Unshielded Twisted Pair cable and was one of the
most popular cables for computer networks in the early 90‟s. It is not use anymore in computer but is
still in use in telephone systems. Cat-3 can transmit data at speeds up to 10 Mbps.
Category 5 cable or Cat-5: Cat -5 is an Unshielded Twisted Pair cable and it has been in use
since the 90‟s. Cat-5 was very popular one decade ago but today Cat-5E and Cat 6 are more used.
Cat-5 can transmit data at speeds up to 100 Mbps. The maximum length is 100 meters or 328 feet
Category 5e cable or Cat-5E: Cat -5e is a better version of the CAT-5, in fact most cables
sold today are Cat-5E. Cat-5E can transmit data at speeds up to 1 Gbps. The maximum length is 100
meters or 328 feet
Category 6 cable or Cat-6: Cat-6 is an Unshielded Twisted Pair and is the cable standard for
Gigabit Ethernet, it has better performance than the Cat-5e and its use have increased recently. Cat-6
is use for high-speed telecommunication between servers and terminals but you really will not note
much change in Internet speed unless you use fiber optic. In this moment, Cat-5 or Cat-6 cables are
fine for home and small business. In theory, Cat-6 can transmit data at speeds up to 10 Gbps. The
maximum length is 100 meters or 328 feet.
Category 7 cable or Cat-7: Cat-7 is the most recent development in twister pair technology.
One big difference with former cables is that it use shielding for individual wire pairs. This cable
category is for 10 gigabit Ethernet but almost nobody use it today. In theory Cat-7 can transmit data
at speeds up to 100 Gbps. The maximum length is 100 meters or 328 feet but the velocity and length
of operation are still in study.
Cat-7 Shielded Twisted Pair
102
Fiber optic: Although fiber optic is not very used in home or small business, I will talk a little
about it. Fiber optic is mainly use for long distant communications. Fiber optic is immune to
electromagnetic field and because they use light and not electricity there are not danger of high
voltages.
Fiber optic cable
Fiber optic connectors

Fiber optic network card
4.2.4 Connectors
Since RJ-45 connectors are use in most Ethernet networks, I will teach you how to work with
them and how make your own connections. First, let me talk about the RJ-45 connector.
RJ-45 is the standard connector for network applications; it is the connector for all
networking twisted pair cables such as Cat-5, Cat-5E and Cat-6. The RJ-45 is similar to the RJ-11
telephone Jack but the RJ-45 is bigger. The RJ-45 connectors have 8 pins, you can buy prebuilt
cables, but it is cheaper to build your own cables.
103
RJ-45 connectors
Patch cord with no snag RJ-45
If you can afford try to use no-snag connectors, they are a little bit most expensive, but the
quality is better, last longer and they do not sang in other cables when you are installing them.
In business applications sometimes you need connect terminals or printers to a Ethernet

network, older terminals and printers did not have RJ-45 jacks therefore you must use serial cards in
order to make the connections.
Serial card for work station Printer Network card
104
You can make your own Ethernet-to-Serial conections usign special conectors or buying
adpters. Most printers and terminals today have build in Ethernet ports or accept Ethernet network
cards. Some recent technologies are printers with Bluetooth adapters and Wi-Fi adapteres,
nevertheless most printer today uses USB or Ethernet.
Serial port can be connected to Ethernet Networks Modern Ethernet Printer Card
You can continue reading the rest of the book in the printed
edition of this book.
105
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Level: Beginners to intermediate.

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Cesar A Balladares holds a bachelor‟s degree in Electronic

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Warning and Disclaimer

7 Your New Computer

9 Photographs and Illustrations credits

1.2 Brief history of computers

1.3 Working with Computers

1.4 Hardware and Software

2.5 Hard Drives

2.6 Optical Drives

2.8 Input devices

2.11 Sound Cards

2.12.1 What is a compute case?

2.14 Flash memories

2.15 MP3 Players

3.1 Operative Systems

3.2 Installing Windows

3.4 Software Applications

3.5 Working with Windows XP

3.6 Working with Windows Vista

3.7 Working with Windows 7

3.9 Installing Multiple Operative Systems

4.1 Computer networks

4.2 Wired Networks

4.4 The Internet

5.1 Computer Tune-Up

5.2 Cleaning PC components

5.4 Antivirus and Security

6.1 The art of Troubleshooting

6.2 My Computer does not start

6.4 Performance Problems

6.5 Troubleshooting Hardware components

6.6 Problems with networks and Internet

7.1 Buy a new computer or build one?

7.2 Buying a new computer

7.3 Building your own computer

7.4 For new PC owners

8.1 Bit and Bytes ...................................................................................... 601

Photographs and Illustrations credits.............................. 607

Index ...................................................................................................... 615

1.2 Brief history of computers

1.3 Working with computers

1.4 Hardware and Software

COMPUTER REPAIR FOR PC OWNERS

Do not forget register your copy of this book at

1.1.3 Different types of computers

 Operative Systems: Windows, Mac or Linux

 Processor: Intel or AMD

 Size: Desktop, laptop or netbook

1.2.2 Mechanical Computers

Babbage Difference Machine Analytical Engine

ENIAC first general purpose electronic computer build in 1946