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Goff Le Z.

Tsivilizatsija of the medieval West


TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART THE SECOND. THE MEDIEVAL CIVILIZATION
The chapter V. Genesis

In the history of civilisations, as well as in a human life, the childhood has crucial importance. It in
many respects if not in everything, predetermines the future. In the childhood of a medieval
civilisation, in V—IX centuries, have arisen system of thinking and feature of sensual perception of the
world, the problems and themes of culture which in the future formed and filled with the maintenance
of structure of medieval mentality and чувствования.
But first of all it has predetermined character of interaction of these structures. After all well-known
that in each civilisation there are the different layers of culture differing depending on the social or
historical origin, and that their combinations, interference and merge conduct to synthesis of new
structures.
All it was especially strongly felt in the Early Middle Ages
In the West. And the relations established between the pagan inheritance and Christianity were the
most obvious new line of culture if to admit, though it and is far from true that that and another formed
something interconnected, representing uniform culture. But at least at level of the literate where high
enough uniformity of sights has been reached, it would be possible to present relations of these two
beginnings as partnership. And can be, as rivalry.
Dispute, the conflict between pagan culture and spirit of Christianity has passed through all
раннехристианскую, the medieval literature and, at last, through many works of the latest historians
devoted to a medieval civilisation. These two systems of thought and two perceptions really resisted
each other as Marxist and bourgeois ideologies now resist. The pagan literature as a whole created a
difficult problem though in V century it basically has been planned for the Christian Middle Ages. But
up to XIV century co-existed two extreme approaches; prohibition to use and even to read ancient
authors and the permission widely to resort to them in what did not see gre -
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ха. The historical conjuncture favoured alternately that to one, to another. Essentially the relation to
this problem has been defined by fathers of church and perfectly expressed by St. Avgustinom who has
declared that Christians should use ancient culture in the same way as Jews used in due time the
extraction grasped at Egyptians.« If pagan philosophers, especially платоники, have casually dropped
the trues useful to our belief not only it is not necessary to be careful of these trues, but it is necessary
to take away them from illegal owners and to use on advantage to us ». So, there are Israelis have
brought from Egypt the gold there gold both silver vases and other values and from them have built
then скинию. This program stated in the composition« About the Christian doctrine »and become in
the Middle Ages a culture platitude, has opened a way to variety of loans from the Greek-Roman
culture. In the Middle Ages quite often people very strictly kept letters of it августиновского the text
and used only separate elements or materials, as for example stones from the destroyed ancient
temples, but sometimes took the whole pieces as columns for cathedrals, and happened also the whole
temples as the Pantheon in Rome, VII century which have turned in the beginning in Christian church
by small alterations and an easy camouflage.
It is very difficult to estimate, in what measure intellectual toolkit of antiquity (the dictionary, concepts,
methods) has passed in the Middle Ages. Degree of its perception, transformation, distortion varies
from one author to another, and is frequent even the same author fluctuates between two poles of
medieval culture - fear before the pagan literature, flight from it and passionate admiration of it,
attracting wide loans. Still St. Ieronim has set an example of such fluctuations. Plentifully quoting, as
always, antique authors with whom has been obliged by the formation not less, than Bibles, he has
heard once in the sleep as the Lord has appealed to it and has strictly told:« Цицеронианство it,
instead of Christianity ». Алкуину there was a same vision concerning Vergil. Иероним Avgustin has
stopped on the compromise, as well as: Christian authors arrive with pagan like Jews in the book of
Deuteronomy which to the captives shaved heads, cut nails, got up them in a new dress, and then took
as wife.
In practice medieval clergymen had many ways to use pagan authors so to satisfy the interest with
small costs. So, in Kljuni the monk who in library undertook reading of the manuscript of the antique
author, should scratch a finger behind an ear like a dog, «for incorrect by right it is possible to compare
to this animal».
It is necessary to tell that this compromise preserved some continuity of antique tradition, but it was
repeatedly broken in favour of last when the intellectual elite felt requirement for return to ancient
sources. So occurred revival by which all Middle Ages, in каролингскую an epoch, in XII century,
and, at last, during an epoch of the great Renaissance are noted.
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It is especially important to notice that the double requirement раннесредневековых authors and in
use of the irreplaceable spiritual inheritance of the Greek-Roman world, and in its meltdown in a
Christianity hearth favoured to annoying intellectual receptions: this regular distortion of thought of
ancient authors, constant anachronisms, wrest of citations from a context. The antique thought has
survived in the Middle Ages only in the condition torn apart, deformed and humiliated with
Christianity. Compelled to resort to services of the поверженного the enemy, the Christianity has
considered necessary to take away from the captive memory and has forced it to work on itself, having
forgotten about the traditions. But thereby it and itself has appeared involved in this extratemporariness
of thought. After all trues can be only eternal. St. Foma Akvinsky in XIII century has told that that the
author wished to tell a little means, that he has told and that can be used is important. Thanks to idea of
"transfer" (translatio) Rome as though left Rome, and great medieval mixture of all and all began. But
this synthesis was a condition of occurrence new мироустройства.
The classical antiquity tending to decline has facilitated work of Christian scientific first centuries of
the Middle Ages. The matter is that the Middle Ages have learnt only that of an ancient art that it has
received from Late empire which has so processed, has simplified and has spread out the Greek-Roman
literature, thought and art that варваризированному to the Early Middle Ages
It was easy to acquire them.
Scientists of the Early Middle Ages have borrowed an education program not at Tsitserona or
Kvintiliana, and at Carthago ритора Martsiana of the Chapel who in the beginning of V century has
defined seven free arts in a poem «Wedding of Merkurija and Philology». They searched knowledge of
geography not at Plinija or Strabona who, however, were already below Ptolemeja, and at the mediocre
compiler of III century, a century of the beginning of decline, Juliana Solina which has transferred to
the Middle Ages a picture of the world occupied by miracles, monsters and stars of the East. The
imagination and art from it, the truth, have won, but the science incurred losses. The medieval zoology
was zoology of "Physiologist", the Alexandria composition of II century translated on Latin in V
century where the science is dissolved in poetry басенного style and in morals. Animals here are
transformed into symbols. And the Middle Ages have taken from this a material for the bestiaries so
also zoological knowledge of an epoch have appeared on the verge of ignorance. These
позднеантичные риторы and compilers have learnt medieval people to manage remains of
knowledge. Dictionaries, mnemonic rhymes, etymologies (false), флорилегии — here that primitive
intellectual material which the Late empire bequeathed to the Middle Ages. It was the culture of the
citations, the selected places and дигест.
And unless not the same has occurred and to a Christian part of culture? The Christian doctrine-it first
of all and in esence
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The Scriptus. It was a basis of all medieval culture. But between the text and the reader there was a
double screen.
The text was considered very difficult, moreover, so rich and executed secrets that required
interpretation of several levels depending on prisoners in it of senses. From here the whole series of
approaches, comments and glosses behind which the original was lost. The bible has sunk in
экзегетике. And Reformatsija of XVI century felt quite clear feeling of its finding.
Then it was necessary to make by long work its accessible to all in fragments, in the form of citations
or paraphrases. The bible, thus, turned to meeting максим and jokes.
Compositions of fathers of church also were that material, whether from which it is good, whether
badly took a doctrine essence. Such minor both insignificant treatises and poems, as «History against
pagans» the pupil and the friend of the St. Avgustina Orozija which have transformed history in vulgar
apologetics, or "Psihomahija Prudentsija" which have reduced a moral life before struggle of defects
and virtues, or «the Treatise about a contemplate life» Juliana Pomerija edifying in contempt for the
world and wordly activity became the present sources of Christian thought in the Middle Ages.
Simply to ascertain this decline of intellectual culture would be insufficiently. It is much more
important to understand that it has been caused by necessity to adapt it to conditions of that epoch. This
epoch, of course, left for aristocrats, pagans and Christians as Sidony Apollinary, freedom to indulge
game in culture-can to be, and refined, but limited to narrow frameworks of a dying class. Writers
варваризировавшиеся worked on other public. As fairly wrote R.R.Bolgar concerning education
systems of St. Avgustina, Martsiana of the Chapel and Kassiodora, «the greatest advantage of new
theories was, probably, that they offered reasonable alternative to system Kvintiliana. After all the
world in which oratory prospered, was close to death, and new, going to it on change the civilisation
did not wish to have business with national meetings and forums. People of the next centuries, whose
life should concentrate in estates and monasteries, would be strongly discouraged, if it had been offered
not clear ideal of a traditional education system and if Avgustin and the Chapel would not replace
Kvintiliana ».
The most formed, outstanding representatives of new Christian elite are amazing that they,
understanding lacks of the formation in the face of great predecessors, nevertheless refused even that
stock of the refined culture which they still owned or could seize to become clear flock. Опроститься
to win hearts, — their choice was that. And if it seems to us not absolutely satisfactory, nevertheless
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It makes impression. This farewell to the antique literature, made quite осознанно, was the emotional
moment самоотвержения the main Christian instructors of the Early Middle Ages. The bishop wrote
Vennsky Avit to the brother in the beginning of VI century in the preface to the new edition of the
poetic compositions that he has decided to refuse in the future this genre as «to too small number of
people it is clear силлабический a syllable». During the same times of Evgippy fluctuated, whether it
is necessary to publish «St. Severin's Life» for he was afraid that «not clear eloquence for crowd will
prevent it to comprehend wonderful acts sacred». Similar ideas were developed by Tsezary Arelatsky:«
I submissively ask, that the hearing of scientific people has taken down without complaints rural
expressions, to which I прибегнул that all flock of Gospodnja could восприять in the simple and
earthed language spiritual food. As people uneducated and simple are not capable to rise to formed let
the formed will condescend to ignorance. After all scientists can understand that is told to gawks
whereas the last are not capable to take advantage told for scientists ». And he has repeated words of
St. Ieronima:« the Preacher should cause more likely groans, rather than applause ». Undoubtedly, both
applause, and groans was necessary to subordinate people and to have possibility to operate them. But
at transition from Antiquity by the Middle Ages there was a change of means and ways of achievement
of the purpose, and these changes in a sensual system of a life and in propagation have let know about
occurrence of a new society.
At the same time it were also changes in intellectual sphere of a life where, despite варваризацию,
there was a search of values not less important, than values of the Greek-Roman world. When St.
Avgustin declared that he prefers «to suffer reproaches of experts on grammar, rather than to remain
not clear to the people», and that things, realities have advantage before words it expressed an essence
medieval утилитаризма and even materialism which, probably, fortunately, has weakened antique
propensity to logomachies in people. Medieval people cared of a condition of ways if only they have
resulted in the purpose a little. And that way on which they went, straying, in a dirt in a dust, conducted
to a peace refuge.
It was necessary to perform huge work. When you read legal texts, decisions of the synods and
cathedrals, пенитенциарии the Early Middle Ages you are surprised to width of the problems which
have risen before heads of a Christian society. Material scarcity, cruelty of customs, shortage of all
blessings, both economic, and spiritual, created that great weight of deprivations, take down which
people strong the spirit, despising any refinement and thirsting only success could only.
Too often forget that it was also time of great heretical movements or is faster great доктринальных
than fluctuations for ортодоксия it was still far from completeness and if it sometimes seems to us
already developed it only illusion. Here not a place to a question on what consequences if such
powerful currents as have won an arianism would be, manihej –
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ство, пеласгианство or присциллианство, not to mention smaller religious movements exciting the
West in V—VI centuries It is possible, in general, to tell that the triumph ортодоксии was success of
"an average way» between primitiveness of an arianism or манихейства and complexity
пеласгианства or присциллианства. The relation to a free will and good fortune was the Touchstone,
apparently. Incline in due time Christianity together with манихеями before the predetermination
doctrine heavy cargo of a divine determinism would pull hard on West shoulders, and it would appear
in the full power of not having counterbalance of ruling classes which would not fail to proclaim itself
unique interpreters of all-powerful divine will. And if has triumphed пеласгианство, having
established leadership of free individual will of the person the world, undoubtedly, would appear
before anarchy threat. It is clear that the West has made a right choice when has preferred an average
way. Thanks to it in those conditions when the slavery has settled the possibilities and it was necessary
to involve weights of the people in work, the person could realise, despite weakness of a hardware of
work and modesty of the claims that it possesses some power over the nature. So well reflecting spirit
of that epoch the monastic device has connected contempt for the world to the economic and spiritual
organisation of a life. The established balance between the nature and good fortune was a consequence
of limitation of possibilities, powerlessness of people of the Early Middle Ages. But it left an open door
to the future transformations.
Rannesrednevekovoe society, приуготовлявшееся to the end of the world, that without noticing, has
given itself the organisation, capable to provide in the fullness of time Western world lifting.
The shape of a civilisation has changed at all at once after Great resettlement of the people. Despite
robberies and the destructions, the traditional centres of culture only in rare instances quickly died
away and ceased to radiate the light. The cities which have become by the first victim of invasions, to
some extent still kept a life.
They have sometimes been obliged by the vital force connected with import of luxury goods to trade
and arrivals of east merchants which named Syrians but who generally were Jews, and sometimes-
inflow pilgrims. But city residences of new barbarous kings or bishops, and also places popular
паломничеств became the largest centres.
Royal and episcopal court yard drew the various handicraftsmen especially making luxury goods as
weavers, jewellers, masons, but were stored in treasuries of kings and bishops mainly overseas things,
first of all the Byzantian. Nevertheless such royal capitals, as Pavia at Liutprande (712—744), Monza
at queen Tsodelinde on a boundary VI and VII centuries, Toledo in reign Rekka –
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реда (586—601) and to a Muslim gain in 711, Paris and Suasson at Merovingah, involved masters and
created favorable conditions for their work on which, the truth, general decline of economy, technics
and aesthetic taste was aloud reflected. Impoverishment was shown in all. Houses built wooden and if
erected stone constructions very small and a stone usually took from disorders of ancient buildings
more often. Aesthetic efforts have been thus directed on dressing to hide technical imperfection of
structures. Тесание a stone, a carving on a stone and manufacturing of a volume sculpture, human
figures-all these arts almost have completely disappeared. Taste of barbarians to luxury and shine of a
tinsel was satisfied with mosaics, products from an ivory and the precious metals, expensive fabrics-in
other words, works of art which can be stored as treasure in palaces, церквах, and then to bury in
tombs. It was the triumph of small forms of the art which have given, however, of many masterpieces,
testifying to skill and taste of handicraftsmen-barbarians, their gravitation to the stylised motives of art
of steppes. But these masterpieces have appeared short-lived, generally they have not reached us, and
only rare фибулы, buckles and heads of handles of swords have got to us as valuable and fine
certificates of art of that time. To them it is necessary to add still and such unique values, as crowns
вестготских kings, a copper wreath of Agiulfa
And меровингские sarcophagi in Zhuarre.
But many kings, in particular Merovingi, preferred to live in the rural estates, the majority of their
decrees whence proceeded. If to trust episcopal lists cities during more or less long time remained and
without bishops. Nevertheless Gallia VI century, judging by Grigory Turskoto's description, possessed
more enough a dense network of cities among which the rich episcopal centres were allocated:
Суассон, Paris, the Dignity, Round, the Anatto tree, Klermon, Poitiers, Bordeaux, Toulouse, Lyons,
Venn, Arl. In вестготской Spain Seville at the time of the episcopate of brothers Leandrov (579—600)
and Isidora (600—636) was the bright centre of a city life. However the largest centres
раннесредневековой civilisations were monasteries, and monasteries rural, isolated from cities. In the
workshops the monastery kept former crafts and arts, in скрипториях and libraries it supported
intellectual culture, and thanks to the ground possession, agricultural machinery and work of monks
and dependent peasants it was the important centre of manufacture and an exemplary economy, being,
of course, at the same time centre of a religious life and involving believers usually with hallows of any
sacred.
It would be unreasonable to deny the big force of an attraction of monasteries and their influence on a
society. It is necessary to underline that while in диоцезах there was an organisation of the new
Christian city communities grouped round bishops or distributed on arrivals, and while ground and
military aristocracy
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Yet has not got in estates own chapels which have developed in private feudal church, monasteries
slowly introduced Christian values in a rural society, in that world of a constancy and steady traditions
which hitherto all has been less mentioned new religion and to which could play so important role in a
medieval life. The hagiography and an iconography allows us to be convinced of it, is frequent later. At
the time of христианизации cities destruction of idols, that is statues of gods in temples was the main
certificate which came true those who turned into new belief. During the period with V on XI century
when went евангелизация a countryside, it was already destruction of idols natural: cutting out sacred
дерев, consecration of sources, placing of crosses in rural pagan altars.
It is clear that prevalence of monasteries testifies to immaturity of the western civilisation in the Early
Middle Ages. It was still the civilisation of the separate centres of a life and oases of culture among
heathlands, woods and overgrown fields, a civilisation of a rural society which the monastic culture has
hardly concerned. Disorder of system of communications and classical antiquity communication has
returned the West most part to a primitive condition which is characteristic for traditional rural
civilisations of almost prehistoric times, the truth, with easy touch of Christianity. Ancient customs
иберов, Celts and лигуров began to revive. There, where monks have won the Greek-Roman
paganism, they have created favorable conditions for revival of much more ancient beliefs and more
artful demons which only outwardly submitted to the Christian law. The West has returned to a
condition of wildness which had an effect and broke throughout all Middle Ages.
It is important to imagine efficiency and limits of activity of monasteries. It is for this purpose
reversible to several glorified by a hagiography and a historiography to monasteries and monastic
movements: to Lerenu of times христианизации cities, to Montekassino and development of a
Benedictine award during an epoch of the beginning of the reference in Christian belief of the rural
world and to an epopee of the Irish monkhood to show, distribution of Christianity to the Early Middle
Ages went what ways. At last, we will stop for roles of monasteries in renewal евангелизации on
Western world borders in VIII - IX centuries thanks to what activity of the Irish monks has been
continued.
Лерен has been closely connected with development of a religious life in Provence representing in V—
VI centuries the important centre of Christianity. Pierre Rishe has reminded recently that in Lerene first
of all studied in asceticism, instead of sciences. Visible ecclesiastics, for this or that term settling there,
wished to join bible culture, «consisting it is not so much in the scientist экзегезе, how many in
spiritual meditation on bible themes». He has been obliged by the religious atmosphere to the first
abbey Gonoratu, the native from the East, and to Kassianu which have arrived therefrom.
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Which later became the founder of a monastery of Sen-Viktor in Marseilles. With 430 for 500 through
Leren there have passed almost all large prelates of Provencal church-salvian, Evhery Lyons, Tsezary
Arelatsky, Favst from Rie, were inspirers of the Provencal synods on whom canons deeply embodied in
the western Christianity have been developed.
St. Benedict's influence Nursijsky, located about 529 in Montekassino, has appeared much stronger -
first of all thanks to the Benedict's person, which miracles Grigory Veliky has devoted the whole book
of the "Dialogues", having extraordinary success throughout all Middle Ages and attaching people to a
life of this sacred. Stated in Benedict's this life modest miracles which he created the daily active and
contemplate life, helped all to comprehend the supernatural. For this reason, and especially because St.
Benedict has written the charter or has more likely inspired on creation of the charter which is called
since VII century Benedictine, it became the true founder of the western monkhood. Without ignoring,
especially without rejecting traditions of east monkhood, he nevertheless has refused its excessive
asceticism. Norms of behaviour, a spiritual life and чувствования, thanks to it entered into the charter,
are splendidly moderate and уравновешенны. Benedict has achieved harmony between manual,
intellectual work and actually religious activity in a monastic life. Thus, he has specified to the
Benedictine monkhood which history is noted by dazzling successes in VI—XI centuries, a way of
connection of economic activities with интеллектуальнохудожественной activity and a spiritual
ascesis. After it monasteries became the centres of agrarian manufacture, workshops on manufacturing
and illumination of manuscripts and the bright centres of a religious life. He aspired to moderate the
power of abbeys, demanding softness and brotherly feelings in circulation with a community thereby to
facilitate management of it. It ordered simplicity, but did not go into extremes, when business
concerned self-dismissals or attires.« If happens, — the charter says, — that the brother will be ordered
by heavy or impracticable duties let it will accept them with all mildness and humility. However if he
considers that their weight surpasses its possibilities let will explain it to the senior, but will make it at
an opportunity and with humility, without showing neither arrogance, nor indignation, obstinacy "." Let
arrive according to words:" And to everyone it was given, in what who had need "(Dejan. IV, 35). We
do not wish to tell it that it is necessary to operate partially for it is not necessary for God, but it is
necessary to take into consideration human needs. Requiring a smaller measure Misters let will render
thanks and are not distressed, and is stronger requiring let will reconcile to the weakness and are not
proud of mercy shown to them. Thus all members of a body will find the world». Especially insistently
it orders to show «modesty which is mother of virtues». So antique temperitas (moderation) has
received at St. Benedict hri –
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стианское an appearance. And all it has been told in VI century When imagine all revelry of violence
in those still wild times of the Middle Ages you abandon to the idea that St. Benedict's manuals have
been heard by nobody, but it is necessary to ask, however, a question, people of that epoch if this great
pacifying voice has not sounded could reach what extreme measures.
Absolutely the spirit of the Irish monastic movement was other. Since the St. Patrick grasped in an
early age by pirates and sold in slavery in Ireland in the first years of V century, has addressed in
Christianity and became, being engaged in a pasture of sheep, to preach in this country the Gospel,
Ireland has turned to island of the sacred. Quickly monasteries which like east monasteries represented
small towns from the hermetical huts grouped round a hut of the abbey Here began to grow. These
monasteries have appeared nurseries of missionaries which in V—IX centuries have extended on next
England and Scotland, and then have rushed on continent where have brought the customs, rituals,
practice выстригания тонзур, the original easter tables which the papacy hardly managed to replace
with the Roman system of calculation, the tireless passion to creation of new monasteries, whence they
carried out евангелизацию all the new countries, eradicating pagan belief in idols. Some of them, as
St. Брендан, searched for a solitude on ocean open spaces and occupied the deserted islets acting over
water reeves, living over dangerous abysses of the sea. Legendary одиссея Brendana amazed
subsequently imagination of all medieval Western world.
In VI—VII centuries Ireland exported about 115 sacred husbands to Germany, to France, to England,
36-s' territory of modern Belgium, to Scotland, to Italy. If the majority of them-persons legendary, left
folklore it confirms as Bernard Gijmen has noticed is even better, however a scar has left the Irish
monkhood in mentality and чувствованиях the Western world.
Kolumban who between 590 and 615 has based Ljuksej and Bobbio while its pupil the Gaul has named
other monastery to which the brilliant future has been prepared was most well-known of these sacred.
To all these and other communities of Kolumban has given the charter which at one time successfully
competed to St. Benedict's charter.
The Benedictine moderation was completely not peculiar to spirit of the Irish monkhood. Got stronger
in severe conditions of the north, it easily could argue with spirit of east asceticism known for the
eccentricity. Requirements have been put in a basis of the charter of Kolumbana to pray, be engaged in
manual skills and the doctrine, of course. But to it severe posts and a strict ascesis increased. Especially
amazed contemporaries long prayful standings with the crossed hands. St. Kevin as confirmed, so has
staid seven years, опершись on a board, never having closed an eye in the afternoon, at night and
without having stirred, so birds even have built a nest on it. There were also bathings in ice waters

1. Парадиз; 2. Купель; 3. Амвон; 4. Хор; 5. Скрипторий (1 этаж), библиотека (2 этаж); 6.


Ризница; 7. Зал капитула; 8. Приемная; 9. Приемная для бедных; 10. Кладовая (1 этаж), склад (2
этаж); II. Зал с камином (1 этаж), дортуар (2 этаж); 12. Рефекторий (1 этаж), гардеробная (2
этаж): 13. Кухни: 14. Бани; 15. Пивоварни; 16 Пекарни; 17. Помещения отца эконома: 18.
Помещение для кровопусканий; 19. Лазарет и аптека; 20. Помещение для хранения трав; 21.
Дом садовников; 22. Птичий двор; 23. Амбар; 24. Жернова: 25. Помещение для ступ: 26.
Солодосушильня; 27. Дом конюхов; 28. Дом коровников; 29. Дом прислуги; 30. Овчарня; 31
Свинарник; 32. Загон для коз: 33. Конюшня: 34. Коровник; 35. Нужники.
28.ФОНТЕНЕ
/. Зал капитула; 2. Малый зал с коми- ника; 6. Пекарня; 7. Голубятня; 8. Ланом; 3. Большой зал с
камином; 4. Фон- мрет; 9. Кладовые. тан (для мытья рук); 5. Дом приврат-
27. 28, 29. МОНАСТЫРИ: СЕН-ГАЛЛЕН, ФОНТЕНЕ, КЛЮНИ

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Medieval monasteries should answer all needs of monks and people serving them. Therefore they
always represented independent, self-sufficing worlds. The plan which has remained in monastic
library of Sen-Gallena (27) is the project presented to abbey Gotsbertu in 820 It is very interesting, as
gives concept about what saw an ideal monastery. The type of church represented here with two apses
was very extended in the western areas of Germany with каролингских times, the truth, in this
monastery nevertheless has been constructed church with one apse. Round church-big a country house.
Like каролингских royal country houses. It is necessary to notice that the plan provided creation of
external school. For laymen though the synod of 817 in Ahene ordered closing of such schools. The
plan of Fontene (28) reflects economic cares of a community: constructions of religious appointment
are as though counterbalanced economic, the church is very simple. At last, reconstructed by the
American archeologist and historian Kenneth Konantom the plan of a monastery of Kljuni in the end of
a Romance epoch (29). On it the huge church of abbey Gugo (1049—1109) which construction has
been begun in 1088 Nearby the remained part of the former church Kljuni II consecrated in 991 and
expanded with St. Odilonom in 994 1048 which has in turn replaced the modest church Kljuni I erected
in 915—927 Length of church of 187 m. On the plan is allocated prevalence of religious constructions
for the community has been occupied more by service to God, rather than economic works is visible.
The rich monastery was reliably защишен thick walls.
29.КЛЮНИ

/. Притвор: 2. Капелла св. Михаила: 3. Ризница: 4. Скрипторий; 5. Чисть старой церкви (Ключи
II); 6. Зал капитула: 7. Приемная; 8. Дортуар: 9. Рефекторий: 10. Старый лазарет:

11. Кухня: 12. Кладовые: 13. Кладовые для белья; 14. Пекарня: 15. Умывальник; 16. Капеллы:
17. Клуатры: 18. Дворы; 19. Ворота или порталы; 20. Конюшни; 21. Нужники.

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The rivers or ponds with singing of psalms and restrictions in food which in these monasteries accepted
only once a day, never at It without tasting some meat.The same eccentricity and severity was shown
and in the repentances testifying, according to Gabriel Le Bra, «about semipagan social and a morale of
the people requiring such monastic ideal of asceticism». In the Irish monasteries in full force the bible
taboos close to ancient Celtic interdictions have revived. Even in the early Irish art presented by stone
crosses and a book miniature, it is felt, by François Ardi's definition, «still the prehistoric taste alien to
any realism and gravitating to especially abstract image of the person and animals». It became one of
sources of Romance art with its freakish ornaments, and to characteristic for it вязям there ascends one
of the steadiest tendencies of an aesthetics and taste of the Middle Ages.The Irish monks, at last, have
taken part in great movement for христианизацию Germany and its suburbs in VII—VIII centuries
which leant against the monasteries based by them. So SenGallen (it is based by the Gaul about 510)
has given a life to monasteries of St. Bavona in Gent (is based by St. Amandom about 630), St.
Emmerana in Regensburg (is based about 650), in Ehternahe (is based by Villibrodom about 700), in
Rejhenau (is based by Pirminom in 744), in Fulde (is based by Storm under the insisting of St.
Bonifatsija in 744), in In 822 With V on IX century on all fronts of struggle for in cities, in a
countryside and outside of the Christian world — monasteries played most.The important role.This
long night of the Middle Ages, with V till VIII century, light men of science whom R.Rend named
«initiators of the Middle Ages» radiated also. Their exclusive role consisted that they have rescued the
core from an ancient art, have stated it in the form accessible to medieval thought and have given it a
necessary Christian appearance. Among them four persons are allocated: Боэций (480—524),
Kassiodor (480—573), Isidor Seville (560—636), the Trouble Venerable (673—735).Боэцию the
Middle Ages are obliged by all that it knew about Aristotle and its logician to the middle of XII
century, both those conceptual and verbal categories which have laid down in a scholasticism basis.
Nature definition concerns them «as forms of any individual thing in it" distinctive features »or the
person as« individualised substance of the reasonable nature », for example. Абеляр has told about it:«
He has firmly confirmed our belief and the ». Thanks to it in medieval culture exclusively high place
has been taken away to music.Кассиодор the «Manuals in divine and secular sciences» has given to
medieval people of a basis of the Latin rhetoric widely used by the Christian literature and pe –

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дагогикой. It has set for monks of a monastery the Vivarium a problem about which the Middle Ages
never forgot: to copy ancient manuscripts. Having like it, monastic скриптории have executed a great
cause of preservation of ancient texts.The inheritance «the nice instructor of the Middle Ages» Isidora
Seville, concluded mainly in its "Etymologies", the program of seven free arts, the scientific dictionary,
belief make that the nature of things is hidden in their names, and belief repeatedly expressed to it that
the secular culture is necessary for deep comprehension of the Scriptus. It has transferred to medieval
clergymen passion to encyclopaedic knowledge.At last, the Trouble in the most complete kind has
stated the theory of four senses of the Scriptus which has laid down in a basis medieval bible
экзегетики, and has included in a focus of interest of Christian thought, thanking экзегетике and
church летосчислению, astronomy and космографию. But, as the majority of the formed Anglo-
Saxons of the Early Middle Ages, the Trouble has rather resolutely turned away from a classical
ancient art and has as though carried away the Middle Ages on the, independent way of
development.Pierre Rishe has found out in due time that Karolingsky revival was only a result of a
series small возрождений which after 680 had an effect on monasteries of Korbi ^ Senmarten-de-
round, Sen-Gallen, Fulda, Bobbio, and also in York, Pavia and Rome. Thereby he has helped us to
understand better the valid scales of this obviously overestimated revival.First of all it was not
innovative. The program of training accepted by it was only the program of former church schools
according to which «in each episcopacy and in each monastery learnt to psalms, the letter, singing, the
account, grammar and cared of correspondence of books».The culture каролингского a court yard
differed nothing from culture of barbarous kings, such, as Teodorih or Sisebut. It usually did not go
further almost that the children's entertainments so tempting barbarous minds. Logomachies, riddles,
scientific puzzles-all it reminds games and the exercises offered by modern magazines for
entertainment. The royal academy was something like secular amusement in which the circle of
persons close to a sovereign which called him for fun that David the Homere indulged. The emperor,
learnt to read but not to write that was already big achievement for the layman as the child was amused
the capital letters made for it which he guessed at night gropingly under a pillow. The hobby for
antiquity was limited to acquaintance to it on Kassiodoru and Isidoru Seville more often.As Alexander
Gejshtor has convincingly shown, limitation of Karolingsky revival has been predetermined by that.

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That it met superficial requirements of narrow social group.

It should provide with elementary culture of the higher employees. The Karolingsky legislation
provided opening of schools in all episcopacies and all monasteries, however Louis Blagochestivyj has
not prevented Benedict Anianskomu to close monastic schools for laymen ostensibly to save monks
from temptations, and actually — to keep cultural monopoly of clergy.For this narrow group the
culture, besides entertainment, represented more likely a subject of aesthetic pleasure and a way of
strengthening of prestige, rather than erudition and a control facility. If it also helped to operate,
thanking not to people education, and strong impression made on it.Manuscripts at that time more and
more became luxury goods, losing any utilitarian appointment, including the educational. Them read
not so much, how many considered. The reform of the letter which have begun каролингскому
минускулу, was guided by calligraphy reasons the care about which is peculiar to people of superficial
mind, even to the uneducated. So каролингская the culture was luxury taste to which was shown the
same as and to expensive fabrics or spices.Nevertheless Karolingsky revival was one of stages of
formation of an intellectual and art arsenal of the medieval West. Its many creations became a part of
cultural luggage of people of the Middle Ages. The copied and corrected texts of ancient authors later
have served distribution of the antique literature. And original compositions каролингских writers
have made a new layer of the knowledge which has appeared at the disposal of formed people of the
next centuries after the Early Middle Ages.Алкуин has executed a role of a transfer link in introduction
of the program of seven free arts. Its spiritual son, abbey Fuldy, and then the archbishop of Mainz
Raban the Moor whom named the instructor of Germany, has left to the Middle Ages the
encyclopaedia «About the Universe» and the pedagogical treatise «About education of clergymen» (a
modified variant of the treatise «About the Christian doctrine» the St. Avgustina which have replaced it
for many medieval readers) which in all basic libraries have taken a place near to Kassiodorom and
Isidorom. At last, there was ingenious and mysterious John Skot Eriugena whom have opened in XII
century.Dawned by Charles the Great glory, the most popular politician in the Middle Ages,
каролингские writers have formed a new number of intellectual authorities just as some architectural
monuments каролингской epoch from which the palace chapel in Ahene was the most well-known,
became samples for frequent imitations.Despite the fact that what results of Karolingsky revival were
far from its claims and hopes, the non-realised

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Appeals it nevertheless has told to medieval people predilection for correction of texts, bent for though
also not defined, but nevertheless to humanistic culture, and belief that education — one of the basic
duties of the state and sovereigns which scoop in it considerable sily. -At last, Karolingsky revival has
made miniature masterpieces in which again there was a realism, taste to concrete details, freedom of a
line and brightness of colour. Considering them, you understand that after former condescension in
judgements about it it is impossible to run now into excessive severity. As well as economic lifting
VIII—IX centuries, Karolingsky revival was, undoubtedly, unfortunate attempt to move forward, come
to the end with that it was necessary to curtail from a way or to stop. But nevertheless it became the
first display of that long and deep Renaissance which gathered forces on an extent?—XIV centuries

Goff Le Z.Tsivilizatsija of the medieval West

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART THE SECOND. THE MEDIEVAL CIVILIZATION

The chapter VI. Spatial and time structures (X—XIII centuries).

When the young Tristan which have run away from the Norwegian merchants-pirates, has landed at
coast of Cornwall, «it has risen with great effort to rock and has seen before itself a deserted sandy
valley behind which infinite wood» was stretched. But here from this wood there was suddenly a group
of hunters, and the young man has joined it. «Then they were started up, talking, in a way, yet have not
reached at last the magnificent lock. It was surrounded with meadows, orchards, fish corfs, sink also
arable lands».The country of king Mark-at all the legendary earth created by imagination of the
trouvere. It is a physical reality of the medieval West. A huge cover of woods and ланд with the
cultivated fertile glades-is that scattered on it external shape of the Christian world. It is similar to a
negative print of the Muslim East-world of oases in the middle of deserts. There, in the east, wood-
rarity, here it much; trees there — a civilisation sign, here — barbarity. The religion born in the east
under a shelter of palm trees, has blossomed in the West to the detriment of a shelter of pagan spirits-
trees which were ruthlessly cut down by monks, sacred and missionaries. Any progress in the medieval
West was clearing, struggle and a victory over thickets, bushes and if it was necessary and if the
hardware and bravery it allowed, over front, virgin wood - «a dense thicket» to Persevalja, selva oscura
Dante. But a real concentration of a fighting life-it set more or less extensive glades, economic, social
and cultural cells циЕилизации. Long time the medieval West remained a congestion of estates, locks
and the cities which have arisen among untilled and deserted spaces. Wood, however, also was then
desert. Free or involuntary adherents of flight from the world (fuga mundi) there left: eremites, lovers,
knights errant, robbers, people out of the law. He is St. Bruno and its companions in "desert" of Grand-
Shartrez or St. Molem and its pupils in "desert" the Sieve, Tristan and Isoice in Mauro's wood («We
will return to wood which will cover and will protect us. We go, the darling of Isoice!... They go
through high grasses and a heather, and here already trees close over them the branches, and they hide

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ся behind dense foliage ») or the forerunner or maybe and model of Robina of the Buzzing, adventurer
Estash the Monk who has taken cover in the beginning of XIII century in wood of Bulone. The refuge
world, wood had also the attractive lines. For the knight it there was a world of hunting and adventures.
Персеваль has opened there« the most beautiful things what only can be », and a certain seigneur
advises to Okassenu which were ill because of love to Nikolet:« Sit down on a horse and поезжайте in
wood. You there will dispel the grief, will see grasses and flowers, will hear, as sing birds. And, may
be, you will hear there treasured words from which to you it becomes easier on a shower ».For peasants
and in general small labour люда wood was an income source. There expelled to be grazed herds, there
typed in the autumn fat of a pig — the main riches of the poor peasant which after «откорма on
acorns» hammered in the pig, and it promised it for the winter if not plentiful food, means of
subsistence. There cut the wood so necessary for economy, long time feeling need in a stone, gland and
coal. Houses, instruments of labour, the centres, furnaces, forge forges existed and operated only
thanks to a tree and charcoal. In wood collected wild-growing fruits which were the basic help in a
primitive diet of the countryman, and during hunger gave it chance to survive. In the same place made
an oak bark for дубления skin, ashes of bushes for bleaching or colouring of fabrics, but especially-
resinous substances for torches and candles, and also honey of wild bees, so desired for the world
which long time has been deprived some sugar. In the beginning of XII century Located in Poland
French хронист the Gaul the Anonymous author, describing advantages of this country, names at once
after curative air and fertility of soil an abundance of woods rich with honey. Shepherds, woodcutters,
углежоги («the wood robber» by Estash the Monk, having got up in углежога, has made one of the
most successful robberies), collectors meda-be weighed this small люд veins by wood and supplied
with its gifts of others. He also willingly was engaged in poaching, but the game was first of all a
product of reserved hunting of seigneurs. These last, from the smallest to the largest, jealously
preserved the rights to wood riches. Special employees of seigneurs, «wood sergeants», everywhere
tracked down rashititelej-vilanov. Sovereigns were the largest wood seigneurs in the kingdoms and
vigorously aspired to remain those. From its part and the risen English barons imposed in 1215 to John
Bezzemelnomu along with the Great charter of liberties a special Wood charter. When in 1332 Phillip
VI French has disposed to make the list of the rights and possession of which he wished to form «the
widow share» queens Jeanne Burgundskoj, he has ordered to paint separately «an estimation of
woods», aggregate profits of this domain giving a third.But threat proceeded from wood also was
centre of the invented or valid dangers, disturbing horizon of the medieval world. Wood surrounded
this world, isolated it and smothered. It was the main border, «the neutral earth» (no man's

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land) between сеньориями and the countries. From its terrible "gloom" suddenly there were hungry
wolves, robbers, рыцариграбители.In the beginning of XIII century two brothers some years kept
wood of Sadlno in Silesia, whence they periodically left to take prisoner on the repayment of poor
peasants округи, and interfered with duke Henry Borodatomu to base there at least one village. The
synod in Santiago-de-Kompostelle should publish the special charter to organise hunting for wolves.
Every Saturday, except Easter and Trinity eve, priests, knights and the peasants not occupied on works
have been obliged to participate in destruction of wolves and to put traps; the refused fined.From these
gluttonous wolves imagination of the medieval.The person, leaning against folklore images of
immemorial times, easily did monsters. In what large quantity of lives sacred we meet a miracle
приручения a wolf, similar to volume as St. Frantsisk Assizsky has tamed a furious animal of Gubbio!
All these woods left человековолки, werewolves in whom medieval wildness mixed an animal with
полуварваромчеловеком. Sometimes in wood even more bloody monsters-for example, Provencal
тараск1, damned St. Martha hid. Woods were, thus, not only a source of real fears, but also a
universum of wonderful and frightening legends. It is Ardennsky wood with its monstrous wild boar, a
refuge of four sons of Ajmona where St. Gubert has turned from the hunter to the eremite, and St.
Tibald Proviennese-from the knight in the eremite and углежога; wood of Broseliand, a place
чародейств Merlina and Viviany; wood the Oberon where Guon Bordosky has given in to charms of
the dwarf; wood of Odenvald where under blows of Gagena Zigfrid has ended the tragical hunting;
Mansky wood where it is sad Berta Bolshenogaja wandered, and unfortunate French king Charles VI
later will go mad.However if for the majority of people of the medieval West the horizon was limited
sometimes all their life to a wood edge not so followed imagine a medieval society as the world of the
motionless homebodies adhered to the plot of land surrounded with wood. On the contrary, we are
puzzled with the extreme.Mobility of medieval people.It is explainable. The property as a material or
psychological reality was almost unknown in the Middle Ages. From the peasant to the seigneur each
individual, each family had only more or less wide rights of the conditional, time property, узуфрукта.
Each person not only had over itself the mister or someone possessing more powerful right who could
deprive violently of its earth, but also the right recognised' Gkachochnyj a dragon, the character of
Provencal legends living close?;? A raskona.-comment a feather «.

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For the seigneur legal possibility to take away at серва or the vassal its ground property under
condition of granting to it of an equivalent sometimes very removed from the withdrawn. The
Normannsky seigneurs forwarded to England; the German knights installed in the east; the feudal lords
of the Ile-de-France who has won феод in Languedoc under the pretext of a crusade against
альбигойцев or in Spain during Rekonkisty; crusaders of all colours who found to itself an estate in
Moree or in the Sacred earth, — all of them easily left the native land because hardly it at them was.
The peasant which fields represented more or less reversible concession from outside the seigneur and
were often redistributed by a rural community, according to rules of a crop rotation and rotation of
fields, has been adhered to the earth only by will of the seigneur which it willingly escaped at first
flight, and later by legal emancipation. Individual or collective country emigration was one of large
phenomena of a medieval demography and a society. Knights and peasants met on roads of clergymen
which or made the wandering ordered by rules, or have torn with a monastery (all this world of monks
against which in vain published laws cathedrals and the synods, was in constant коловращении). They
met the students going to the well-known schools or universities (unless it was not said in one poem of
XII century that exile, terra aliena, is an indispensable lot of the schoolboy), and also pilgrims, any
tramps.Not only no material interest keeps the majority of them of the house, but the spirit of Christian
religion pushes out on roads. The person only eternal wanderer on this earth of exile-is that the doctrine
of church, which hardly required repeating words of the Christ:« Leave all and follow me ». Those who
had no anything or a little were however numerous and with ease left! Their poor belongings were
located in котомке the pilgrim; the one who is richer, had at itself some small coins (and money then
long time was a rarity); most rich-larets where put the most part of the condition, there are some
jewelry. When travellers and pilgrims will start to take with themselves bulky luggage (сир де
Zhuanvil and its companion, count Sarrebrjuk, have gone to 1248 to a crusade with set of chests which
delivered on carts in Okson, and therefrom on the Sleepyhead and Rhone in Arl) then not only the spirit
of crusades will disappear, but also taste to travel will weaken and the medieval society becomes the
world of homebodies. The Middle Ages, an epoch of the pedestrian and horse wanderings, closely will
come nearer then to the end-not because Later the Middle Ages did not know wandering, but because
since XIV century Wanderers become tramps, damned people. Before they were normal beings
whereas homebodies subsequently became normal. But until then, when will come it is time »to that
road weariness, the Middle Ages teemed with travellers, and they constantly meet to us in an
iconography. Having armed

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Staff in the form of the Greek letter тау (it quickly becomes a symbol), согбенные, they go on roads-
eremites, pilgrims, poor, sick. These uneasy people were symbolised also by blind men, such with what
they are described by one fabliau: «Once on road near Kompena went three blind men without the
guide and the guide. On them there were shabby clothes, and they had one wooden flat dish for three.
So there were they road to Sanlis». Church and moralists treated wanderers with distrust, and even
pilgrimage behind which simple vagrancy often disappeared, vain curiosity-medieval the tourism form,
— easily caused suspicion. Гонорий Avgustodunsky in beginning XIT century has been inclined it to
condemn or at least to abstain from the recommendation. Whether «there is a merit in that, — the pupil
asks in"Fixture", — to go to Jerusalem or to visit other holy sites?» And the teacher answers;« It is
better to give the money intended for travel, poor ». Гонорий supposes a unique kind of pilgrimage-for
the sake of of a repentance. Really, very much it became early significant-pilgrimage not the good will
certificate, but repentances. It punished any heavy sin, it was a penalty, instead of requital. As to what
undertook it« with curiosity or small vanity »as the same teacher in"Fixture"« unique профит which
they from it take, consists that they could see beautiful places, speaks fine monuments yes have amused
the vanity ». Wanderers were unfortunate people, and a tourism-vanity.The pity validity of pilgrimage-
not reaching tragical cases with the crusaders died in a way for hunger or exterminated сарацинами, it
is frequent history of that poor person about which «the Gold legend» tells: «About 1100 from an
embodiment of the Lord a certain Frenchman has gone with the wife and sons to Santiago-de-
Kompostellu, partly to run from infectious illness which devastated then its country, partly to see a
tomb of the sacred. In the city of Pamplona its wife has died, and the owner of an inn has taken away
from it all money and even a mare on whom it carried children. Then the poor father has planted two
sons on shoulders, and the others has moved for a hand. But the certain person passing by on a donkey,
has taken pity over it and has given it the donkey that it could plant on it children. Having come to
Santiago-de-Kompostellu, the Frenchman has seen sacred which has asked it, whether he has learnt it,
and has told to it:« I apostle Iakov. It I have given you a donkey that you could come here, and I give it
again.That you have come back home ».But how many pilgrims remain without the aid of wonderful
Donkey...Travellers did not have a lack of tests, In obstacles. Certainly, the river way was used
everywhere. Where it was possible. But there were many earths which needed to be crossed. However
has almost disappeared destroyed by intrusions and not supported magnificent ceib the Roman roads;

128However, it has been a little adapted for needs of a medieval society. For these pedestrian and horse
people, which transportation were made mainly on backs of pack animals or on antediluvian carts and
which did not hurry up anywhere (travellers willingly took a detour to bypass the lock
рыцаряразбойника or, on the contrary, to visit a sanctuary), the Roman road, direct, paved, intended
for soldiers and officials, did not represent a great interest. Medieval люд went on tracks, paths, on the
confused ways which wandered between the several fixed points: exhibition cities, pilgrimage places,
bridges, fords or passes. How many obstacles it was necessary to overcome: wood with its dangers and
the fears, furrowed, however, traces (Nikolet, «going on an overgrown footpath in dense wood, has
taken to the highroad where other seven roads conducting in the different ends of the country» were
crossed); Gangsters, whether it be knights or виланы, sat down at an ambush on the brink of wood or
at rock top (Zhuanvil, going down across Rhone, has noticed «La-Rosh-de-Gljun, that lock, which king
has ordered to destroy because its owner by name to the Physiognomy has been accused of a robbery of
pilgrims and merchants»); the uncountable duties raised from merchants, and sometimes and simply
from travellers at bridges, on passes, on the rivers; the nasty road condition where vehicles that have
easier co-ordinated in a dirt, than more management of bulls demanded professional skill.Any character
a chanson-de-gesture like Bertrana from «the Nimsky cart», nephew Giloma Oranzhsky, exposes itself
to ridicule when wishes to change clothes in the moving man. The medieval road was painfully long,
slow. If we track travellers from among the most occupied, for merchants we will notice that day stages
varied depending on a relief from 25 to 60 km. It was required two weeks to get from Bologna to
Avignon, the way from sparkling fairs in It occupied 22 days, from Florence to Naples — from 11 to
12. And however, the medieval society has been captured, according to Mark Bloka, «some kind of a
Brownian motion, simultaneously both constant, and changeable». Almost all people of the Middle
Ages it is inconsistent evolved between two measurements: The limited horizons of a glade where they
lived, and the remote horizons of all Christian world where everyone could go suddenly from England
to Santiago-deKompostellu or in Toledo as the English scientific XII century, thirsting to join the
Arabian culture; from Orijaka (Southern France) to Rheims, Vick (Catalonia), Ravenna and Rome how
it has made in the end? Century Herbert (the future daddy Silverstr II); from Flanders in Sen-Zhan-
d'Anzheli (Syria), as set of crusaders; from coast of Rhine on coast of Oder and Vistula, as numerous
German colonists. Unique original adventurers in the opinion of medieval Christians were those who
crossed borders of the Christian world: missionaries or merchants who landed in Africa and in Crimea,
got into Asia.

129The way on the sea was faster. At a fair wind the ship could do to 300 km a day. But dangers here
were still big, than on the earth. Reached by will of a case speed of advancement could be brought to
nothing hopeless calms, head winds and currents.Let's go with Zhuanvilem to Egypt. «On the sea to us
there was a surprising thing: we have appeared before mountain of the round form at coast Berberii.
There was an hour of twilight. We floated all the evening long and thought that have made kind fifty
leagues when for the next day again have come to be before the same mountain. And so occurred two
or Three times ».But these delays were a trifle if to recollect pirates.And storms. Жуанвиль it was soon
convinced that "merchants-adventurers" should possess mad courage: «I have thought over that, the
one who dares to subject itself of such danger is how much reckless, appropriating another's good or
entering itself into a mortal sin for it goes to bed, without knowing, whether will come to be.Next
morning on a sea-bottom ».Nothing had большего success in the Middle Ages, rather than beaten, but
is live an image of the ship overtaken by a storm transferring a reality. Any episode does not repeat
with such regularity in lives numerous sacred, as swimming on the sea, real or symbolical which
appears on huge number of miniatures and stained-glass windows. No miracle has been extended more,
rather than intervention sacred which calms a storm or revives cast-away. So St. Nikolay in «the Gold
legend» Jacob Voraginskogo arrives. «Once the sailors who have appeared in danger, have plaintively
begged;« Nikolay, the servant Dominical! If that speak to us about you, the truth, make so that we have
now checked up it on ourselves ». Immediately before them somebody has appeared in shape sacred
and has told it:« you have called me here it I! »And it has begun to help by it to cope with sails, with
ropes and other ship tackles, and the storm has immediately stopped».And now it is necessary to
comprehend, thanks to what "springs" wood, road and the seas raised feelings of medieval people.
They influenced them not so much real aspects and original dangers, how many symbols which they
expressed. Wood-it twilight or, as in «a children's song» миннезингера Alexander Strannika, a century
with its illusions; the sea - the terrestrial world and its temptations; road-searches and pilgrimage.On
the other hand, people of the Middle Ages contacted with a physical reality via mystical and
pseudoscientific abstractions.The nature for them-it four elements which form.The Universe and the
person, the Universe in a miniature, микрокосм. As explains "Fixture", the corporal person is created
from four elements, «and therefore it name a microcosm, that is

130The reduced world. Really, it is made from the earths (flesh), waters (blood), air (breath) and fire
(warmth) ».The same vision of the Universe goes down from the scientists to the most ignorant.
Христианизация, pushed to some extent old symbols and pagan myths, personified forces of the
nature in strange космографию: four rivers of paradise, four winds on uncountable wind roses in
manuscripts insert the image-on to the sample of four elements - between natural realities and human
чувствованием. People of the Middle Ages should do, as we will see, a long way to meet on other
party of the screen of symbolism a physical reality of the world in which they lived.Scope of all these
movements, migrations, excitements, travel actually has been extremely limited. The geographical
horizon was simultaneously and spiritual horizon of the Christian world. Amazes discrepancy of
scientists in area космографии: usually supposed that the Earth round, motionless and is in the
Universe centre; then have imagined, after Aristotle, system of concentric spheres, and since XIII
century — more difficult and system of movement of planets close to the truth on Ptolemeju. But the
imagination of medieval geography outside of Europe and Srednizemnomorsky pool is even more
amazing. That theological concept which inspired Christian geography and cartography till XIII
century was especially remarkable. As a rule, the arrangement of the Earth was defined by belief that
its "navel" is Jerusalem and that the east which placed on cards above more often, on a place of the
North Pole, has the highest point a certain mountain which has been identified recently as the Step-and-
sjulejman in Azerbaijan where there is an earthly paradise and whence Fison (usually identified with
Ganges) and Geon, that is Nile follow the Tiger, Euphrates. Vague data which Christians about these
rivers could have, caused certain difficulties. Them easily turned in other party. Explained that known
sources of the Tiger and Euphrates are not their valid sources which are located on slopes of paradise
mountain Edem, and waters of these rivers are for a long time lost in desert sand before again to leave
on a surface. As to Nile Zhuanvil in the story about VII crusade asserts that the Moslems stopped by
falls, could not rise to its source, mysterious, but real:« It is necessary to move now speech about the
river which crosses Egypt and follows from an earthly paradise... In that place where Nile gets into
Egypt, local residents are in the habit to set a trap in the evenings, and in the morning find in them
precious subjects which they deliver in the country, somehow: ginger, a rhubarb, an aloe and
cinnamon. It is said that these spices occur from an earthly paradise, falling under a wind from paradise
trees just as the wind breaks windfallen trees in wood.Here say that the sultan of Babylon not once tried

131To learn, the river whence follows, and has sent for this purpose of the people. They have told that
have reached a great heap of rocks which it was impossible to climb up. From this mountain the river
fell, and it seemed to them that at its top the set of trees grew...»Indian ocean as which considered
closed, was centre of dreams, a receptacle of unsatisfied desires of the poor and constrained Christian
world: dream of the islands rich with precious metals, rare breeds of trees, spices. Marco Polo has seen
there the naked king, entirely обвешанного jewels; the fantastic world occupied by fantastic people
and animals, dream of abundance and the wild behaviour, born poor and a confined world, dream of
other life, of taboo destruction, of freedom in the face of strict morals ordered by Church, seduction by
the world of the perverted food, каннибализма, нудизма, polygamy, sexual freedom and
dissoluteness. Most curious-this that when Christians, risking itself, reached there, they found there
miracles: Marco Polo has met the people allocated with a tail, «thick as at a dog», and also unicorns (it
is possible, it were rhinoceroses), but they have disappointed him:« It is vile by sight and a disgusting
animal. It is not that at all what we here describe it when we assert that it yields to the virgin
».Certainly, people of the Middle Ages who have apprehended tradition of antique geographers,
divided the Earth into three parts - Europe, Africa and Asia, th they aspired to identify each of them
with certain religious space, and the English pilgrim who has written «the Way of pilgrims» about III
crusade, ascertained: «Thus, two parts of the world attack the third, and Europe which all the same
does not recognise Christ's name all entirely, should battle against two others». This Europe which
Muslim presence at Spain prevented to identify with the Christian world, remained for the western
people малоупотребимым, scientific, abstract concept.The Christian world was a reality.
Применительно.To it the medieval Christian defined also all other mankind, and the place in relation
to another. And first of all.In relation to the Byzantine.Since 1054 the Byzantine was considered as the
heretic. However, if charge in split, recreancy also was the major, the western people did not reach that
it to define-anyway, name. After all contrary to theological conflicts, in particular dispute about
«филиокве» (for Byzantines rejected double исхождение the Holy Spirit who, in their opinion,
proceeded only from God-father), and especially contrary to институционному to the conflict (for the
Constantinople patriarch refused to recognise leadership of the daddy) they too were Christians. But in
the middle of XII century during II crusade, the western fanatic the bishop Langrsky already dreamt of
a capture of Constantinople and the Frenchman – induced

132ского king Louis VII to declare that Byzantines are not «Christians in practice, and only by name»
that they have proved to be guilty of heresy, and the fair part of crusaders believed that «Greeks at all
were not Christians and what to kill their-this less, than anything». This antagonism was result of a
distance which since IV century has turned to a precipice. And others especially western people from
whom even the scientists did not know the Greek language did not understand those more each
other.This misunderstanding has outgrown little by little in hatred, the daughter of ignorance. In
relation to Greeks латиняне tested a mix of envy and the contempt going with more or less quashed
feeling of inferiority. Латиняне reproached Greeks that they манерны, are cowardly, changeable. But
first of all they accused them of riches. It was reflex reaction of the aggressive and poor barbarian to
the rich civilised person.In 968 ломбардец Liutprand, the bishop Kremonsky, sent by the German
emperor Ottonom I to Constantinople, has returned therefrom with hatred to the heart, generated by
that to it few signs on attention have shown. Unless басилевс Nikifor has not said to it directly: «you
not Romans, and лангобарды»? On what he has answered: «Romul was the fratricide, it is proved by
history, and she says that it has opened a shelter for poor debtors, fluent slaves, the murderers
sentenced to execution, and, having surrounded itself with crowd of people of such grade, named their
Romans. We, лангобарды, saxophones, francs, лотарингцы, Bavarians, свевы, бургунды, we despise
them so that when we come to anger we do not find for our enemies of other insult, than a
word"Roman", understanding under it all meanness, all cowardice, all greed, all debauchery, all falsity
and, the arch of all defects» is worse than that. Here the religious charge previous schism:« All heresies
were born and we have succeeded at you, and, people of the West, have put it the end have destroyed
them ». And last humiliation: at departure the Byzantian customs officers have taken away from
Liutpranda five purple raincoats which export has been forbidden, — system, incomprehensible for the
barbarian who lived in the conditions of the rudimentary economic organisation. The From here-new
insult:« These flabby, coddled people, with full sleeves, with tiaras and turbans on heads, liars,
скопцы, idlers, go dressed in purple, and heroes, people, the total energies which have learnt war, got
by belief and the mercy, obedient to God, full virtues, — are not present!»When in 1203, during IV
crusade, the western army prepared for a capture of Constantinople under an official pretext that
emperor Alexey III is the usurper churchmen calmed a remorse at some secular participants of this
enterprise, underlining dissenting character of Byzantines. «Bishops and clergymen together spoke and
believed, — wrote хронист Rober де Klari.-that fight is lawful and that it is possible to attack them for
in olden time they obeyed the Roman law, and nowadays to it any more do not submit. Eni –
133скопы said also that will attack them not a sin, but, on the contrary, great act of piety ».Certainly,
the church union, that is reconciliation of Byzantium with Rome, almost constantly remained in the
agenda, and negotiations about it took place at Alexey I in 1089, John II in 1147, Alexey III in 1197
and almost at each emperor from the middle of XIII century till 1453 the Union, appear, managed even
to be carried out on the Lyons cathedral of 1274 and last time on the Florentine cathedral of
1439However attacks on the Byzantian empire, Robera Gviskara undertaken by Normans in 1081,
Boemundom in 1185, a capture of Constantinople the western knights in 1204, and also failure of the
project church унии caused deep animosities between those whom it is offensive named
«латинянами» (but not Christians) and "Greeks" (but not Romans). To crude barbarians who opposed
the simplicity of affectation of this civilisation of ceremonial, the secular courtesy which has fallen
asleep in etiquette was not clear. In 1097, during reception of Lotharingian crusaders by emperor
Alexey I, one of them, angry all this etiquette, has taken seat on a throne, «finding unseemly that one
person sat when so much brave soldiers stay standing».The same reactions at Frenchmen-participants
of II crusade, for example Louis fieriness VII and its advisers before manners of the Byzantian
messengers with florid language of their speeches: the bishop Langrsky, «feeling compassion to the
king and being to take out any more in forces long phrases of the orator and толмача, has told it:" my
Brothers, deign not to speak so often about glory, greatness, wisdom and piety of the king; he knows
itself(himself), and we know it too; tell to it faster and in plain terms that you want "».The opposition
was as well in political traditions. People of the West for whom fidelity — sincere, fair fidelity of the
feudal lord was the main political virtue, — considered as hypocrisy the Byzantian methods entirely
impregnated with reasons of the state advantage. «For at them, — wrote still Odon Dejlsky, French
хронист II crusade, — the opinion is standard that nobody can be reproached in клятвопреступлении
if he has afforded it for the sake of interests of sacred empire».латинян Greeks answered hatred with
disgust. Anna Komnina, the daughter of emperor Alexey who saw participants of I crusade, describes
them as rough, boastful, haughty and artful barbarians. That were soldiers, and негоциантамгрекам
war sickened; they evaded from idea of sacred war and were, as well as Anna Komnina, in horror of
that people of church, bishops and priests, personally participated in battles. As it is possible to be
simultaneously слугою God and «the blood-thirsty person whom breathe! смертоубийством»? Above
all vizan –

134тийцам the avidity of people from the West, «ready to sell for обол the wife and children» aroused
fear.The riches of Byzantium were, at last, last reproach and the first subject of envy латинян. At the
time of the first crusades amazement inspired all хронистов which passed through Constantinople, on
the admired description. For these barbarians who conducted a poor life in primitive and pity places
(western "cities" totaled some thousand inhabitants, and the city civilisation there was unknown),
Constantinople from it, probably, the million population, monuments and benches was revelation.
Одон Dejlsky shows to us as crusaders did purchases or accepted the Greek dealers in the tents: «Thus,
we bought a shirt less, than for денье, and thirty shirts for one sou without mark». In 1097 Fulhery
Shartsky among many other things stared:« Constantinople is however noble and fine! How many in it
of monasteries and the palaces constructed with amazing art! How many surprising products are
exposed on its areas and streets! Would be too long and to speak is tiresome in detail about abundance
of every possible riches, about gold, silver, one thousand kinds of fabrics, sacred relics which are in
this city where at any time the numerous ships bring everything that is necessary for
people...»Involved, among all other, relics. Робер де Klari lists that crusaders in 1204 after have
grasped Constantinople, in only one church of the Farossky mother of god have found out: «We have
found there two parts of an original Life-giving Cross in the thickness about a foot and of half-arshin.
Have found there also a tip of a spear with which have pierced an edge of the Lord, and two nails by
which His hands and feet have been punched. Also have found there also a crystal vessel with Its
blood; also have found also багряницу which have removed from It when conducted to Golgotha; also
have found there also a blest wreath from a sloe with sharp as sewed, thorns. We have found there also
an attire of the Virgin and the head of the monsignor sacred John Krestitelja and so much other rich
relics that I could not describe them». Excellent extraction for pious thieves who will store the trophies,
and for greedy robbers who will expensively sell them.Even for those people of the West who did not
behold its miracles, Byzantium was in the Middle Ages a source almost all riches for therefrom there
were the most valuable goods of its own or foreign manufacture. Therefrom went magnificent a fabric-
silk which secret it has pulled out at China in VI century, therefrom there was sound till the end of XI
century a gold coin which in the West named simply «безантом», this «Middle Ages dollar».How
many temptations cleared up such riches!
And in spiritual sphere also it was possible to be content with sometimes admired and grateful loan.
The western theologians of XII century have anew opened for themselves the Greek divinity, and some
of them welcomed light which went with In - 135Drain: onentale lumen. Alain Lillsky even
уничиженно adds: Quia latinitas penuriosa est... («For all LatinPoorly... »).It was possible also to try
to compete to Byzantium, and one of the most curious attempts to get off the Byzantian validity and a
myth was that imagined humiliation of Greeks which is expressed in surprising a chanson-de-gesture of
second half XII century« Charles the Great pilgrimage »: Charles, coming back from Jerusalem with
twelve peers, passes through Constantinople where king Gugon arranges to it magnificent reception.
After a plentiful feast the emperor and its companions, slightly having become tipsy, had a good time
in the chamber taken away by it that serially boasted of the invented feats with rough knightly humour.
Has got thus to king Gugonu and its Greeks: Роланд, say, with such force has sounded in a horn that at
Gugona moustaches have scorched. This joke would not have consequences if the Byzantian spy,
having hidden for пилоном, has not heard it and Gugonu has not hastened to inform. The angered king
has demanded from visitors that they have confirmed the bragging in practice. Divine intervention has
allowed francs to carry out it, and won Gugon recognised itself as Charles the Great vassal; it arranges
the big festival on which both emperors appear in gold crowns.But this poetic катарсис could not
extinguish adequately all collected envy and rage. And here end: storm by crusaders of Constantinople
on April, 13th, 1204, a robbery and severe slaughter of men, women and children when латиняне at
last have satisfied envy and hatred to Byzantines. «Never before from creation of the world in one city
was not similar extraction» is taken, — the participant of IV crusade хронист tells Villarduen, and it is
echoed Byzantian хронист by Nikita Honiat: «сарацины are kinder and сострадательны in
comparison with these people who carry on a shoulder a sign on the Christ».If animosities of medieval
Christians to Byzantines with whom they were in constant contacts, did not do without a remorse, in
relation to Moslems here, apparently, there was no problem. The Moslem was incorrect, the enemy of
the Lord, and about reconciliation with it could not be and speeches. The antagonism between
Christians and Moslems was universal-such what it was defined by daddy Urban II in 1095 in
Klermone, having acted with the sermon of I crusade: «What shame will be to us if this so fairly
despised tribe of incorrect people unworthy a rank and mean slaves to a devil will get the best of the
selected people of all-powerful God! On one party outcast enemies of the Lord will battle, on another
the friends generously presented with original riches» In the opinion of Christians Moslems were
«недочеловеки». In shansonde-gesture of "Aliskan" the poet, speaking about destruction of Vivena,
we exclaim

136On a body it was counted by fifteen gaping wounds. Сарацин would die of slightest of them!
Магомет was one of the worst frights of medieval Christianity. It it is persistent pursued imagination
of Christians in апокалипсическом vision. It was not mentioned differently as in connection with
Antichrist. At Peter Dostopochtennogo, abbey Kljuni in the middle of XII century, it was located in
hierarchy of enemies of the Christ between Ariem and Antichrist; at Ioahima Florsky in the end of the
same century it «приуготавливает arrival of Antichrist, as Moisej приуготовил the Christ». On fields
of one manuscript of 1162 — the Koran-caricature Latin translation on Magometa represents it in the
form of a monster.At the same time the history of the relation of medieval Christians to Moslems
represents history of fluctuations and shades. In IX century Alvar from Cordoba, certainly, saw in
Magomete апокалипсического an animal, but Paskas Radbert, marking the fundamental antagonism
perfectly seized by it in geographical opposition of Christianity which should extend for the whole
world, and Islam which has snatched at it extensive area of the earth, diligently distinguishes the
Moslems who have received knowledge of God, and pagans whom It is at all unknown. Till XI century
Christian pilgrimage to the Palestin won by Moslems were carried out peacefully, and only at some
theologians appeared апокалипсический an image of Islam.All has changed in XI century when all
propagation putting in the forefront hatred of Christians to henchmen of Magometa, had been prepared
and skilfully organised crusades. The certificate of this turning-point are shansonde-gesture in which
memoirs on islamo-Christian symbiosis on borders of two spheres mix up with the statement become
henceforth ruthless oppositions. In gesture "Maine" where it is told about Charles the Great childhood,
we see the hero in Toledo on service at сарацинского the king who erects it in a dignity of the knight,
— an echo of the istoriko-legendary Spanish realities embodied in «to the Song about Side». But at the
same time Charles and almost all heroes a chanson-de-gesture are presented afflicted with one desire:
to fight with сарацином and to win it. All mythology dominating henceforth is reduced to a duel of the
Christian knight and the Moslem. Struggle against incorrect becomes an ultimate goal of a knightly
ideal. The incorrect is considered henceforth as the pagan — and the pagan inveterate which obviously
refuses true and the reference in Christianity. In a bull about convocation of the Fourth Lateransky
cathedral in 1213 daddy Innokenty III called Christians for a crusade against язычниковсарацин, and
Zhuanvil constantly names the Muslim world "pagan".

And nevertheless through this lowered curtain between Christians and Moslems who, apparently, lifted
it only for this purpose. To battle, through this fighting front about –

137должались and even peace contacts and exchanges extended.First of all trading exchanges.
Whatever embargoes imposed the papacy on export of the Christian goods in the Muslim world, these
interdictions were broken by contraband. Daddies have terminated that deviations began to suppose,
occurrence of gaps in this blockade from which Christians suffered more than Moslems, and even have
started to grant licences. In this game of all Venetians have surpassed. In 1198, for example, having
forced the daddy to recognise that, without having agrarian resources, they can live only trade,
веницианцы have received from Innokentija III permission to trade «with the sultan of Alexandria» —
behind an exception, the truth, the strategic goods included by papacy in «the black list» which was
obligatory for all Christian world: iron and the weapon, pitch, tar, building wood, the ships.Then
intellectual exchanges. Not that that many Christian intellectuals tested temptation to pass in other
camp. Perhaps, only one Abeljar which have lost courage because of prosecution of furious opponents,
thought at some instant of it.« I have run into such despair, — he admitted, — that intended to leave the
Christian world and to leave to pagans, having provided itself with tax payment (on иноверцев) a quiet
Christian life among enemies of the Christ ». But also in the heat of crusades the Arabian science was
rolled by waves on the Christian world and if it has not generated at least fed that we name the
Renaissance of XII century. To tell the truth, Arabs mainly transferred to Christian scientists the Greek
science which saved up in east libraries and has been started up in a turn by Muslim scientists which
have brought it on the western extremity of the Islamic world, to Spain where it in process of
Rekonkisty was greedy absorbed by the educated Christians. Won by Christians in 1085 of Toledo
became the centre of gravity for these thirsting which at first were mainly translators.It is more than
that, in the Sacred earth, the main place of military opposition of Christians and Moslems, the peaceful
co-existence connexion was quickly established. It ascertained-however, with some indignant surprise-
Spanish-Muslim хронист Ibn Dzhubajr during travel to Palestin to 1184: «Christians raise from
Moslems in the territory defined побор which has been established from the kind consent. From its part
Christian merchants pay in Muslim territory the duty from the goods; between them there is a perfect
consent and in all circumstances equality is observed. Soldiers are occupied by war, the people stay in
the world. In this sense the situation in this country is so unusual, as the long reasoning could not settle
a theme...»In comparison with these original "pagans" who were Moslems in relation to which unique
ofi –

138циальной sacred war was a position of Christians, absolutely others differently looked: what else
worshipped to idols, were considered as possible Christians. Till the end of XIII century when the
Christianity in Europe hardly probable was not definitively established in the west of Russia, in
Ukraine and on the Balkans, almost continuous missionary activity moved apart borders of the
Christian world. After have been turned into an orthodox Catholicism intruded ariane-in particular,
вестготы and лангобарды, and then, in the beginning of VII century, pagans Anglo-Saxons, — this
front евангелизации has settled down in the east and the north of Europe, having found out the
tendency to merge with the German expansion. If the western Germany was христианизирована more
or less peacefully Anglo-Saxon missionaries from whom St. Bonifatsy (Винфрид) Karolingi, since
Charles the Great, whose behaviour in relation to saxophones was typical was the most known, began
to spend aggressive and violent христианизацию. On the first порах'каролингские sovereigns took in
the relation of pagans of a defensive position, but after 955 when Otton I has gained a double victory
over Hungarians and east Slavs, the long period of an aggressive policy of Germen which have started
the reference of pagans force has begun. In the beginning? Centuries (bishop) of Bruno Kverfurtsky
reproached the German king Henry II who yet have been not crowned by the emperor, that it, waging
war against Christians-Poles, forgets about язычникахлютичах which it is necessary, according to an
evangelical precept, to convert to Christianity by force of arms. Since then this thought becomes the
slogan of struggle against pagans. "Barbarians" willingly applied on these pagans, by the way, an
epithet. Хронист the Gaul the Anonymous author, defining a geographical position of Poland, writes:«
At northern sea its neighbours are very furious three barbarous people occupying Silesia (area
лютичей), Pomorze and Prussia, against which the Polish prince wages infinite war to turn into (true)
belief. But it has not succeeded in pulling out from their heart insidiousness a sermon sword, in, that
выкорчевать all them гадючью breed a beating sword ».Really, this aggressive aspiration to turn
others in the belief encountered strong resistance and caused numerous and violent awakenings of
paganism. In 973 large slavic revolt has destroyed the church organisation between Elba and Oder, in
the earths велетов and ободритов; in 1038 there was a revolt in paganism protection in Poland, and in
1040 the turn of apostasy of Hungary has come. And the Gaul the Anonymous author notices: «the
Princes of these barbarous people won fights by the Polish prince, often found a shelter in a christening
but as soon as they restored the forces renounced Christian belief and renewed war against Christians».
The Christian sermon almost always suffered failure when she tried to address to the pagan people and
to convince weights. But, as a rule, she achieved success when involved on the

139The party of leaders and dominating social groups. For Byzantines and Moslems integration into
the Roman Christian world would mean decline, transition to lower step of a civilisation. For pagans
the introduction into this world was, on the contrary, advancement. It Dane Garald Golubozubyj (950
—986), Norwegian Olaf Trjuggvason (997—1000) have well understood franc of Hlodvig in the
beginning of VI century, Norman Rollon in 911, Pole Meshko in 966, Hungarian Vajk (St. Stefan) in
985. Pagan mutinies were often accompanied, besides, social revolts: weights came back to paganism
because of animosities to the христианизированным to leaders, which had usually sufficient forces
quickly to suppress these explosions. Thus, medieval «the new Christianity» contrary to the initial
Christianity based small людом which eventually has imposed the belief to the emperor and ruling
classes, was Christianity into which turned from above and compulsorily. It is not necessary to lose
sight never of this change of Christianity in the Middle Ages. In that world of violence the reference in
other belief was the first violence. The only thing that caused sometimes fluctuations of the far-sighted
leaders understanding, what power gives them familiarising with Christianity, — it a choice between
Rome and Constantinople. While Poles and Hungarians have made expressly or by implication the
decision in favour of Rome, Russian, Bulgarians and Serbs were inclined on the party of Byzantium.
Curious struggle of influence took place in the Velikomoravsky princedom of IX century: an episode
with Cyril and Mefodiem and original attempt of a combination of the Roman Catholicism with divine
service in slavic language. Ephemeral attempt, as, however, and Velikomoravsky power. The Roman
Catholicism has triumphed in Moravia and Czechia with an establishment of the feudal state
Pshemyslovichej.Having achieved stabilisation in the north of the western pool of the Mediterranean
where it was possible to constrain an impact of Byzantium and Islam in Spain, Sicily and Southern
Italy, but having suffered in XIII century failure in Greece and Palestin, the western Christianity has
affirmed within the same XIII century as a strip from Lithuania to Croatia.Then, in XIII century, the
western Christians have noticed the third kind of pagans between Moslems and "barbarians": Mongols.
The Mongolian myth is one of the most curious myths of medieval Christianity. Christians of the
Central Europe, in Small Poland, Silesia and Hungary, without any fluctuations distinguished the real
pagans in those whom they named "Tatars" and who exterminated them in devastating attacks three
times, — besides one of the most severe pagans with whom east intrusions pushed on the West.
Responding to hearings about their terror, хронист Matvej Parisian wrote: «It is the brutal creations
which have assimilated to animals what should name faster monsters, rather than people. They are out
for blood and drink it, devour the dog meat and even human плогь». And in the same

140Time in other part of the Christian world, among princes, clergymen and merchants, Mongols have
generated strange dreams. Them considered not only ready to accept Christianity, but already accepted
it and expecting only an occasion to declare itself.Myth about пресвитере John, a mysterious Christian
sovereign, whose kingdom placed in XIII century in Asia (later, in XV century, in Ethiopia), born by
imagination of the western Christians on the basis of vague data about remained in Asia several
несторианских communities, has extended on Mongols. From here the great dream of the union of
Christians and Mongols which, having clamped Islam in the ring, will destroy it or will convert to
Christianity and will establish at last a kingdom of true belief on all earth. From here and those
missions which were sent in the middle of XIII century to Mongols: two Dominicans and two
Franciscans directed to 1245 by daddy Innokentiem IV, the French embassy sent in 1249 by Louis IX
Sacred, and in 1253 one more Dominican, and also Franciscan mission led by Fleming Wilhelm
Rubrukom. We were reached by two most valuable stories about these adventures: the certificate of
Rubruka and other Franciscan, Giovanni yes Plano Karpini. That were the embassies of the great hope
which have come to the end with great disappointment. Louis Svjatogo's disappointment about which
to us tells Zhuanvil: «the King strongly repented that has sent messengers and gifts». The
disappointment has comprehended Marco Polo who tried to justify at the end of the century hopes on
possibility of the reference of Mongols in Christianity and so explained failure: «If the daddy has sent
to the great khan of the people expert in art of the sermon the khan would become the Christian as it is
known that it had a great desire to become that». However, on the same page Marco Polo puts the
whole speech in which Mongolian the lord explains incompatibility of social and political structures of
Tatars with Christianity in lips of khan Hubilaja.The Mongolian myth has caused some more
expeditions about 1300. Variety of missions most important of which were Giovanni's missions де
Monte Korvino and Odorika де Pordenona, has come to the end even with formation in Asia the small
and short-lived Christian communities. The medieval Christianity remains European. But it undertook
brave attempts to get on a world's end. «The native land of Tatars, — wrote still Zhuanvil, —
represents the big sandy valley, untilled and fruitless. It begins at a chain of monstrous rocks which
form a doomsday from outside the east. Still nobody overcame this chain, but, according to Tatars,
there there live Gogh's people and Magoga which leave therefrom when will come скончание
centuries and there will be Antichrist that all to destroy».Thus, Christianity, having failed in Asia and
Africa (where the first Christian missionaries have been exterminated by Moslems), again has found
out — but already outside of the experience-border of the imagined world which geography former was
based on the Bible.

Goff Le Z.Tsivilizatsija of the medieval West

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART THE SECOND. THE MEDIEVAL CIVILIZATION

The chapter VII. A material life (X—XIII centuries)

The medieval West-is poor the equipped world. It would be desirable to tell «technically backward». It
is necessary to repeat, however, that is hardly admissible to speak in this case about backwardness and
the more so about backwardness. For if Byzantium, the Muslim world and China obviously surpassed
then the West in degree of development of a monetary economy, a city civilisation and manufacture of
luxury goods and there the technological level was rather low. Certainly, the Early Middle Ages knew
even certain recourse in this area in comparison with Roman "empire. Only from XI century appear
and the important technological achievements extend. However during the period between V and XIV
centuries invention was shown poorly. But anyway, progress-in the core is faster quantitative, rather
than qualitative, — should be taken into consideration. Distribution of instruments of labour,
mechanisms, the technical adaptations known from antiquity, but remaining in большей or a smaller
measure rare exceptions, casual finds, instead of the general innovations, — such is positive aspect of
evolution in the medieval West.From number actually «medieval inventions» two the most impressing
and revolutionary ascend actually to antiquity. But for the historian date of their birth (that is
distribution time, instead of the opening) are the Middle Ages. So, the water-mill was known in Illyria
from II century BC, and in Asia Minor from I century BC It existed in the Roman world, it is described
by Vitruvy, and its description shows that Romans have brought essential improvement in the device of
water-mills, having replaced horizontal wheels on vertical with a tooth gearing which connected a
horizontal axis of a wheel to a vertical axis of millstones. And still a rule there was a manual millstone
which was rotated by slaves or animals. In IX century the mill is already extended in the West: 59 mills
are mentioned in полиптихе rich abbey Sen-Zhermen-de-Pre. But still in? Century« Sen-Bertinsky
annals »described a construction the abbey of a water-mill near Sent-Omera as« a marvellous show of
our time ». Intensive distribution of water-mills is necessary on XI—XIV centuries So, in? Century in
one of quarters of Rouen existed two mills, in XII century there are five new, in XIIIеще

184The medieval plough also almost undoubtedly occurs from the wheel plough described still in I
century Pliniem by the Senior. It extended and was slowly improved in the Early Middle Ages.
Philological researches allow to consider rather plausible distribution of a plough to the slavic earths —
in Moravia before intrusion of Hungarians into the beginning? Century and, maybe, in all earths of
Slavs before Avarian intrusion of 568 as set of terms concerning it is the general for various slavic
branches and, hence, previous their division which has followed advancement of avars. But for IX
century there is no saying, to what kind of the tool corresponded carrucae, mentioned каролингскими
картуляриями and полиптихами. Similarly among small instruments of labour a plane, for example,
which invention often attribute to the Middle Ages, it was known from I century.On the other hand,
plausibly that the fair number of "medieval inventions» which are not the Greek-Roman heritage, has
been borrowed on • the East. It, possibly, concerns (though is not proved) a windmill: it was known in
China, then in Persia in VII century, it knew in the Arabian Spain? Century, and only in the end of XII
century it appears in the Christian West. However localisation of the first windmills, which former
existence is traced nowadays in the limited zone round La Manche (Normandy, Ponte, England), and
also typical distinctions between east mill which does not have wings, but equipped with through
apertures in a wall which directed a wind on the big vertical wheels, the western mill with four long
wings and a mill of the Mediterranean type with many triangular panels tense by means of cables (as it
is possible to see it also until now in Mycenae and Portugal), — all it supposes possibility of
independent occurrence of a windmill in three named geographical zones.But what importance of
distribution of these technological achievements, that characterises, despite of everything, a technical
universum of the medieval West in большей to a measure, rather than a lack изобретательского the
genius so it is its rudimentary character was. Set of technical lacks, difficulties, bottlenecks — here that
first of all held the medieval West in a primitive condition. Abundantly clear that in the wide plan
responsibility for this poverty and technical stagnation needs to be assigned to social structures and
mental installations.Only one dominating minority of secular and church seigneurs tested and could
satisfy requirements for luxury goods which first of all were imported from Byzantium or the Muslim
world (precious fabrics, spices). The part сеньориальных requirements was satisfied at the expense of
the products which were not demanding craft or industrial processing (hunting gave game for a food
and fur for clothes). The small amount of products from some was required only ten, in XIV in -
already fourteen.

185Still the known Norman poet of XII century has defined you two main types of rural landscapes of
medieval Normandy: plains (with the open extended fields) and бокажи (with the fields of a wrong
configuration surrounded with fences from a dense bush and trees). At the left - a landscape бокажаIn
Sent-Ober-sjur-Orn (30), on the right a characteristic landscape of plain of Caen with settlements of the
Sconce and Juber-Foli (31). These plans have been removed in the beginning of XVIII century, and
they testify to preservation since medieval times of extreme divisibility of ground
possession.Professional categories (goldsmiths, smiths). The population Great bulk though did not
deliver to seigneurs so cheap and suitable labour for operation as antique slaves, but nevertheless has
been numerous enough and subordinated enough economically that, using the elementary instruments
of labour, to contain ruling classes and to provide own poor existence. It, however, does not mean that
the Lord! •. ' secular and spiritual aristocracy had only one negative. Braking consequences for technics
development. In some spheres of requirement and tastes of a ruling class стимулировя? And known
progress. So, a duty for persons of a ministry. And especially for monks to have as less as possible
communications with an external world, including communications economic; Desire to get rid about г
material cares to devote itself opus to Dei-actually spiritual employment (divine service, prayers), as
well as a vow of charity which obliged them to care of economic needs not only numerous familia. But
also about alien poor men and beggars by foodstuffs - distribution ^ all it induced them to develop in
some measure technical wasps –

186нащение. Whether there is a speech about the first water or windmills, about improvement of
agricultural technics is often visible in avant-guard monastic orders. Not casually then, there in the
Early Middle Ages the water-mill invention attributed sacred which has put it in the given area, — for
example, Orensu Osh, constructed in IV century a mill on lake Izabi, or Tsezariju Arelatsky which in
VI century has built it in Sen-Gabriele on Djuranse.Evolution of arms and the military art, having the
major value for military aristocracy, promoted metallurgy and ballistics progress.The church as we
saw, has been interested in improvement of measurement of time for needs of a church calendar, and
also in building of temples — the first big buildings of the Middle Ages; it urged forward technical
progress not only in building business, but also in manufacturing of tools, automobiles, in applied arts-
such, as stained-glass window art.And still mentality of ruling classes remained antitechnical.
Throughout almost all Middle Ages, till XIII century, partly and later, an instrument of labour, the tool,
the work.Veston Pinkni (England) gives the rare sample of medieval system. Open zeroes with
characteristic сечкой furrows and embankments. At the left (32) plan

The districts, executed in 1591., with instructions of names of holders on each strip of fields. On the
right (33) — a modern aerial photograph of the same district, allowing to restore lines of medieval
system of fields.

187In the technical aspects appeared in the literature or art only as symbols. To our representations
about a mill. A wine press and a two-wheeled cart we are obliged христологическим to allegories of a
mill and a mystical press or a chariot of Iliproroka which to us presents, in particular, "Hortus
Delicia????" XII century Some instruments of labour appear in a medieval iconography only as
symbolical attribute of the sacred. So, shoe sewed it is rather often represented as the traditional tool of
tortures to which subjected some martyrs - for example, St. Benigna Dijon or even sacred patrons of
shoemakers of Krepina and Krepiniana. Here especially indicative fact. Up to XIV century St. Jacob
Mladshy was represented with fulling вальком which one of executioners has broken to it in Jerusalem
a skull. Later the image валька as martyrdom tools disappears, it is replaced with other craft tool, a
steel combing crest: the society and its mentality has changed.Does not exist, out of any doubts, other
sphere of a medieval life, rather than technical in which with such адтипрогрессивной force other line
of mentality would operate: disgust for "innovations". Here still in большей to a measure, than in other
spheres, the innovation was represented by a monstrous sin. It endangered economic, social and
spiritual balance. The innovations turned on advantage of the seigneur, encountered, as we will see
more low, on furious or passive resistance of weights.During long time in the medieval West it has not
been written any treatise on the technician; these things seemed are unworthy a feather, or they would
open a certain secret which not followed transfer.When in the beginning of XII century German monk
Teofil wrote the treatise «About various crafts» he aspired to train not so much handicraftsmen and
artists, how many to show that technical ability is the charisma. English treatises on агрикультуре XII
century, as well as managements on housekeeping (most known of which belongs to Uolteru Henli),
and also "Fleta" — only still collections of a practical advice. Only with occurrence in the beginning of
XIV century of the treatise «About benefits of agriculture» болонца Petro ди can tell Kreshchentsi
about renewal of tradition of the Roman agriculturists. Others so-called «works on the technician» —
only эрудитские, often pseudoscientific compilations. Not having the big documentary value for
history of natural knowledge. Such are treatises «About names инструмеп тов» Alexander Nekhama,
«About plants» Albert Velikogo and even «Rules for savings of the earths», which Rober Grosstest
was made in 1240 for the countess by the Lincoln.Weakness of a hardware in the Middle Ages was
showed first of all in its most bases. This prevalence of the manual I shout –

188дий over mechanisms, small efficiency of the equipment, a poor condition of agricultural stock and
an agrotechnology, result of that were very much poor harvests, scarcity of power maintenance, a poor
development of automobiles, and also technics of financial and commercial operations.Mechanisation
practically has not made any qualitative progress in the Middle Ages. Almost all used then mechanisms
have been described by scientists эллинистической epoch, mainly Alexandria which quite often
planned also their scientific theory. The medieval West, in particular, has not entered anything new into
systems of transmissions and movement transformation. Five «kinematic drives» — the screw, a
wheel, a cam, a stopper, a pulley-were are known in antiquity. One more of such drives, a crank, is
invented, apparently, in the Middle Ages. It has appeared in the Early Middle Ages in simple
mechanisms (such, as the rotating millstone described in Utrecht псалтыри in the middle of IX
century) But has extended, apparently, only by the end of the Middle Ages. Anyway, its most effective
form, system a rod-crank, has appeared only in the end of XIV century However, many of these
mechanisms or those cars which antiquity knew often only as funny toys-are that the Alexandria
automatic machines, — were extended and have got real efficiency in the Middle Ages. Certain
empirical ability of medieval workers allowed them to fill also to some extent a lack of knowledge. So,
a combination of a camshaft and a spring which allowed to put in action shock tools-such as hammers
and crushers (maillets), — replaced somewhat unknown system a rod-crank.Whether it is possible if
not to explain mentality this stagnation of technics of transformation of movement, at least to connect it
with some scientific and theological concepts? Despite works of Jordan Nemorarija and its schools in
XIII century, аристотелева the mechanics was not the most fruitful scientific contribution of
philosophy though it is not necessary to attribute to Aristotle as it did in the Middle Ages, the treatise
«About the mechanic» which author remains to unknown persons. Even in XIV century scientists
whom more or less resolutely theorists of "impulse" (impetus) criticised physics and mainly
аристотелеву mechanics-such as Bredvardin, Okkam, Buridan, we Shout, — remained, as well as
Aristotle, captives of the metaphysical concept which in a root undermined their dynamics.« The
impulse », as well as« the embodied force »(virtus impressa), remained« force "," driving ability »—
metaphysical concept from which movement process was deduced. However, at the heart of these
theories of movement theological questions still lay.The indicative example of such approach has
shown in 1320 François де to La the March which has asked a question, whether «a certain
supernatural force is concluded in sacraments. Which is formally inherent in them». It has induced it to
put a problem
189About, whether «there can be in the artificial tool (or to be received from external действователя)
a certain force, is immanent to this tool». Thereupon it investigated a case of body freely thrown in air
and has put thereby as it has fairly been noted, bases of physics of "impulse".Certain indifference has
joined this theological and metaphysical difficulty (handicap) in relation to movement which seems to
me still in большей to a measure, than indifference at the right time, characteristic feature of medieval
mentality though both these categories like are connected, as for Fomy Akvinsky the same as for
Aristotle, «time is movement number». The medieval person was interested not in that moves, and that
is motionless. He searched rest-quies. On the contrary, all that is restless, «искательно», seemed to it
vain-epithet, usually applied on these words, a bit devil.

Let's not exaggerate influence of these doctrines and existential tendencies on technical stagnation. In a
poor development of medieval "cars" the general technological condition connected with certain
economic and social structure was showed first of all.When some improvements also appeared, as, for
example, in machine tools with a rotary motion they or arose later such is system of rotation by means
of a crank, applied in the distaffs which have appeared about 1280 within the limits of crisis of
manufacture of expensive fabrics (it is a question of a distaff put in action by a hand of the spinner
which worked more often standing; the foot pedal has appeared only with system шатункривошип), or
their application has been limited by work with fragile materials that explains why we have very few
subjects turned in the Middle Ages.Application of elevating mechanisms was стимулировано fast
development of building — especially churches and locks. However more usual was, undoubtedly,
lifting of building materials on an inclined plane. Hoist engines which did not differ at all (anyway, by
a principle) from antique-simple лебедки with the returnable block, type cranes «the squirrel wheel»,
— remained funny things or rarities, and use them only one princes, cities and some church
communities could. The little-known mechanism, named "vase" which used in Marseilles for descent
to water of the ships was that. Monk Zherve admired in the end of XII century talent of architect
Giloma from Sanz who delivered from Caen the well-known stone for cathedral reconstruction in
Canterbury, destroyed by a fire in 1174« It has constructed smart cars to load and unload the ships, and
also to lift stones and a solution ». Surprise was caused also by the elevating crane operating by a
principle of the squirrel wheel with which some ports were equipped in XIV century. Being a rarity, it

190Everywhere caused interest and consequently appears in numerous pictures. To one of the first has
got such crane of Brugge, and in Ljuneburge and Gdansk and today still it is possible to see its restored
copies. The first jack known for Villara on drawing де Onnekura in first half XIII century is curious
alsoBefore fire-arms occurrence in a gunnery эллинистическая the tradition improved by Romans also
continued to operate. Ancestors of medieval throwing tools the catapult or a ballista were faster
"scorpion" or «онагр», described in IV century Ammianom Martsellinom, rather than. One of these
tools, «требюше», threw a shell over high walls whereas another, «мангонно», sent the kernels more
low, but further; except that, it could be directed is better. But in all cases the principle пращи held
good.The word "car" was applied, however, in the medieval West (as well as in Late Roman empire
where under mechanici military engineers were understood) only on obsidional tools which, in general,
have been deprived any technical ingenuity. Such "car" was described by Sugery in the «VI Tolstoy's
Louis Biography», telling about storm by the king of lock Gurne in 1107:« To destroy the lock,
produce, without delaying, military adaptations. The high car is erected, towering the three floors over
the battling; hanging over the lock, it should prevent лучникам and арбалетчикам the first line to
move in the lock and to rise on walls. Thereof besieged, continuously, day and night, constrained by
these adaptations, could not remain more on walls. They reasonably tried to find a refuge in
underground holes and, artfully shooting from onions, advanced deadly threat from outside those who
towered over them on the first gear protection of an obsidional tower. To this car which rose in air,
have attached the wooden bridge which, being enough stretched upwards and going down hollow to a
wall, should provide to fighters easy pass to a tower...»There was use for craft (or, perhaps, industrial)
needs of a water-mill. In it, along with new system of a harness, large technical progress of the Middle
Ages consisted.Average centuries-it the tree world. Wood was a universal material. Often mediocre
quality, it брусы in any case were insignificant on the size and are somehow processed. Big integral
брусы which served for construction of buildings, the ship masts, bearing designs that was called le
nierrain, — difficultly gave in to cabin and processing; it were expensive materials, if not luxury goods.
Сугерий, finding ь to the middle of XII century trees of enough big diameter and vyso –

Goff Le Z.Tsivilizatsija of the medieval West


TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART THE SECOND. THE MEDIEVAL CIVILIZATION

The chapter VIII. A Christian society

About thousand year the western literature has started to describe a Christian society under the new
scheme which at once was recognised. «Triple люд» made a society: priests, soldiers, peasants. Three
categories were various, but supplemented each other: everyone required the other. Their harmonious
unity also was society "body". Possibly, this scheme has appeared for the first time in rather free
translation of the treatise of Boetsija «About a consolation philosophy», made in the end of IX century
English king Alfredom Great. The king should have «people of a prayer, horse people, people of work»
(jebedmen, fyrdmen, weorcmen). A century later this three-private structure arises again at Elfrika and
Vulfstajna. About 1080 it is resulted by bishop Adalberon Lansky in a poem devoted to king Robert
Blagochestivomu.« The community of the true forms a uniform body, but three bodies are included by
the state for other law, the law human, distinguishes two classes as noblemen and сервы live under
different charters. One classes-soldiers, patrons of churches and defenders of the people, all without an
exception, both strong, and weak, caring as well about the safety. Other class-servy; these unfortunate
людишки have something only by painful work. Who with абаком in a hand could count up all cares
сервов, their laborious work and long transitions? Everything, clothes, livelihood-supply they the
whole world. Any free person could not neither live without сервов, nor perform any work, make any
expenditure. We see that kings and prelates-servy the сервов. Серв feeds the owner asserting that he
feeds it серва. Also does not see серв the end to the tears and sorrows. So the house Divine, uniform
esteemed, is divided into three parts: One pray, others battle, the third work. Three adjoining parts do
not suffer from the separateness: the services rendered by one of them, serve as a condition for works
of two others; in turn each part incurs care of the whole. So this triple joint remains uniform thanks to
what the law can triumph, and people-taste the world ».This major text in some phrases is unusual.

239The formula «серв feeds the owner asserting that he feeds it серва» as if lightning flash, highlights
a reality of a feudal society. Ascertaining «the house Divine, uniform esteemed, is divided into three
parts» proclaims existence of classes and as consequence of class antagonisms, let and covered with the
orthodox statement for social harmony.For us the characteristic of three classes of the society, soon
become to the classical is important here: praying, at war, working (oratores, bellatores, laboratores).It
would be interesting to track destiny of this theme, its communication with other prayers, for example
with bible genealogy (three sons Aching), with the German mythology (three sons Rigra). We will
quote only one of tens texts, where трехчленность рядится in animalistic clothes.Эадмер
Kenterberijsky, in the beginning of XII century stating sacred Anselm's doctrine, develops this
"example" (exemplum) — some kind of a symbolical parable: «the Example about sheep, bulls and
dogs.Mission of sheep-milk and wool, bulls - to plough the earth, dogs-protect of sheep and bulls from
wolves. God stores them, if each kind of these animals does the duty. As also estates It that bore
various services in this world has made. He has established one-clergymen and monaham-pray for
others that they, executed kindness, like sheep, edified people, feeding with their milk of the sermon,
and inspired them passionate love to God a fleece of a kind example. He has established to peasants
that they, like bulls, provided a life to themselves and another. At last, to soldiers He has established to
show force in necessary limits as from wolves protecting from those enemies who prays and ploughs
the earth ».Whether but this literary theme as worthy introduction to studying of a medieval society
serves? What its communication with the validity was? Whether it reflected real social structure of the
medieval West?Z.Djumezil has excellent proved a hypothesis that three-private division is peculiar to
all индоевропейским to societies and the medieval West is connected in this case with италийской
tradition (Jupiter, Mars, Kvirin), probably, at intermediary Celts.Others including V.Abaev, consider
that «the functional three-particular» is a necessary stage in evolution of any ideology, especially
social. It is important that this scheme has arisen or has revived then when it began to correspond to
evolution of the western society.As we were already convinced, between VIII and XI centuries the
aristocracy becomes a military class, a class of soldiers (miles) and knights. It seems that this statement
is fair and for borders of the Christian world as "soldiers" can be found out and on gravestone
inscriptions of XI century found in a cathedral of Gniezno.
240As has shown E.Deljarjuel, in каролингскую an epoch clergymen become isolated in a clerical
caste that has found reflexion and in liturgy evolution, and in evolution of church architecture: the
closed choruses and клуатры, taken away капитулу, liquidation of "external" schools at monasteries.
Henceforth the priest served a mass as a back to believers who did not participate now in carrying out
of Sacred Gifts, were not supposed to сослужению in евхаристическом a canon - to read steels in a
low voice. Гостию began to prepare not from the usual test, and from опресок, showing, the mass of
an ordinary life is however alien. Position of peasants also tended to be unified at the lowest social
level th level сервов. It is necessary to compare only this scheme with раннесредневековыми to be
convinced of its novelty. Between V and IX centuries met two pictures of a society more often. At
times it was the fractional scheme listing many social or professional categories in which it is possible
to distinguish traces of the Roman classification allocating professional groups, legal classes, social
levels. So, in? Century bishop Ratger Veronese named ten categories: citizens, soldiers,
handicraftsmen, physicians, dealers, lawyers, judges, jury (temoins), procurators, cartridges,
mercenaries, advisers, seigneurs, slaves (or сервы), owners, the pupils rich, poor, poor. In this list it is
possible to learn anyhow specialisation of professional and social categories, characteristic for the
Roman society and, perhaps, in some measure remained in Northern Italy.But more often the society
was thought in opposition of two groups: in certain prospect clergymen and laymen if it was a question
only of a secular society also weak, big and smaller, rich and poor, from the legal point of view it was
told about free and not free could be them. It is obvious that this дуалистическая the scheme
corresponded to simplification of social categories of the Early Middle Ages: the minority monopolised
functions of spiritual, political and economic management, the weight submitted. The care of nuances
or use of the three-private scheme could reflect in rare instances features of thinking of the qualifier
preferring троичность (just as at our schools of the composition it is accepted to divide by all means
into three parts). So, for example, at Raul Glabera between the big and smaller appeared also
"averages" (mediocres). But what in a reality this rhetorical three-particular reflected?The three-
particular functional, appeared about thousand year, was absolutely other. It corresponded to religious,
military and economic functions and characterised a certain stage of evolution of primitive societies -
probably, and not only индоевропейских. Like a parable of Eadmera Kenterberijsky and in animal
symbolism of other societies it would be possible to find In texts if not direct continuity, then the
similarity which is not leaving doubts in relationship of social representations of the Middle Ages with
representations of other, more primitive societies. E.Benvenist underlines that in agrar

241ных cleaning ceremonies (suovetaurilia) the Greek-italijskih cults conformity are found out: a pig-
tellus, a ram - Jupiter, a bull-mars. L.Gershel connects in thinking and in priestly practice of Ancient
Rome the person, a horse and a bull to three functional values-Supreme the power, military valour and
economic prosperity, and Z.Djumezil specifies in symbolical value of an eagle of Jupiter, a she-wolf of
Mars and a pig of goddesses of the earth and fertility. Sheep, bulls and dogs of Eadmera were, thus, a
medieval embodiment of animal symbolism of a three-private society.But what this functional three-
particular and what relations between these three functions, more precisely, between classes
representing them means? The three-private scheme symbolised social harmony (like apologia of
Menenija Agrippy «the Stomach and body parts»), in the figurative form has neutralised struggle of
classes, mystifying the people. It is obvious that the three-private scheme urged to fix subordination of
workers (economy class of manufacturers) to two other classes, but it also does soldiers by defenders of
church and religion, subordinating their those priests. Fastening of this scheme can be considered as an
episode in ancient rivalry of soldiers and sorcerers - simultaneously with the Gregorian reform empire
and papacy struggle was developed. Then there were the gestures which have become by a world of
literature of struggle of a class of clergy with a military class, just as "the Illiada" testifying to struggle
of military valour with шаманической by force that has excellent shown to Century Т. Абаев with
reference to an episode with the Grecian horse. We will pay attention to the distance which has divided
Rolanda and Lanselota, that call христианизацией a knightly ideal, was, in effect, a victory of the
sacred power over military force. Rolanda have class morals think of the линьяже, about the king,
about the native land. From sacred in it unless only that he has served as model for the image of a
sacred epoch understood in XI—XII centuries as «the soldier Christ's». But all артуровский the cycle
crowns triumph of the first function over the second. Already in products of Kretena де Troyes as a
result of evolution of Persevalja unsteady balance between "spiritual" and "knightly" comes to the end
with searches of Graal and transformation of the knight, Good Friday vision. Arthur's death in a cycle
epilogue meant a troops decline: the sword of Eskalibur, the symbolical tool of a military class, is
thrown by the king in lake, and Lanselot becomes some kind of sacred. The Shamanichesky power, the
truth in strongly cleared kind, has absorbed military valour.On the other hand, the question is pertinent,
whether "working" («laboratores») the third category coincides with all manufacturers, whether all
peasants represent this economic productive function?A series of the texts made between the end of
VIII century and XII in. Shows that the term "labour" and words derivative of it were used in economic
value, but not in the pure state, and vseg –

242Yes anyhow контаминируясь with moral idea of burdens, tiresome work. It quite corresponded to
exact value of the term concerning additional work with the earth, whether it be распашка нови or
productivity increase. «Kapituljary about Saxophones» in the end of VIII century distinguishes
«substantia» and "labour" — property hereditary and got, subject to an estimation. «Labor» — it both
arable land clearing, and results of such clearing. The gloss to the manuscript of a canon of the
Norwegian synod of 1164 specifies that «labores» there is «novales», that is a newly ploughed virgin
soil. «Laborator» — what economic possibilities allow to make more. The charter of a monastery of St.
Vincent Makonskogo in 926 tells about «those the best of which consist laboratores». From here and in
the French language appeared with? Century the word «laboureur» ("plowman") meant the higher layer
of peasantry, those who possesses at least pair bulls and own instruments of labour.Therefore the three-
private scheme, even so bright as at Adalberona Lansky, identifying «laboratores» with сервами,
represented only the upper class: a spiritual class, a class of soldiers and the higher layer of a
productive class. It is a question only of «the best part», about elite.In Later Middle Ages in France this
scheme will lay down in a basis of division into clergy, nobility and the third estate. But the last did not
coincide with all not notable («ротюрье»), all bourgeoises-it did not concern it even represented the
higher layer of the bourgeois-notablej. Uncertainty of sights at the nature of this third class which has
theoretically united all who did not belong to first two, but in practice including only their richest or
most formed part was inherent in the Middle Ages. This uncertainty during the French revolution has
found the expression in the conflict between those people of 89th year who wished to stop revolution
after a victory of tops of the third estate, and those who wished to provide triumph of all people.Thus,
in representations about a society in so-called «the first feudal period» (approximately to the middle of
XII century) the weight of hands living by works simply was absent. After all St. Vincent Makonsky in
XI century «laboratores» opposed «pauperiores qui manibus laborant», «to the poorest, working as the
hands». Mark Blok with surprise has noticed that church and secular seigneurs during that epoch
willingly turned precious metals into jewels to melt them as required, without being considered thus
with economic value of work of the artist or the handicraftsman. Really to that epoch were unknown
work and workers. Transfer «laboratores» it is simple as «all workers» would mean misunderstanding
of language of an epoch.We speak about classes, applying this term to categories of a three-private
society whereas traditionally consider that to three functions during a medieval epoch there
corresponded three estates (ordres).

243It speaks discrepancy of word usage. The term «ordo» — is faster каролингский, than actually
feudal, belonged to the church dictionary, corresponding to religious vision of the world divided on
wordly and church, spiritual and terrestrial. Thus, «ordo» could be only two:« Clergy "and" the people
"," clergymen "and" laymen »; is more often texts speak about« both estates "("utraque ordo»). And
only lawyers of New time have decided to spend without the special bases distinction between the
classes defined economically, and, the estates defined legally. Actually, «ordo» though was concept
religious as well as a class, was based on social and economic base. And the tendency to transform in
«ordo» the classes making the three-private scheme, peculiar to its medieval creators and users,
reflected aspiration to give to it character of the objective and immemorial reality created by God and
угодной to it, having made a social revolution impossible.Concept replacement «ordo» concept
«conditio» (position) as it is at times happened since XI century, and from XIII century replacement
«conditio» on «etat» (condition) were, thus, rather significant changes. It обмирщение world visions
was important already in itself, but the main thing that it was accompanied by the destruction of the
three-private scheme reflecting evolution of a medieval society. It is known that the critical moment in
the history of three-private schemes came with occurrence in a society of the new class which has been
not provided by the scheme. Various societies (Z.Djumezil has shown it on an example of societies
индоевропейских) in own way solve this problem. The new class can stand aside, if to it is refused
inclusion in the scheme; it can be merged with one of earlier existing classes, and, at last, more
revolutionary variant enters a new class into the old scheme, transforming it from three-private into the
four-private.The class of merchants became such infringer of calmness, whose occurrence has marked
transition from closed to open economy, — a class powerful economically and not content with
submission to priests and soldiers. It is clearly visible, as the traditional medieval society tried to find
one of conservative variants of the decision: so, for example, in the English sermon of XIV century it is
possible to read that God has created clergymen, noblemen and peasants, and devils-burghers and
usurers, and the German poem of XII century asserted that the fourth class, a class of usurers
(«Wuocher»), corrects three other.Despite the fact that what the three-private scheme of a society still
for a long time can be found out as a literary or ideological plot, it is necessary to recognise that from
second half XII century and within all XIII century it collapses and gives way to more difficult and
flexible scheme which has reflected serious shocks in a society.The three-private society is replaced by
a society «etats»,

244Is the categories defined by socially-professional position. Their number could vary at the
discretion of the author, but certain constants-in particular, mixture of the religious classification based
on clerical and family criteria, and also division on professional functions and a social status remained.
However, sometimes the plots taken from the Bible or Christian symbolism adapted to the new scheme,
how three sons Aching illustrated the three-private scheme. Гонорий Avgustodunsky compared a
society to the church which columns bishops, as stained-glass windows-masters, the arch-princes, a tile
roof - the knights, the paved floor-people, all Christian world supporting and feeding with the work
serve. In XIII century Saxon popular preacher-Franciscan Konrad identified an altar with the Christ,
towers-with the daddy and bishops, choruses-with clergymen, a nave-with laymen. Then Bertold
Regensburgsky distinguished 10 social classes corresponding to 10 ranks angelic. The German
collection of sermons made nearby 1220г., lists 28 «etats»: 1) the daddy; 2) cardinals; 3) patriarchs; 4)
bishops; 5) prelates; 6) monks; 7) crusaders; 8) novices; 9) wandering monks; 10) секулярные priests;
11) lawyers and physicians; 12) students; 13) wandering students; 14) nuns; 15) the emperor; 16) the
king; 17) princes and columns; 18) knights; 19) noblemen; 20) оруженосцы; 21) burghers; 22)
merchants; 23) retail dealers; 24) heralds; 25) peasants obedient; 26) peasants rebellious; 27) women
and 28)... Brothers preachers (that is Dominicans)! In essence, it were two parallel hierarchies of
clergymen and the laymen, headed accordingly the daddy and the emperor.In «to the Book about
manners» Eten from the Wine glass (apprx. 1175) does not use still the term «etats», but in the first part
of this poem it defines duties of kings, clergymen, bishops, archbishops, cardinals, knights, and in the
second — вилланов, townspeople and burghers, ladies and young ladies (demoiselles).The new
scheme while concerns still to иерархизированному to a society at which description it is accepted to
go down from top to down, except for Spanish «Books about Alexander» (sulfurs. XIII century) where
the review «etats» begins with peasants and comes to an end noblemen. But it is a question of the
hierarchy which are distinct from «ordres» a three-private society, about hierarchy, is faster horizontal,
than vertical, more human, rather than divine, not based on the divine right to which it is possible to
make, hence, certain changes, without calling into question will of the Lord. As an indicator of
ideological and mental changes the iconography can serve. The picture located the friend over the
friend «ordres» (however, never disappearing completely and even strengthened the positions during an
absolutism epoch) is superseded by the image «etats», going one after another. Undoubtedly, strong
this-daddy world, the emperor, knights, bishops-begin dance, but движутся they not upward, and
downwards.

245Towards to death. For the society of a majestic pyramid «ordres» has given way to a train «etats»,
carrying away each other in death dancing.This десакрализация societies was accompanied by
divisibility increase, the decomposition which was simultaneously and reflexion of evolution of social
structure, and result more or less realised policy of clergymen which, seeing as the society «ordres»
escapes them, tried to weaken a new society, dividing, атомизируя it and directing to death. And
unless «the black death» has not shown 1348, what the Lord needs to destroy all «etats»?Destruction of
the three-private scheme of a society has been connected with blossoming of cities in XI—XIII
centuries, which as we were convinced. In turn it is necessary to consider in a context of growth of a
public division of labour. The three-private system has cracked simultaneously with system «seven free
arts» then when bridges between disciplines humanitarian and technical have been induced. City
building was a crossroads where the three-private society collapsed and where its new image was
developed.The church had to adapt, the most live minds in theology have proclaimed that any craft, any
"position" can be justified, if it is conformed to idea of Rescue. Герхох Rejhersbergsky in the middle
of XII century in «Books with about a structure Divine» speaks about «to Install-this great building.
This great workshop» confirms:« The one who a sacred christening has renounced a devil, even if it not
the clergyman and not the monk. It is considered renounced the world, as rich or poor. Noble or сервы,
merchants or the peasants, all those who professes Christ's belief, should reject that is hostile to them,
and to follow that is necessary to them ». After all each category of people (the dictionary remains here
within the limits of the concept«ordres») and in general each trade find in Catholic belief and in
апостолической to the doctrine a rule concerning the position, and if, being guided by it, they conduct
real fight,« they can achieve a wreath », that is Rescue. Certainly, the recognition was accompanied by
the strict control. The church supposed existence«etats», having taken away each of them a
corresponding sin like a label. Class sins induced to development of professional morals.First this new
society was thought as a society of a devil. The wave which has Otsjuda-begun with XII century of
plots about «daughters of a devil», married each of «etats». So, on the fly-leaf of the Florentine code of
XIII century we read:«At a devil was nine daughters whom he has married:

Симонию for clergymen

Hypocrisy for monks

Robbery for knights

Sacrilege for peasants

Pretence for servants

Deceit for merchants

Usury for burghers

Щегольство for matrons

He has not wished to give out debauchery for anybody, but to all it offers, as the public maid ».

246The literature presented by sermons «ad status» — addressed to each of «etats» has blossomed
гомилетическая. Since XIII century the special place was given to them in the sermons by begging
awards. The general of an award of Dominicans Gumbert Rimsky кодифицировал them in the middle
of XIII centuryTheir inclusion in confession and repentance practice was recognition end «etats».
Textbooks for confessors of XIII century, defining sins and disputable cases, began to catalogue
eventually sins on social classes. To everyone «etats» own sins and defects were taken away. The
moral and spiritual life was socialised under society laws «etats».John from Frejburga in the book
"Confessionary" summarises the work «the Sum for confessors», intended for «the most simple and the
least tempted» from them, distributing sins on 14 py6pHKaM - «etats»: 1) bishops and prelates; 2)
clergymen and owners бенефициев; 3) priests parish, vicars and confessors; 4) monks; 5) judges; 6)
lawyers and public prosecutors; 7) physicians; 8) doctors and masters; 9) princes and other noblemen;
10) spouses; 11) merchants and the bourgeois; 12) handicraftsmen and workers; 13) peasants; 14)
"plowmen" («laboratores»).In this split society spiritual leaders nevertheless have kept nostalgia on
unity. Long being in defence, the flock Christ's, poor, unknown to other world and despised by it-from
of Cordoba to Byzantium, Cairo, Bagdad, Beijing, — could become stronger, according to its leaders,
only in monolithic unity. The Christian society should make a uniform body («corpus»). This ideal was
proclaimed also theorists каролингской epoch, and papacy of times of crusades since Urbana II.When,
appear, top took variety, only one John Solsberijsky tried in "Polikratike" (apprx. 1160) to rescue unity
of the Christian world, comparing a wordly Christian society to a human body, whose bodies and
members are formed by various professional categories. A sovereign is a head, advisers-heart, judges
and local managing directors-eyes, ears and language, soldiers-hands, financial an officials-stomach
and an intestines, peasants-feet.In the world of duels what was the Christian Middle Ages, the society
was first of all arena of struggle of unity and the variety thought in turn as a duel of good and harm. For
very long the totalitarian system on spirit of the Christian Middle Ages identified good with unity, and
angrily — with variety. In an everyday life between the theory and practice dialectic connection and
the unity statement was established was combined with inevitable tolerance to variety more often.

247What head at this body showing the Christian world was? Actually the body was two-headed, the
daddy and the emperor were its heads. But the medieval history knew more likely their disagreements
and struggle, than the union realised, perhaps, only once, and besides in ephemeral enough kind,
Ottonom III and Silvestrom II about thousand year. In the rest of the time of the relation of heads of the
Christian world showed rivalry at the top of two dominating, but church among themselves church and
secular hierarchies, priests and soldiers, шаманической the power and military force.However,
between papacy and empire the duel no means always occurred in the pure state. Others протагонисты
спутывали cards in this game.From outside churches the situation has cleared up quickly enough.
After there was obvious an impossibility супрематии the patriarch of Constantinople and east
Christianity over Rome that the schism of 1054 has confirmed, papacy leadership was not challenged
by a roman catholic church. This or that bishop could rebel, the emperor could put forward for some
time the antipope (in their only one XII century there was a ten), but the daddy, certainly, was the head
of a religious society though proclaimed the leadership stage by stage and only gradually passed to it in
practice. In this respect solving step was made by Grigory VII in the «Dictatorship of the daddy» 1075
where it has proclaimed among the other: «only Roman bishop can be named by universal by right...
His name Is unique should to be proclaimed in all церквах... The one who does not belong to the
Roman Church, cannot be considered as the Catholic». For one XII century« Sacred Peter's vicar »has
turned in« the vicar Christ's »and began to supervise canonization and consecration of the new sacred.
In XIII and XIV centuries first of all at the expense of development of papal fiscal system the church
turns to the present monarchy. And only on boundary XIV—XV centuries the papal leadership will be
threatened by cathedral movement which, however, as a result will suffer defeat.Against papal
successes the emperor far not so undoubtedly could be considered as the head of a society of laymen.
The periods of disappearance of the imperial power were immeasurably longer than when vacant there
was a Holy See (as, for example, 34 months separating death of Klimenta IV in November, 1268 from
election of Grigory? In September, 1271), these events were considered all the same as an exception.
The West did not know the emperor with 476 for 800, it practically disappears again in 899, and,
anyway, with 924 for 962, it was not also in the Great interregnum-from of death of Fridriha II (1250)
before Rudolf Gabsburga's election (1273) . In 1198 have selected simultaneously two emperors - of
Ottona IV and Rudolf Shvabskogo, then with 1212 on 1218 emperor Ottonu IV was resisted by
emperor Fridrih hostile to it II. It is not necessary to forget also that a lot of time could pass between
elections in Germany which conferred a title on the selected works only «the king Roman», and
crowning in Ri –

248ме, transforming it in the original emperor. So, Fridrih the Barbarossa which has become by the
king Roman in the Aachen on March, 9th, 1152, was crowned by an imperial crown in Rome only on
June, 18th, 1155 Fridrih II became the king in Aachen on July, 25th, 1215, and the emperor in Rome-
22 of November, 1220 But the main thing, hegemony of the emperor in the Christian world was faster
theoretical, than real.It often encountered resistance in Germany, it challenged in Italy and more often
the most powerful sovereigns ignored. Since ottohob kings of France did not consider themselves
somehow as subordinates to the emperor. Since XII century the French, English and Spanish jurists-
canonistes denied that their kings are subject to the emperor or empire laws. Daddy Innokenty III
recognised in 1202 that the king of France in possession the terrestrial property has de facto no
anybody above itself. One of canonistes has declared in 1208 that any king possesses in the kingdom
the same rights, as the emperor in empire. In "Establishments" Louis Svjatoj has declared that «the
king is the holder only at God and itself» («Li rois ne tient de nullui fors de Dieu et de lui»). However,
with Х century has begun the process named Robert Foltsom «smashing of concept of empire» when
there was a spatial restriction of influence of an imperial title. It is characteristic that it appears in the
countries which have not got under the power of Karolingsky empire, th British isles and on Iberijsky
peninsula. In both cases the title of the emperor reflected claims on супрематию over uniform region:
over Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, over Christian иберийскими kingdoms. In Great Britain imperial dreams
lasted no more than century: Этельстан for the first time ordered to call itself "emperor" in 930, Edgar
in 970 has proclaimed: «I, Edgar, favour of Bozhiej the most august emperor of all Albion», and last
time the Whip (mind. In 1055) declared: «I, the Whip, the emperor, favour Christ's kingdom англов on
Island taken hold», and its biographer have summed up: «It had been subordinated five kingdoms:
Denmark, England, Britain, Scotland, Norway, was the emperor».In Spain the imperial chimera has
existed longer. Ордоньо II in 917 named the father of the Gigolo III "emperor", and this term remained
in many diplomas and chronicles Х century along with the curious use by the bishop Kompostelsky a
title «апостолический», usually applied only to the bishop to the Roman-to daddy. Since Ferdinand I
(1037—1065) who have united Leon and Castile, an imperial title became usual, and since 1077 this
formula was used in two kinds: «the Divine favour the emperor of all Spain» and «the Emperor of all
nations of Spain». The idea of the Spanish empire has reached the blossoming at the Gigolo VII
crowned as the emperor in Leon in 1135 After it кастильская a monarchy was divided, Spain has
broken up to «five kingdoms», and a title of "the emperor of Spain» has disappeared, that again for
short time to appear to the tonic –
249нительно to Ferdinand III, after a capture it of Seville in 1248 So, even being spatially limited, the
idea of empire has always been connected with idea of unity, let and unities fragmentary.At the same
time the German emperors, despite declarations of the offices and a metaphor of flatterers (so, in 1199
Walter дер Folgevejde urged «the emperor» Phillip Shvabskogo to decorate a background a forehead
with a diadem topped white опалом — a guiding star of all sovereigns), even more often limited the
claims of the German nation by limits of Sacred Roman empire, that is Germany and a part of Italy.
Germany was on the first place, especially after the board of German princes began to select the
emperor. Already Fridrih the Barbarossa which has accepted a title of the emperor before the crowning
in Rome (on June, 18th, 1155) Named the princes who have chosen it «accomplices of glory of the
emperor and empire». 1198 has been marked by a double victory of this electoral college, as instead of
selecting son Henry IV (future Fridriha II), they have given preference to his brother Phillip
Shvabskomu, and have soon chosen also its competitor-ottona, having received, thus, two emperors
instead of one. Henceforth the emperor was first of all German under a title of the emperor of Sacred
Roman empire of the German nation. The idea of universal empire has last time dressed dazzling attires
at Fridrihe II which have topped the legal claims on the world leadership by eschatological arguments.
While its opponents saw in it Antichrist or the forerunner of Antichrist, it represented itself(himself)
«the emperor of the end of times», the saviour whom the world will lead to a gold century — to
"marvellous unchangeability» («immutator mirabilis»), the new Adamom, new Avgustinom, almost
that the new Christ. In 1239 It celebrated a place of the birth the city of Ezu in Mark (Italy) as own
Bethlehem.In practice the behaviour of emperors always was more circumspect. They were content
with only honourable superiority, the moral authority gave to emperors something like the patronage
right over other kingdoms. «The authority assumes patronage over all world», — Otton has told
Frejzingen -ский, uncle Fridriha of Barbarossa.So, at the head of the Christian world there was a daddy
and a sovereign(King-emperor) or as the historical formula, Priesthood and the Power, the power
spiritual and the power terrestrial said, the priest and the soldier.Undoubtedly, even the paralysed
imperial idea kept the enthusiasts. Dante, this great afflicted the Middle Ages, yearned on unity of the
Christian world, asks, demands, damns the emperor who is not executingThe debt of the higher and
universal sovereign.The original conflict was developed between «sacerdos» and «rex», between
sacred the lord and a sovereign. Each of the parties tried to resolve it to own advantage. Connecting
both authorities

250In the person, the daddy became the emperor, the king became the priest. Everyone tried to realise
in own way unity of the spiritual and secular power («rex-sacerdos»).In Byzantium «басилевсу» it was
possible to force to consider itself as the sacred person who was simultaneously the head of the
spiritual and political power. It also has received the name цезарепапизма. It seems that also Charles
the Great tried to unite in the person of a rank spiritual and imperial. Putting on of hands during
crowning of 800 reminded a ceremony рукоположения in priesthood as though Charles henceforth
clothed the power of the priest. It was called new as David, the new Solomonom new Iosiej, but
G.Fihtenau has witty noticed that when it named «a sovereign and the priest» («rex et sacerdos»), to it
as Alkuin specified, attributed functions of the preacher, the pastor, but not the priest allocated with
good fortune. Any text does not describe it as new Melhisedeka-unique antiquated tsar-priest in strict
sense of this word.And still kings and emperors throughout all Middle Ages tried to achieve a
recognition of religious, sacral character of the power.The crowning-religious ceremony transforming
the governor in anointed sovereign Bozhija, in a sovereign, «crowned by God» was the major means
for this purpose. The anointing was sacrament and was accompanied by liturgical exclamations, so-
called «Laudes regiae» in which E.Kantorovich has fairly seen a solemn recognition church of
reckoning new суверена to heavenly hierarchy, singing of litanies by the sacred symbolised the union
and symmetry of two worlds, they proclaimed «space harmony of the Sky, Church and the State».The
anointing was as well some kind of рукоположением. Emperor Henry III has declared in 1046 to the
Flowerpot, the bishop Liege: «I who have acquired the right to rule by everything, also am spread
sacred елеем». Ги Osnabrjuksky, one of Henry's supporters IV in its struggle against daddy Grigory
VII, wrote to 1084-1085: «the Sovereign should be allocated from crowd of laymen for, being is spread
sacred елеем, he participates in priesthood». In a preamble of the diploma of 1143 Louis VII reminds:
«We know that under instructions of the Old testament and under church laws of our days only kings
and priests are consecrated помазанием sacred елеем. That who is allocated from all and it is united
with each other by the most holy елеем and it is put at the head of the people of Bozhija, it is necessary
to provide with the citizen of the blessing not only terrestrial, but also spiritual and to hang
together».Crowning ritual is fixed in special establishments. Such «a coronation rank of the French
kings», so-called «the manuscript from Shalona-on-marne», dated about 1280, has remained in the
Parisian national library. Wonderful miniatures of this manuscript reproduce some most significant
episodes of the church ceremony confirming simultaneously the military leader (delivery of spurs and a
sword) and the person almost

Goff Le Z.Tsivilizatsija of the medieval West

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART THE SECOND. THE MEDIEVAL CIVILIZATION

The chapter IX. Mentality, the world of emotions, behaviour forms (X—XIII
centuries)

The feeling of uncertainty — here that influenced minds and souls of people of the Middle Ages and
defined their behaviour. Uncertainty in material security and uncertainty spiritual; the church saw
rescue from this uncertainty as it has been shown, only in one: in solidarity of members of each public
group, in prevention of rupture of communications in these groups owing to an eminence or falling of
this or that of them. This uncertainty underlying all finally was uncertainty in the future life pleasure in
which was promised to nobody for certain and was not guaranteed to the full neither good deeds, nor
reasonable behaviour. Творимые a devil of danger of death chances of rescue so insignificant seemed
so numerous, and that the fear inevitably prevailed over hope. Franciscan preacher Bertold
Regensburgsky in XIII century announced that chances to be condemned on eternal torments have 100
thousand The person against one rescued, and the parity of these selected and damned was usually
represented as small group Aching and its companions in comparison with all other mankind destroyed
by the Flood. Yes, the medieval person found in natural disasters images for expression and an
estimation of spiritual realities, and the historian has the bases to say that efficiency of cerebration
seemed to medieval mankind same low, as efficiency of its agricultural activity. So, mentality,
emotions, behaviour were formed first of all in connection with requirement for self-complacency.First
of all it would be desirable to lean against the past, on experience of predecessors. Just as the old
testament precedes New and forms the basis for it, the behaviour of the ancient should prove behaviour
of people present. If also it was possible to assume something defined, just that could find
acknowledgement in the past. Especial value was given to those whom considered as authorities.
Certainly, in theology, highest of sciences, practice of references to authorities has found the highest
embodiment, but also it, becoming a basis of all spiritual

302And an intellectual life, has been strictly regulated. The higher authority was the Writing; to it the
authority of fathers of church increased. In practice this general authority was embodied in citations
which as though turned to "the authentic" points of view and started to play a role of "authorities"
eventually. As judgements of authorities were often dark and not clear, they cleared up glosses,
interpretation which in turn should proceed from «the authentic author». Quite often glosses replaced
with themselves the original text. From all collections of the texts reflecting intellectual activity of the
Middle Ages, most of all addressed to anthologies of glosses and of them did loans more often. The
knowledge appeared a mosaic of citations - of "colours", — called in XII century« Maxims ». Set of
such maxims-it also is collections of authorities. Already in the middle of XII century Rober де Melen
protested against that influence which among these sayings glosses had. Vainly. Father Shenju
considers that not only mediocre« the Sum of sayings »Peter Lombardskogo — the textbook of
theology for universities of XIII century — only meeting of glosses,« to find which source
inconveniently enough », but what even in« the theology Sum »St. Fomy Akvinsky it is found out a lot
of considered authoritative the texts which origin actually can be established, only having addressed to
deformations in«glossae».To authorities resorted, most likely, in that measure in what they did not
contradict own views of the writing. Alain Lillskomu posesses become winged a phrase that «at
authority from wax, and its form it is possible to change a nose in any party». Most likely, such
unexpected authors, as pagan and Arabian philosophers became authorities for intellectuals of the
Middle Ages also. The same Alain Lillsky asserted that it is necessary to resort to authority of "noble"
philosophers to shame Christians. In? Century the Arabian writers were to such degree in a fashion that
Adelard Bath not without slyness admitted that he attributed many own thoughts to Arabs that they
were better perceived by readers that should — we will underline it — to induce us to discretion in an
estimation of influence of Arabs on medieval Christian thought. Influence it is sometimes exaggerated.
Actually references to Arabs often were only a craze, a mask, called to draw attention to original
thought. Anyway, the reference that this or that statement is borrowed from the past, in the Middle
Ages was almost obligatory. The innovation was considered as a sin. The church hastened to condemn
novitates (Old French «novelletes»). It concerned both technical progress, and intellectual progress.
Was considered to invent the immoral. The most important that respectable «argument of tradition»,
which force well you understand, if speak about «the consent of the centuries which were from depths
of witnesses to give unanimous evidences», often became a dispute subject. «More often, —

303Father Shenju writes,-zdes refer to one author, result one text regardless time and space, without
caring of generating system of certificates ».Oppression of ancient authorities was felt not only in
intellectual sphere. It was felt in all areas of a life. However, it is the press of a traditional country
society where the true and secret pass from father to son, bequeathed by "wise man" to the one whom
he considers worthy it to inherit, and extend in большей to a measure not via hand-written texts, but by
word of mouth. One monk in an inscription on the manuscript of Ademara Shabannsky has opened this
continuity defining value of culture, transferred through tradition: «the Monk and abbey Adrien learnt
Teodor to art of grammar of Aldhelma, Aldhelm trained the Trouble, the Trouble (via Egberta) trained
in Alkuina, that learnt Hrabana and Smaragda, and that Teodulfa after whom there are Hejrik, Hukbald,
Remigy and its numerous followers».So, authorities operated a spiritual life. Medieval ethics were
taught and preached by means of the stereotypic stories illustrating a lesson and indefatigably repeating
moralists and preachers. These collections of examples (exempla) also make a monotonous number of
the medieval moralizing literature. At the first reading instructive stories can entertain; but when
hundred times you find out them in different places there is clear this practice of constant repetition
which translates in intellectual sphere and a spiritual life aspiration to stop time, becomes the inertia
clear force, as though absorbing the most part of mental energy of medieval people. Here one of many
exemplum which formation was opened with A.-L.Gabriel. It is history of the thoughtless student, «the
son of levity» which makes a heavy sin, having intended to change the position. Exemplum appears in
the treatise of the English clergyman «De disciplina scolarium», written between 1230 and 1240, and,
certainly, the author begins that attributes its to one of the most conclusive authorities, Boetsiju. Then,
more or less embellished, with variations, history of this student which at first studied, then was
engaged in trade and agriculture, has visited knights, went deep into the right, married, became the
astronomer - and all it is the cause for satire on different "estates", - this history is found out
everywhere. We meet her, and it is rather amusing, in some French translations «Consolations
philosophy» Boetsija; translators have included it there, having trusted in author Exemplum. But it
meets as well in the numerous fabliau devoted to different "estates". Whether Also the same in various
comments-to of Boetsiju or to the treatise «De disciplina scolarium». The palm belongs in final счс1е
to English Dominican Nicolas Trajvetu (has died apprx. 1328) who has repeated this history in two
comments s to that, and to another to compositions s which has informed to

304Us, maybe, an example essence, having resulted a proverb «sliding stone does not acquire a
moss».0бращаясь to the sayings waiting still for the basic research which would allow us to reach the
depths of medieval mentality, we go down to bases of folklore culture. In this traditional country
society the saying played the major role. But in what measure it was scientific processing of ordinary
terrestrial wisdom, and in what, on the contrary, the response of the people to the propagation
proceeding from a top of a society?As one would expect, force of tradition found special power in
application to a social system, that is in relation to feudal structures. Really, after all at the heart of a
feudal law and practice lay кутюма, that is custom. Lawyers defined it as «a legal rule, the custom
which was born as a result of peace repetition of public certificates which did not generate for a long
time any disputes and contradictions». In François-Olivier Marten's this classical definition one word
remains only desire, instead of the validity: "peacefully". After all кутюма there is not that other, as the
right established by force long enough it was possible to them to force to be silent not consent. It is
possible to estimate revolutionary value of the well-known statement of Grigory VII:« The Lord has
not told: my name Custom ». But also after long time after the daddy-reformer in a society the common
law continued to dominate. Its roots left during immemorial times. It was that went back to the sources
of collective memory."Immemorial"existence was the true proof during a feudal epoch. Here, for
example, the conflict in which in 1252 acted against each other сервы a cathedral of the Parisian
mother of god in an Orly and canons. How the parties proved the case? Peasants asserted that they
should not pay капитулу a tax, and canons objected, leaning against interrogation of the informed
people which asked that the tradition ("rumour"—fama speaks in this respect). Have addressed to two
oldest inhabitants of the given district. One of them, somebody Simon, mayor Korbryoza to whom was
more than seventy years, has declared that, agrees fama, капитул can assess people with a tax and that
it arrived so "from time immemorial" (a tempore a quo non exstat memoria). Other witness,
архидиакон Jean, the former canon, has declared that he saw in капитуле «old rolls» where it has been
written down that canons have the right to assess with a tax of inhabitants of an Orly, and heard that
such custom existed «since an extreme antiquity» (a longe retroactis temporibus) and that капитул
trusted these rolls, «in view of a record antiquity» (sicut adhibetur aucientie scripture).Even in that, as
to the nobility, the sort antiquity was a venerability guarantee first of all. It, more likely, than selection
of the higher clergy to a social sign, in the big degree explains a significant amount notable among
sacred and that

305The fact that the noble origin was attributed by much sacred, actually its not having. This same that
the genealogy of Iesseja proving ancient imperial roots of a family of Maria, that is Jesus Christ
terrestrial family. That, as not a vestige of medieval consciousness, forced архепископа Parisian
Restoration times fondly to declare: «our Lord not only was the son Divine, but it also occurred from a
fine family».To the proof authority, that is the proved antiquity, the proof by miracle increased.
Medieval minds were involved at all with that it was possible to observe and confirm with the natural
law, regularly occurring repetition, and just, on the contrary, that was unusual, is supernatural or,
anyway, abnormally. Even the science more willingly selected the subject something exclusive,
miracles (mirabilia). Earthquakes, comets, eclipses-here plots, worthy surprise and research. Medieval
art and a science went to the person the strange way abounding with monsters.Most likely, the proof by
miracle began to be used at first for the sanctity definition, which in itself is exclusive. Here there was a
national belief and the church doctrine. When from the end of XII century of the daddy began to apply
for the exclusive right of canonization sacred which ranked as that «will of the people» (vox populi
earlier) they have proclaimed fulfilment of miracles by one of indispensable conditions for a sanctity
recognition. When in the beginning of XIV century canonization procedure was regulated, in it have
included the obligatory requirement of presence of special records about the miracles made by the
candidate: capitula miraculorum. But God after all works wonders not only via the sacred.Miracles
could happen in a life of everyone-is more true, during the critical moments of a life of everyone who
owing to this or that reason was honoured with intervention of supernatural forces.

Certainly, the one who was honoured with the similar phenomena, — it the hero. Here the angel
interrupts duel between Rolandom and Olivier in gesture (a poem about heroic acts) Zhirara де Vena.
In «Songs about Rolande» God stops the sun, in gesture «Charles the Great Pilgrimage» it allocates
men of courage with the superhuman force allowing them actually to make feats by which they were
defiantly praised in the gabs. But also people the most simple could receive a miracle, it is more than
that, even the greatest sinners if only they were devout. Fidelity to God, the Maiden or sacred-like to
rescue is faster than vassal fidelity-conducted, than an approximate life.In the well-known product of
the beginning of XIII century «Miracles of the Maiden», the belonging Gaultier де Kuansi, we see,
how Maria sympathises and helps the adherents. Here it within three days sob –

306ственными hands supports the hung up thief. It the criminal, but before to go to steal, he never
forgot to uplift to it a prayer. Here it revives the monk drowned on the way from a beloved: rolling, he
said matins words. Here it secretly delivers the pregnant abbess: that differed special devotion.However
as the main proof of true by means of a miracle the so-called Divine Court served. «God on the party
right» — this fine formula legalised one of the most barbarous customs of the Middle Ages.
Apparently, that chances were not too unequal from the terrestrial point of view, weak, in particular to
women, was authorised to find replacement. Борцыпрофессионалы which moralists condemned as the
worst mercenaries, were put on trial instead of them.Here again again ордалии justified absolutely
formal understanding of good. So, in gesture «and Amil» is told by Ami about two friends similar
against each other, as twins. Ами participates in judicial duel instead of Amilja who is guilty in of what
him accuse. Ами it is innocent in the offence, made to its companion, and, hence, he wins the
opponent.In gesture «the Song of Jerusalem» one clergyman by name of Peter who was in the Sacred
earth, confirmed, as if sacred Andrey has opened to it a place where the sacred spear which has pierced
a side of the Christ on a cross is stored. Excavation has been undertaken, and a spear has found. And
then to learn, whether an original spear, that is whether the clergyman told the truth, it put on trial
fire.After five hours the clergyman has died of wounds. However was it is considered that it has passed
test with honour, and a spear original. Feet at the clergyman have burnt down because in the beginning
it has doubted the validity of the vision. And it is final, everyone remembers test by fire Isoices.«Pale,
it being unsteady has come nearer to a fire. All were silent. Iron has been heated until red. It has
lowered the bared hands in heat of a fire, has seized an iron rod, has carried by its nine steps, and then
has rejected it and has extended hands, having crossed them and having opened palms. And all have
seen that its flesh is purer, than plum on a plam tree. And then everyone has loudly uplifted praise to
God».It is enough to reflect on etymology of a word "symbol" to understand, what big place occupied
thinking with symbols not only in theology, in the literature and in art of the medieval West, but also in
all its mental equipment. At Greeks «цимболон» meant the gratitude sign, representing two half of the
subject divided between two people. So, a symbol-it a contract sign. It was a hint on the lost unity; it
reminded and appealed to the higher and latent reality. However in medieval thought «each material
subject was considered as the image something to it соответствовавшею in sphere of higher and, thus,
becoming it

307Symbol ». Symbolism was universal, to think meant eternally to open the latent values,
continuously"to perform a religious rite". For the latent world was sacred, and the thinking symbols
was only working out and clearing by scientific people of thinking by the magic images inherent in
mentality of people uneducated. Also it is possible to tell, probably, that bewitching potions, amulets,
magic spells, so widespread and so well on sale, there were no more than rough display all the same
beliefs and customs. And hallows, sacraments and prayers were for weight their resolved equivalents.
Both there, and here it was a question of search of keys from doors in the latent world, the world true
and eternal, the world which was rescue. Piety certificates had symbolical character, they should force
to recognise God the person and to observe the prisoner with it the contract. This magic auction is well
visible in formulas of the donations containing hints on desire of donators to rescue thus the soul. God
obliged, compelled to grant rescue. And the thought in the same way should find keys from doors in
the world of ideas.The medieval symbolics began, hence, at level of words. To name a thing already
meant it to explain. So Isidor Seville has told, and after it the medieval etymology has blossomed as
fundamental science. The understanding is knowledge and mastering by things, realities. In medicine
the made diagnosis meant already healing, it should come owing to pronouncing of the name of illness.
When the bishop or the inquisitor could tell about the suspect: "heretic" the overall objective has been
reached-enemy is named, exposed. Res and verba did not contradict each other, one were symbols of
others. If language was for medieval intellectuals a reality cover it also was a key to this reality, the
tool corresponding to it. «Language, — Alain Lillsky spoke, — there is a mind tool». And for Dante
the word was the general sign opening sense, learnt both reason and sensation (rationale signum et
sensuale).Becomes clear, thus, value of dispute in which since XI century and till the end of the Middle
Ages have appeared almost all thinkers, dispute on true nature of mutual relations between verba and
res are involved. It was so great that traditional historians of thought, simplifying intellectual history of
the Middle Ages, sometimes reduced it to collision of "realists" and "nominalists", these гвельфов and
гибеллинов medieval thought. It was «dispute about универсалиях».So, studying of words and
language was the base of medieval pedagogics. Grammar, rhetoric, dialectics - the first cycle from
seven free arts trivium-is that. A basis of any teaching, at least till the end of XII century, the grammar
made. Already from it passed to other sciences and special attention gave to ethics which supplemented
free arts and even as though crowned them. A science 1рамматика as it defines

308Canon Dele, had many appointments and not only because through commenting of authors allowed
to address to any plot but also because thanks to words she allowed to reach the latent sense a key to
which they are. Годфруа Sen-Viktorsky in «a philosophy Source» («Fons philosophiae») does honour
to grammar which has learnt to its letters, syllables, language "literal" and to language «тропов», that
is such which opens figurative, allegorical sense. In Shartre the well-known master Bernard Shartrsky
also leant in the teaching against grammar. However, they only followed the tradition which going
back to antiquity and have reached the Middle Ages through Blissful Avgustina and Martsiana the
Chapel, and recreated this tradition.According to the requirement of search of four senses in
interpretation of the Bible someone from экзегетов believed after sacred Pavel that the letter is capable
to kill, whereas the spirit recovers; but the majority of medieval interpreters saw in littera the approach
to sensus.The nature saw huge storehouse of symbols. Elements of various natural classes-trees in
wood of symbols. Minerals, plants, all is symbolical, and the tradition was content with that of them
gave priority to some before others. Among minerals it there were the jewels which kind amazed sight,
reviving riches myth. Among vegetation it those plants and flowers which are mentioned in the Bible,
among animals is exotic, legendary beings, the animals-monsters satisfying draught of medieval people
to extravagant. Лапидарии, флорарии, bestiaries in ideal library of the Middle Ages stood in a place
of honour.At stones and colours the symbolical sense was combined with their salutary or fatal
properties. The colour homoeopathy of yellow and green stones treated a jaundice and illnesses of a
liver, and red-bleeding and геморрагию. Red sardonyx meant the Christ spilling the blood on a cross
for people. The transparent beryl passing light, — it was an image of the Christian who has been
lighted up by light of the Christ. Florarii-it something related to herbalists, they acquainted medieval
thought with the world «простецов», with recipes of kind women and secrets of monastic storehouses
of medicinal grasses. Grapes cluster in the symbolical image давильни it the Christ who has shed
blood for people was mystical. As image of the Maiden the olive, a lily, a lily of the valley, a violet, a
rose could serve. St. Bernard underlined that a symbol of the Maiden is as the white rose meaning
virginity, and the scarlet rose speaking about its mercy. Cornflower at which quadrangular small stalk,
treated alternating four-day fever, and here an apple was a harm symbol. Мандрагора as was
considered, raises sensuality, and also obsession. When it pull out, she shouts, and the one who hears
shout, dies or goes mad. In last two cases medieval people defined sense etymology: an apple in Latin

309malum that means as well "angrily", and mandragora-it a dragon of mankind (English
mandrake).The fauna saw as harm sphere more often. The ostrich postponing eggs in sand and
forgetting them to hatch out, — the image of the sinner who is not remembering a debt to God was
that. The goat symbolised voluptuousness, the scorpion, biting a tail, personified falsity and, except
that, Jews. The symbolics connected with a dog, forked, including antique tradition in which it was a
symbol dirty, and the tendency of a feudal society to rehabilitation of a dog as an animal of the noble,
necessary companion of the seigneur on hunting, as a symbol of fidelity, most raised of feudal virtues.
But as the present appearances of a devil the fantastic animals which had a devilish origin acted: all
these аспиды, basilisks, dragons, griffins. The lion and a unicorn had dual sense. Being force and
cleanliness symbols, on the one hand, they could express also ferocity and hypocrisy-with another.
However, the unicorn in the end of the Middle Ages was идеализирован, has become fashionable and
has been immortalised in a series of carpets «the Lady with a unicorn».The medieval symbolics has
found exclusively a wide field for application in a rich Christian liturgy, and even earlier in the
structure of religious architecture. The sense of two main types of church buildings has explained
Gonory Avgustodunsky. Both round, and the crosswise form were images of perfection. It is easy to
understand that the round form bore in itself completeness of a circle. But it is necessary to understand
that the crosswise plan of a building-it not only the image of the crucifixion of the Christ. Even more
important that the form ad quadratum, based on a square, designated four basic directions, symbolising
the Universe. In either case the church personified микрокосм.The special place among the major
forms of medieval symbolics was occupied with symbolics of numbers: structuring thought, it became
one of predominating principles in architecture. Beauty deduced from proportionality, from harmony,
from here and the music superiority ^ based on a science of numbers. «To know music, — told Foma
Iorksky, — it means first of all to know an order of all things». The architect, according to Gilomu
Passavansky, to bishop Mansa with 1145 on 1187, «is the composer». Соломон has told to the Lord:
«You all have arranged мерою, number and weight» («Omnia in mensura et numero et pondere
disposuisti»). Number-it a measure of things.As well as the word, number is closed with a reality. «To
create numbers, — told Teri Shartrsky, — it means to create things». And art as it is imitation the
nature and creation, should be guided by the account. According to Kenneth John Konantu, the inspirer
of construction of church of abbey Gugona in Kljuni. Begun in 1088 ((III), monk Gunzo (the miniature
represents its dreaming sacred Pavel and Etena who draw up to it cords the plan бу ущей churches)
was at –

310знанным the musician (psalmista praecipuus). Symbolical number which as though incorporated,
according to Konantu, all numerical symbolics used at construction of a building, number 153 was
considered in Kljuni; this quantity of fishes in Wonderful лове fishes.Gi Bozhuan has drawn recently
attention to not published treatises of XII century from which it is visible that the symbolics of numbers
during a Romance epoch has been even more extended, than it is considered to be. For masters in this
game which took seriously, Victorians and цистерцианцы had a reputation. Гуго sen-Viktorsky in the
treatise from «Latin патрологии», explaining sense of numerical symbolics, underlined value of a
difference in numbers. If to begin with seven days of Life or since six days in which the Founder has
created the World (Hexaemeron) 7> 6 means rest after works, and 8> 7-it eternity after a terrestrial life
(8 Sen-Vitale in Ravenna, Groba Gospodnja temple in heavenly Jerusalem is found out in octagons of
temples in Aachen,). If to begin with 10, and ten designates perfection, 9 <10-it a perfection lack, and
11> 10 surplus. Tsistertsianets Ed де Morimond which have died in 1161, in the treatise «Analytica
numerorum» has renewed gamble with figures in which St. Ieronim was engaged. Last in a lampoon
against Ioviniana, small сочиненьице in a virginity praise, very fashionable in XII century, which
rather «has not been located to marriage» (probably, in reply to fast growth of the population),
explained symbolics of numbers 30, 60 and 100, concerning three conditions: to marriage, widowhood
and virginity. To present number 30, it is necessary to reduce quietly tips of the big and index fingers:
it means marriage. To represent number 60, the thumb needs to be bent and as though to incline before
index which hangs over it: such is an image of the widow which chastely bridles voluptuousness of the
past or which was bent, having disappeared under a coverlet. And at last, to embody number 100, it is
necessary to make fingers a virginity wreath. Being based on it, Ed де Morimond has made symbolics
of fingers. A little finger, which prepares ears for listening, symbolises at it belief and good will;
Anonymous finger-repentance, average finger - the mercy, index-clear reason, the big finger - divinity.
Certainly, to understand all it, it is necessary to realise that in the Middle Ages people considered on
fingers and this account underlay all symbolical interpretation the same as at the heart of all
measurements "natural" measures lay: length of foot or a forearm, the size of a span or a surface of the
earth which could be processed for one day, etc. The most modest gestures contacted the most
courageous gamble. Apparently from these examples, in mental equipment of people of the Middle
Ages it is difficult to differentiate abstract and concrete. Claude Levi-Stros fairly rejected «notorious
inability« not developed »people to abstract thinking». On the contrary, the medieval reason found out
bent for abstract or, more precisely, to mirovide –

Biogrāfija:

Žaks le Gofs (Jacques Le Goff) - vēsturnieks medievists, viens no spilgtākajiem t.s. Annāļu skolas
pārstāvjiem, pirmais Kvalifikācijas paaugstināšanas sabiedriskajās zinātnēs skolas (École des hautes
études en sciences sociales) direktors no 1975. līdz 1977. gadam. Dzimis 1924. gada 1. janvārī Tulonā,
Francijā. Žaka Le Gofa izpratnē mentalitāte nebija tikai veids, kā pasauli uztvēra konkrētā sabiedrība,
un tās izpētē nebija tikai viens jautājums - kā cilvēki uztvēra esamību?, - jo šī uztvere un pārdzīvojums
bija neatņemama ļaužu sociālās uzvedības sastāvdaļa. Cilvēku psihes reakcijas uz apziņā
dzimstošajiem domu tēliem nepastarpināti bija to dzīves prakse, līdz ar to menatlitātes problēma pārstāj
būt tikai vēstures psiholoģijas problēma un kļūst par sociālās vēstures daļu. Le Gofs aplūkoja cilvēka
iztēli kā vienu no svarīgākajiem sociālās analīzes aspektiem (skat. L’imaginaire médiéval). Tādējādi
viņa pieeja laika izpratnes faktoram kā viduslaiku cilvēka “pasaules modeļa” komponentam, cieši
saistīta ar viņa un virknes citu Annāļu skolas vēsturnieku izveidoto jauno sociālo pētījumu
metodoloģiju, kas bagātināja sociālo vēsturi - ko tradicionāli uztvēra kā sabiedribu, kārtu, sociālo
grupu, amatu, attiecību un konfliktu vēsturi, - ar indivīda subjektīvo attieksmi. Indivīdu subjektīvā
pasaule, kuras saturs nemitīgi mainās materiālās sadzīves iespaidā (un otrādi), nosaka to sociālo
uzvedību, katrā laikmetā un kultūrā unikālu. Līdz ar to Le Gofs un virkne citu vēsturnieku (Ž.Dubī,
E.L.Ladurī, R.Šartē, Ž.K.Šmits u.c.) iekļāva sociālajā vēsturē sabiedrības psiholoģiju, jūtu, fantāziju un
pat sapņu vēsturi.

Medieval Civilization, 400-1500, translated by Julia Barrow. - Blackwell: Oxford, 1988

La civilisation de l’Occident Médiéval, Flammarion, 1997

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