058:0160 Chapter 2

Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005 1

Chapter 2: Pressure Distribution in a Fluid

2.1) Pressure and pressure

gradient

In fluid statics, as well as in fluid

dynamics, the forces acting on a
portion of fluid (C.V.) bounded by
a C.S. are of two kinds: body forces and surface forces.

Body Forces: act on the entire body of the fluid (force

per unit volume).

Surface Forces: act at the C.S. and are due to the

surrounding medium (force/unit area-
stress).

In general the surface forces can be resolved into two

components: one normal and one tangential to the surface.
Considering then a cubical fluid element, we see that the
stress in a moving fluid comprises a 2nd order tensor.
y
σxy
Face
σxx
σxz
Direction
x

z
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005 2

⎡σ xx
σ xy
σ xz
⎤
σ = ⎢⎢σ
ij yx
σ yy
σ yz
⎥
⎥
⎢⎣σ zx
σ zy
σ zz
⎥⎦

Since, by definition, a fluid cannot withstand a shear

stress without moving, (deformation) a stationary fluid
must necessarily be completely free of shear stress (σij=0,
i ≠ j). The only stress is the normal stress, which is
referred to as the pressure.

σii = -p
σn = -p, which is compressive, as it should be since fluid cannot
withstand tension. (Sign convention for p>0 is direction of n)
n
(one value at a point,
independent of
Or px = py = pz = pn = p direction, p is a scalar)

i.e. normal stress (pressure) is isotropic. This can be easily

seen by considering the equilibrium of a wedge shaped fluid
element
z

pndA
∑F x : pn dA sin α − p x dA sin α = 0

pn = p x dl
pxdAsinα
α
∑F : − pn dA cosα + pz dA cosα − W = 0
z dA=dldy
pn = p z W=ρgV
1 pzdAcosα
Where W = ρgdA cos α dl sin α
2
= O ( dl )
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005 3

Note: For a fluid in motion, the normal stress is different

on each face and not equal to p.
σxx ≠ σyy ≠ σzz ≠ -p

By convention, p is defined as the average of the normal

stresses:
p = -1/3(σxx + σyy + σzz ) = -1/3 σii

The fluid element experiences a force on it as a result of

the fluid pressure distribution if it varies spatially.
Consider the net force in the x direction due to p(x,t).

⎛ ∂p ⎞ dy
dFx = pdydz − ⎜ p + dx ⎟dydz ⎛ ∂p ⎞
net
⎝ ∂x ⎠ pdydz ⎜ p + dx ⎟dydz
⎝ ∂x ⎠
∂p dz
= − dxdydz
∂x dx

The result will be similar for dFy and dFz; consequently,

we conclude:
⎡ ∂p ∂p ˆ ∂p ˆ ⎤
dFpress = ⎢ − iˆ − j − k ⎥ ∆∀
⎣ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦

Or: f = −∇p force per unit volume due to p(x,t).

Note: if p=constant, f = 0 .
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005 4

2.2) Equilibrium of a fluid element

Consider now a fluid element which is acted upon by both

surface forces and a body force due to gravity
dF = ρ g∀ or f = ρ g (per unit volume)
grav grav

Application of Newton’s law yields: ma = ∑ F

ρd∀ a = (∑ f )d∀
ρ a = ∑ f = f body + f surface

f body = ρ g = − ρg k

f surface = f + f (due to viscous stresses, since in general σ ij = − pσ ij + τ ij )

pressure viscous

f pressure
= −∇p
⎡ ∂ 2V ∂ 2V ∂ 2V ⎤
f viscous = µ ⎢ 2 + 2 + 2 ⎥ = µ∇ 2 V
⎣ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦
For ρ=constant, the viscous force will have this form (chapter 4).

ρ a = −∇p + ρ g + µ∇ 2 V ∂V
with
a= + V ⋅ ∇V
motn. pres. grav. visc. ∂t

This is called the Navier-Stokes equation and will be

discussed further in Chapter 4. Consider solving the N-S
equation for p when a and V are known.

( )
∇p = ρ g − a + µ∇V = B( x, t )
2
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005 5

This is simply a first order p.d.e. for p and can be solved

readily. For the general case (v and p unkown), one must
solve the N-S and continuity equations, which is a
formidable task since the N-S equations are a system of
2nd order nonlinear p.d.e.’s.

We know consider the following special cases :

1) Hydrostatics ( a = V = 0 )

2) Rigid body translation or rotation ( ∇ V = 0 ) 2

3) Irrotational motion ( ∇ × V = 0 )
ifρ =cons tan t
P
∇ ×V = 0 ⇒ ∇ 2V = 0 ⇒ Euler equation ⇒ ∫ ⇒ Bernoulli eqn.

also,

∇ × V = 0 ⇒ V = ∇θ & if ρ = const. ⇒ ∇ 2θ = 0

∇ × (∇ × a ) = ∇(∇ ⋅ a ) − ∇ a 2

vector identity

2.3) Case (1) Hydrostatic Pressure Distribution

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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005 6
^
∇p = ρ g = − ρg k z g

∂p ∂p ∂p
i.e. = =0 and = −ρ g dp = − ρgdz
∂x ∂y ∂z

2
⎛r ⎞
g = go ⎜ o ⎟
⎝r⎠
2 2

p − p = − ∫ ρgdz = − g ∫ ρ ( z )dz ≅ const. near

or 2 1
1 1
earth ' s surface ro

liquids Æ ρ = const. (for one liquid)

p = -ρgz + constant

gases Æ ρ = ρ(p,t) which is known from the equation

of state: p = ρRT Æ ρ = p/RT

dp g dz which can be integrated if T =T(z) is

=−
p R T (z ) known as it is for the atmosphere.

2.4) Manometry

Manometers are devices that use liquid columns for

measuring differences in pressure. A general procedure
may be followed in working all manometer problems:
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005 7

1.) Start at one end (or a meniscus if the circuit is

continuous) and write the pressure there in an appropriate
unit or symbol if it is unknown.

2.) Add to this the change in pressure (in the same unit)
from one meniscus to the next (plus if the next meniscus
is lower, minus if higher).

3.) Continue until the other end of the gage (or starting
meniscus) is reached and equate the expression to the
pressure at that point, known or unknown.

2.5) Hydrostatic forces on plane surfaces

The force on a body due to a pressure distribution is:

F = − ∫ p n dA
A
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005 8

where for a plane surface n = constant and we need only

consider |F| noting that its direction is always towards the
surface: F = ∫ pn dA .
A

Consider a plane surface AB entirely submerged in a

liquid such that the plane of the surface intersects the free-
surface with an angle α. The centroid of the surface is
denoted ( x, y ).

To find the line of action of the force which we call the

center of pressure (xcp,ycp) we equate the moment of
inertia of the resultant force to that of the distributed force
about any arbitrary axis.
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005 9

ycp F = ∫ ydF
A

= γ sin α ∫ y 2 dA
A

∫ y dA = I → 2nd moment of Inertia about O − O

2
o
A

2
= y A+ I

I= moment of inertia w.r.t horizontal centroidal axis

Æ F = pA = γ sin α yA
I F = pA
Æ y = y+ and
yA = δ sin α y A
cp

and similarly for xcp

x F = ∫ xdF
cp
where I = product of inertia
xy
A

I I = I + x yA
xy
xy

x = +x
xy

yA
cp

Note that the coordinate system in the text has its origin at the centroid
and is related to the one just used by:

x = x−x
text
and y = −( y − y )
text

2.6) Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces

z
x
y
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005 10

In general, Horizontal Components:

F = − ∫ p dA
F = − ∫ p n dA
y y
Ay

A ^ ^

F = F ⋅ i = − ∫ p n ⋅ i dA
x


dA x

dAx = projection of n A onto a plane perp. to x direction

That is, the horizontal component of force acting on a
curved surface is equal to the force acting on a vertical
projection of that surface (which includes both magnitude
and line of action) and can be determined by the methods
developed for plane surfaces.
^
Fz = − ∫ pn ⋅ k dA = − ∫ p dAz = γ ∫ h dAz = δ∀
γ∀
Az Az

That is, the vertical component of force acting on a

curved surface is equal to the net weight of the total
column of fluid directly above the curved surface and has
a line of action through the centroid of the fluid volume.
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005 11

2.7) Hydrostatic Forces in Layered Fluids

2.8) Buoyancy and Stability

Archimedes Principle

FB = FV ( 2 ) − FV (1)

= fluid wt. above 2ABC –

fluid wt. above 1ADC

= wt. of fluid equivalent to

body volume

In general, FB = ρg ∀ ( ∀ = submerged volume).

The line of action is through the centroid of the displaced

volume, which is called the center of buoyancy.
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005 12

Stability: Immersed Bodies

Condition for static equilibrium: (1) ∑Fv=0 and (2) ∑M=0

Condition (2) is met only when C and G coincide,

otherwise we can have either a righting moment (stable)
or a heeling moment (unstable) when the body is heeled.
For a floating body the situation is slightly more
complicated since the center of buoyancy will generally
shift when the body is rotated, depending upon the shape
of the body and the position in which it is floating.
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005 13

The center of buoyancy (centroid of the displaced

volume) shifts laterally to the right for the case shown
because part of the original buoyant volume AOB is
transferred to a new buoyant volume EOD.

The point of intersection of the lines of action of the

buoyant force before and after heel is called the
metacenter M and the distance GM is called the
metacentric height. If GM is positive, that is, if M is
above G, then the ship is stable; however, if GM is
negative, then the ship is unstable.
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005 14

Consider a ship which has taken a small angle of heel α

1. evaluate the lateral displacement of the center of

buoyancy, CC ′
2. then from trigonometry, we can solve for GM and
evaluate the stability of the ship

Recall that the center of buoyancy is at the centroid of the

displaced volume of fluid (moment of volume about y-
axis – ship centerplane)

x∀ = ∫ x d∀ = ∑ x ∆∀
i i

This can be evaluated conveniently as follows:

x∀ = moment of ∀ before heel (goes to zero due to
symmetry of original buoyant volume AKKD
about centerplane)
- moment of ∀ AOB
+ moment of ∀ EOD
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005 15

x∀ = − ∫ (− x ) d∀ + ∫ ( x) d∀
AOB DOE

tan α = y d∀ = y dA = x tan α dA
x

x∀ = ∫ x tan α dA + ∫ x tan α dA
2 2

OA OD

= tan α ∫ x dA 2

ship waterplane area

(moment of inertia of ship waterplane = I00, i.e, Izz)

x∀ = I 00 tan α

I 00 tan α
CC ' = x =
∀
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005 16

CC ' = CM tan α (from Section View)

I 00
CM =
∀

GM = CM − CG

I 00
GM = − CG
∀

This equation is used to determine the stability of floating

bodies:
• If GM is positive, the body is stable
• If GM is negative, the body is unstable

Roll: The rotation of a ship about the longitudinal axis

through the center of gravity.

Consider symmetrical ship heeled to a very small angle θ.

Solve for the subsequent motion due only to hyrdostatic
and gravitational
forces.

⎛ ^ ^
⎞
Fb = ⎜ cos θ j − sin θ i ⎟ ρg∀
⎝ ⎠
r Fb ( ρg∀ = ∆)

M = r×F
g b
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005 17

M g = ⎛⎜ − GC j + CC ' i ⎞⎟ × ∆⎛⎜ cos θ j − sin θ i ⎞⎟

^ ^ ^ ^

⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
= (− GC sin θ + CC ' cos θ )∆ k
^

= (− GC + CM ) sin θ ∆
Note: recall that M = F ⋅ d ,
= GM sin θ ∆
o

where d is the perpendicular

distance from O to the line of
CC ' sin θ
tan θ = = action of F .
CM cos θ
d
O
.. M = Gz ∆
∑ M = −I θ F
G

= GM sin θ ∆
G

I = mass moment of inertia about long axis through G

..
θ = angular acceleration
..
I θ + ∆GM sin θ = 0
.. ∆GM
for small θ : θ + θ =0
I
∆GM ρg∀GM mgGM
= +
I I I

k= I definition of radius of gyration

m

∆GM gGM
k =I 2
mk = I
2
=
m I k 2
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005 18

The solution to this equation is,

0 for no initial
. velocity
θ
θ (t ) = θ cos ω t + o
sin ω t
o n
ω n
n

where θ = the initial heel angle

o

ω n
= natural frequency

gGm gGM
= =
k2
k

Simple (undamped) harmonic oscillation:

2π
The period of the motion is T=
ω n

2πk
T=
gGM

Note that large GM decreases the period of roll,

which would make for an uncomfortable boat ride (high
frequency oscillation).

Earlier we found that GM should be positive if a ship

is to have transverse stability and, generally speaking, the
stability is increased for larger positive GM. However,
the present example shows that one encounters a “design
058:0160 Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005 19

tradeoff” since large GM decreases the period of roll,

which makes for an uncomfortable ride.

2.9) Rigid Body Translation or Rotation

In rigid body motion, all particles are in combined

translation and/or rotation and there is no relative motion
between particles; consequently, there are no strains or
strain rates and the viscous term drops out of the N-S
equation (µ∇ V = 0) .
2

∇p = ρ (g − a )

from which we see that ∇p acts in the direction of (g − a ),

and lines of constant pressure must be perpendicular to
this direction (by definition, ∇f is perpendicular to f =
constant).

Rigid body of
fluid translating
or rotating
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005 20

The general case of rigid body translation/rotation is as

shown. If the center of rotation is at O where V = V 0 , the
velocity of any arbitrary point P is:

V = V 0 + Ω × r0

where Ω = the angular velocity vector

and the acceleration is:

dV dV0 dΩ
=a= + Ω × (Ω × r 0 ) + × r0
dt dt  
dt
N 2 
 

1 3

1 = acceleration of O

2 = centripetal acceleration of P relative to O

3 = linear acceleration of P due to Ω

Usually, all these terms are not present. In fact, fluids can
rarely move in rigid body motion unless restrained by
confining walls for a long time.
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005 21

1.) Uniform Linear Acceleration

For uniform rigid body acceleration, a has same

magnitude and direction for all particles. Vector sum of g
and –a gives direction of pressure gradient ∇p , which is
the direction of greatest rate of increase of p.
∇p = ρ (g − a ) = constant

[
= − ρ (g + a ) k + a i
z
^

x
^

Consider for example specific one dimensional cases:

dp
= − ρ ax , if a is positive, dp is negative; this means
dx x dx
acceleration occurs with decreasing pressure in x
direction, and vice-versa, deceleration occurs with
increasing pressure in x direction.
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005 22

Similarly in z:
dp
= − ρ ( g − az )
dz
Which means pressure increases with depth unless az>g

For 2-D cases, unit vector in the direction of ∇p (i.e.

direction of greatest rate of increase of p) is given by
^ ^
^ ∇p
s= ==
(g + a z ) k + a x i
| ∇p |
[(g + a ) ]
1
2 2 2
z + ax

Lines of constant pressure are perpendicular to ∇p .

Unit vector in direction of p = constant is given by
^ ^
^ a k − (g + a z ) i
n = sˆ × ˆj = x
[ ]
(Where ĵ - unit normal to paper)
1
a x + (g + a z )
2 2 2

^
angle between n and x axes:

a
θ = tan −1 x

(g + a ) z

In general the pressure variation with depth is greater than

in ordinary hydrostatics; that is:
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005 23

dp ^
= ∇p ⋅ s = ρ [a + ( g + a ) ]
1

2 2 2
which is > ρg
ds
x z

p = ρGs + cons.
= ρGs gage pressure

2.) Rigid Body Rotation

Consider a cylindrical tank of liquid rotating at a constant

^
rate Ω = Ω k :

a = Ω × (Ω × r ) 0

^
= − rΩ e
2
r
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005 24

∇p = ρ ( g − a )
^ ^
= − ρg k + ρrΩ e2
r

∂p ∂p
i.e. = ρr Ω 2 and = − ρg
∂r ∂z

Integrating, we get
ρ 2 2
p = r Ω + f ( z ) + c and p = − ρgz + f (r ) + c
2

ρ
Hence f (r ) = 2 r Ω and f ( z ) = − ρgz
2 2

Thus,

ρ
p= r Ω − ρgz + const .
2 2

2
The constant is determined by specifying the pressure at
one point; say, p = p0 at (r,z) = (0,0).

1
p = p0 − ρ gz + r 2Ω2
2
(Note: Pressure is linear in z and parabolic in r)

Curves of constant pressure are given by:

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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005 25

p −p rΩ 2 2

z= + 0
= a + br 2

ρg 2g

which are paraboloids of revolution, concave upward,

with their minimum points on the axis of rotation.

The position of the free surface is found, as it is for linear

acceleration, by conserving the volume of fluid.

The unit vector in the direction of ∇p is:

^ ^
^ − ρg k + ρrΩ e 2

s= r
z
[( ρg ) ]
1
See Fig 2.23 2
+ ( ρrΩ ) 2 2 2

on page 85
r
dz ^
tan θ = = −g slope of s θ
dr rΩ 2

^
s
⎛ Ω z⎞ 2

i.e. r = C exp⎜ − ⎟ equation of ∇p surfaces

g
1
⎝ ⎠
2.10) Pressure Distribution in Irrotational Flow

If the flow is irrotational,

∇ ×V = 0 i.e. ω=0 (vorticity)

(
∇p = ρ g − a + µ∇ 2 V ) incompressible flow
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005 26

now use the vector identity to show that the viscous terms
dropout automatically for incompressible irrotational flow

∇ 2 Vv = ∇ (N
∇ ⋅ Vv) − ∇ × (∇ × Vv)


=0 =0
ρ = const. ω =0
^
∇p = − ρg k − ρ a

Or a = −∇ ⎛⎜ p + gz ⎞⎟ Euler’s equation
⎝ρ

⎠
piezometric
pressure

DV ∂V
Or = + V V = −∇⎛⎜ p + gz ⎞⎟
⋅ ∇

dt ∂t ⎝ ρ ⎠

1
V ⋅ ∇V = ∇ VN⋅ V − V × (∇ × V ) vector identity
2 

V2 =0

Lastly, for steady flow:

⎛1 ⎞
∇⎜ V 2 + p + gz ⎟ = 0
⎝2 ρ ⎠

ρ
Or p+ V 2 + ρgz = constant (Bernoulli eq.)
2
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005 27

= B

For steady rotational flow, it is also possible to derive a

Bernoulli equation; however, in this case
B = B(ψ)
that is, the Bernoulli constant varies from streamline to
streamline.