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Abstract: This paper will initially present a review of the several 11. FACTORS DETERMINING BATTERY CAPACITY
battery models used for Electric Vehicles and Battery Energy Storage
System applications. A model will be discussed which takes into To have better performance of EV, the energy utilization of
account the non-linear characteristics of the battery with respect to battery capacity must be ensured. The following factors are
the battery’s state of charge. Comparisons between simulation and critical to determine battery capacity and must be considered
laboratory measurements will be presented. The effects of high
frequency switching on the battery performance will also be in any battery model:
discussed. A strategy to reduce the high frequency charging and
discharging curre‘ntwill be proposed. 1. Internal Resistance
Self-discharge Resistance which takes account of
Keywords: Battery Model, Battery Energy Storage Systems, Electric resistances in (a) electrolysis of water at high voltage
Vehicles, Battery Management. and (b) slow leakage across the battery terminal at low
voltage. This resistance is more temperature-sensitive
I. INTRODUCTION and inversely proportional to the temperature change.
Resistances for Charge and Discharge: These are the
resistances associated with electrolyte resistance, plates
The development of electric vehicle has been accelerated by resistance and fluid resistance, however all these
the recent “California Initiative” which has required increasing resistances can be different in charging and
proportions of new vehicles in Los Angeles area to be Zero discharging.
Emission vehicles. Similar legislation has now been passed in Overcharge and Overdischarge Resistance: When the
several other US states. This has impelled car manufacturers battery is overcharged or overdischarged, the internal
throughout the world to have Electric Vehicles ready for the resistance will be increased significantly due to the
market when the legislation is enforced. General Motors, for electrolyte diffusion.
example, has recently released the new EV 1 in USA. The
possibility of large amounts of Electric Vehicles on the road, 2. Discharge
- Type:
-_
has also created interest in making better use of the spare Continuous Discharging: When battery continuously
batteries that each Electric Vehicle must have. It has been delivers energy to load without rest, and the battery
suggested that a Battery Charging station be made available by capacity is dropping continuously.
the electric utilities, so that cars can come into the charging Intermittent Discharging: When a battery drives a load
station and have they batteries replaced in a short time. for a period and is disconnected from the load for some
time, then voltage recovery will be took place in the
While extensive research has been carried out to develop new battery to increase its voltage with some amount. When
types of batteriks and converters to convert the batteries output the battery is operating in this intermittent manner, it
into useful work, very little work has been done in modeling will give a longer discharge time.
the battery itself. The fact that most power converters are now
switched at relatively very high frequency (much higher than 3. Discharge Mode:
50Hz), will require new model of the batteries to take into Constant Load: When a battery delivers energy to a
account the operation of the battery under this high switching load of constant resistance, so the load current is
mode. This paper will initially present the current state-of-the decreasing as battery voltage does.
art of battery modeling for use in Electric Vehicles and Battery Constant Current: Current drawn from a battery is kept
Energy Storage System. A new model will be introduced constant to a load that continuously reduces its
which takes into account the response of the batteries to high resistance, the discharge duration in this mode is
frequency switching in the converter. Impact of battery shorter due to the average current is higher. The
chargers will be also be discussed. Comparisons between voltage drops more faster than that in constant load.
simulation and laboratory measurements will be presented. Constant Power: A constant electrical power is drawn
Some of the issues that will be considered are given below. by load from a battery, such that the load current will
be increasing to compensate for the decreasing battery
voltage. This mode has the shortest discharge time.
Jean Paul Cun [I] proposed an improved battery model based Giglioi [ I I ] proposed a dynamic model shown in Figure 3.
on the configuration given in Figure 1. In this battery model, The battery model is comprised of two parts: (a) current I p
the battery's state of the charge is taken into account, by flowing through RP(electrolyte reaction), Rd (Ohmic effect)
making the ESR of battery no longer constant, but varies in and its associated leakage capacitance Ca and RW (waste of
accordance with its state of charge. A common formula is to energy) and its associated leakage capacitance CW;(b) current
set ESR = Ro/Sk, where Ro = initial battery internal resistance Is flowing through RS (self discharge).
-
calculated when the battery is full charged and S = 1 Ah/Clo,
where Clo is the ten-hour capacity (Ah) at the reference Although this model is sophisticated and accurate for
temperature (this value varies as the battery ages). S varies simulation purpose, it still has some drawbacks in that: (a) a
from 0 (battery discharged) to 1 (battery charged). k is a longer time is required for computation due to the high order
coefficient that is a function of the discharge rate, calculated of model; and (b) modeling procedure is too complicated
on the basis of kl, k2, and k3. kl. k2 and k3 are coefficients because it involves a lot of empirical data.
determined using the curves provided by the manufacturers.
They correspond to three discharge rates.
Figure 4 shows a SPICE battery model. It has a variable Figure 5 shows a battery model that we believe is the simplest
current source, a variable voltage sources, a variable resistor and at the same time meets all the requirements for a good
and a capacitor. battery model. It takes into account most nonlinear battery
elements characteristics both during charging and during
discharging as well as their dependence on the state of charge
of the battery.
fiji Current
Sensor
I I 1 ' 2
L I
t+
-I Figure 5 . Improved Battery Model
T JEmL All the elements included in this model are functions of the
Gb
open-circuit voltage of battery, which in turn relates to state of
* Evb
-A charge. The characteristic of these elements are described as
below:
vb Y4-
Self-Discharge Resistance (Rp): It takes account of
resistances in (a) electrolysis of water at high voltage and
(b) slow leakage across the battery terminal at low voltage.
This resistance is a function of the open circuit voltage.
Figure 4. Over-Current Battery Model
Resistances for Charge and Discharge (Rc and Rd): These
where are the resistances associated with electrolyte resistance,
Gb =variable current source to model the battery current and plates resistance and fluid resistance, however all these
is defined by Peukert relationship: Battery Capacity, resistances can be different in charging and discharging.
C = A ~x I*' Overcharge and Overdischarge Resistance (Rco and Rdo):
EVb= variable voltage source to model the battery voltage and When the battery is overcharged or overdischarged, the
is defined by Nernstian relationship: Battery Voltage, internal resistance will be increased significantly due to the
VOC=Ad+As+log(C) electrolyte diffusion.
ERI,= variable voltage source characterizing voltage drop Battery Capacity (Cb): A battery delivering or storing
across the battery, it is actually modeled as the internal energy behaves as a large capacitor. However, it i s
resistance, R modeled as a voltage source, VOCin SPICE model which
R = internal resistance including RI, R2 and Rs is function of state of charge.
R I = resistance of grid, group bar and lug material, which is a
constant AI The following table tabulates the relationships of the battery
R2 = resistance of electrolyte=Az/C elements described above as VOCchanges and extracted from
R3 = resistance of plate surface sulfation=AJ*(l-C) [2] and manufacturer's data.
Cb =capacitor, the voltage across Cb which is scaled to 1V
when 100% of SOC and OV when 0% of SOC Because the model takes into account the variation of the
Vb =current sensor of zero voltage for SPICE simulation elements with the open circuit voltage. and these relationships
A,-, are constants and obtained by experiments. are obtained either from measurements or data sheet, the
model is very accurate, and errors between actual tests and
This model provides a good representation of both variable simulation will be minimised. Therefore, it provides a
internal drop in the battery and changes in the output voltage relatively simple but accurate structure.
due to the state of charge. However one of its drawbacks is
that too many parameters are required.
m
O.OOoc( 195.d O.OO@ 0.1164 4.0000( 4 . 0 4 0.d 0.000
5.450
5.700 Microcomputer
5.8IO
6.I87
6.406
6.718
3.437
Load i [ . l .......... , ,
Constant C h e n t
poood 0.d I I -- expected as the variations of the model with the state of charge
are now well represented both from measurements and
manufacturer's data sheet.
IV. SIMULATION
However, it should be noted that the battery tests carried out in
To test the model, a PSPICE simulation program using the both simulation and experiment are under constant DC
improved battery model was carried out and the results are condition. in order to verify the battery performance under
compared with the laboratory experiment. In the laboratory, a high frequency switching condition, a possible application of
6V sealed lead-acid battery is used and is subjected to (a) 1.5 EV battery as an active filter and power factor correction is
hours of constant current discharge at 1.5A. then (b) 15 simulated, first using the ideal battery model with constant
minutes of rest, and (c) another 1.5 hours of constant current voltage and then withthe proposed battery model.
charge at 1.5A. The experimental set-up is discussed in the
next Section. The results from the simulation are shown in Fig.
6. The non-linear characteristics of the battery terminal
voltage during charging and discharging can be clearly 'I
observed.
1.
*mm "
0 ,mm I" 2" *"
Tine
Tim (nu)
Active Filter
Figure 9. Active Filtering System
I I
The current drawn from the non-linear load contains a lot of
harmonics, it will definitely degrade the power factor o f
electricity supply if the active filter is not installed. The
Battery energy. storage system is used to provide alternating
positive and negative current to ensure that the input current
source will have a perfect sinusoidal waveform and in-phase
with the supply voltage. The circuit configuration is shown in
Figure 9. The Capacitor in parallel with the battery is intended ------+
to provide filtering in that it will take most of the high 4
Tinu! (nu)
discharging.. The active filter was implemented with
hysteresis control strategy[3], where the input source current is
controlled within a tolerance band or hysteresis band. The Figure 10.bActive Filter Using Ideal Battery
switching frequency is as high as several kHz.
VJII. ACTIVE FILTER USING IMPROVED BATTERY
Two studies were carried out for comparison, the first case MODEL
using an ideal battery as energy storage and the second one
made use of the improved battery model. Both two cases were Using the improved battery model instead of the ideal model,
simulated using PSPICE. the PSPICE simulation generated quite a different result
illustrated in Figure 1 1 .a and 1 1.b.
VII. ACTIVE FILTER USING IDEAL BATTERY Nevertheless, the battery voltage and capacitor current shown
in Figure 10.b are not the same as those shown in Figure 10.b.
Figure 10.a shows the supply current (Is), load current (IL) and The capacitor now absorbs most of the high frequency
active filter current (IF). The non-linear load demanded a component and the battery only needs to absorb or generate
current containing high harmonics and the active filter current the low frequency component.
was controlled by referencing the ideal sinusoidal supply
current, such that the actual supply current is IS = I t IF. - IX. CONCLUSION
However, it can be seen from Figure 1O.b that the battery The paper has presented a review of several battery models
voltage remains constant and no current flows through the used in the industry. One particular model was found to best
capacitor. The high frequency component is absorbed by the represent the non-linear characteristic of the battery elements
battery, a very undesirable situation as this will shorten the with respect to the state of charge very well. The battery
battery life. model is then used to simulate the application of BESS as an
active filter. Super-capacitor was used to take care of the high
Clearly such a result is not realistic and does not reflect the frequency component. The use of the proposed model of the
true performance of the battery. battery allows a better understanding of the battery behaviour
when used in conjunction with Electric Vehicle or Battery
Energy Storage System.
t- 171
Edition, TK290 1 .H36 1994, McGraw-Hill, 1994
Jayne, M.G., and M o r g a n , C., "A N e w
Mathematical Model of a Lead Acid Battery for
Electric Vehicles", Eighth Int'l Electric Vehicle
Conference, Washington, D.C., October 1986.
r81 Sims, R.I., Carnes, J.C., Dzieciuch, M.A. and
Fenton, J.E., "Computer Modeling of Automotive
Lead Acid Batteries", Ford Research Laboratories
Technical Report SR-90- 154, Sept., 25, I990
0 2 4 . , m *
T k (m)
2 , . 7 6
[91 Jayanths, M.S., Hayhoe, G.F., and Henry, J.J.,
"Modeling and Digital Computer Simulation of an
Electric Vehicle", Technical Report, Pennsylvania
Figure 1 I .b Active Filter Using Improved Model Transportation Institute, Pennsylvania State
University, University Park Pennsylvania, August,
X. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 1979.
Robbins, T.; Hawkins, J. "Battery model for
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial contributions
of the Hong Kong University Grants Committee and the Hong Overcurrent Protection Simulation of DC
Kong Polytechnic University to the project and to Mr. Jim Di st r i but i o n System S", I N T E L E C . S i x t e e n t h
McDowall, Chair, PES Stationary Battery Committee for his International T e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s Energy
comments on the abstract of the paper. Conference, p307- 14.
Giglioli R., Cerolo P., "Charge and Discharge Fourth
XI. REFERENCES Order Dynamic Model of the Lead Battery", 10IhInt'l
Electric Vehicle Symposium, Hong Kong, 1990, p. 1-9.
[I] Jean Paul CUN, Jean No FIORINA, Michael
FRAISSE, Henri MABBOUX, "The Experience of a
UPS Company in Advanced Battery Monitoring",
MGE UPS Systems, Grenoble, France,'http://www-
merlin-gerin.eunet.fr/news/techpap/tp02us.ht'