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amplitudes of a waveform. Some meters The fundamental unit for measuring In the case of a single-phase motor, the
are calibrated to read the equivalent RMS usage is the watthour (Wh), or more typ- actual power is the sum of several
value (.707 x peak); this type calibration ically the kilowatthour (kWh). This value components:
is a true representation only when the represents usage of 1000W for one hour.
a. the work performed by the system;
waveform is a pure sine wave (i.e., no Typical costs in the United States for one
that is, lifting with a crane, moving air
distortion). When distortion occurs, the kilowatthour range from 8 to 15 cents.
with a fan, or moving material, as with
relationship between average readings
a conveyer.
and True RMS values changes drastically. POWER FACTOR
b. heat developed by the power lost in
Only a meter which measures True RMS Power factor is the ratio of ACTUAL the motor winding resistance
values gives accurate readings for a non- POWER used in a circuit to the APPAR-
sinusoidal waveform. RMS measuring ENT POWER delivered by a utility. Actual c. heat developed in the iron through
circuits sample the input signal at a high power is expressed in watts (W) or kilo- eddy currents and hysteresis losses
rate of speed. The meter’s internal cir- watts (kW); apparent power in voltam-
cuitry digitizes and squares each sample, d.frictional losses in the moor bearings
peres (VA) or kilovoltamperes (kVA).
adds it to the previous samples squared, Apparent power is calculated simply by e. air friction losses in turning the motor
and takes the square root of the total. multiplying the current by the voltage. rotor, more commonly known as
This is the True RMS value. windage losses.
Power Factor = Actual Power = k W
Apparent Power kVA We now observe that with a single-phase
motor, the apparent power obtained is
Certain loads (e.g., inductive type
greater than the actual power. This dif-
motors) create a phase shift or delay
ference is the power factor.
between the current and voltage wave-
forms. An inductive type load causes the Power factor reflects the difference
current to lag the voltage by some angle, which exists between loads. The solder-
known as the phase angle. ing iron is a purely resistive load which
absorbs the current, which is then
On purely resistive loads, there is no
absorbed directly into heat. The current
phase difference between the two wave-
Figure 4: Nonlinear Current Waveform is called actual current because it directly
forms; therefore the power factor on
contributes to the production of actual
such a load will be 0 degrees, or unity.
power.
DEMAND The following examples of a soldering
On the other hand, the single-phase elec-
The amount of electrical energy con- iron and a single-phase motor illustrate
tric motor represents a partially inductive
sumed over time is known as demand. how power factor is consumed in
load consisting of actual current which
Demand is the average load placed on different types of loads.
will be converted into actual power, and
the utility to provide power (kilowatts) to In a soldering iron, the apparent power magnetizing current which generates the
a customer over a utility-specified time supplied by the utility is directly convert- magnetic field required to operate the
interval (typically 15 or 30 minutes). If ed into heat, or actual power. In this electric motor. This magnetizing current,
demand requirements are irregular, the case, the actual power is equal to the called the reactive current, corresponds
utility must have more capability avail- apparent power, so that the power factor to an exchange of energy between the
able than would be required if the cus- is equal to “1” or 100% (unity). generator and the motor, but it is not
tomer load requirements remained con- converted into actual power.
stant. To provide for this time-varying
demand, the utility must invest in the REACTIVE COMPENSATION
proper size equipment to provide for POWER
these power peaks. Brief high peaks
such as those present when large equip- Reactive compensation power refers to
ment initially comes on line are not criti- the capacitive values required to correct
cal in the overall equation because the low power factor to as close to unity
duration is short with respect to the (1.0) as possible. Most industrial loads
demand averaging interval. are inductive, so the load current lags
the line voltage by some degree.
CONSUMPTION In order to bring the value closer to unity,
Watts and vars are instantaneous meas- something must be added to the load to
urements representing what is happen- draw a leading current. This is done by
ing in a circuit at any given moment. connecting a capacitor in parallel with
Since these parameters vary so greatly the load. Since a capacitor will not dissi-
within any period, it is necessary to inte- pate any real power, the charge for real
Figure 5: Power Factor on Nondistorted Sine Wave
grate (sum) electrical usage over time. power will be the same.
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Several AEMC power monitoring that is then drawn by the nonlinear load • Saturated transformers
instruments will display the actual power would be the fundamental as well as all
• Solid state elevator controls
factor correction capacitor values directly. the harmonics.
AEMC recommends consulting a power • Medical equipment
Harmonic distortion can cause serious
factor correction capacitor manu-
problems for the users of electric power, This is by no means an exhaustive list of
facturer prior to any installation to
from inadvertent tripping of circuit equipment which generates harmonics.
reduce the possible effects of harmonics,
breakers to dangerous overheating of Any electronic-based equipment should
resonance, etc.
transformers and neutral conductors, as be suspected of producing harmonics.
well as heating in motors and capacitor
ELECTRICAL HARMONICS failure. Harmonics can cause problems Due to the ever increasing use of
that are easy to recognize but tough to electronics, the percentage of equipment
Until fairly recently, power quality
diagnose. which generates harmonic current has
referred to the ability of the electric
increased significantly. The harmonic
utilities to supply electric power without It is becoming increasingly important to problem manifests itself with pro-
interruption. Today, the phrase encom- understand the fundamentals of liferation of equipment using diode-
passes any deviation from a perfect harmonics, and to be able to recognize capacitor input power supplies. This type
sinusoidal waveform. Power quality now and monitor the presence of damaging of equipment draws current in a short
relates to short-term transients as well harmonics. Harmonics within an electri- pulse only during the peak of the sine
as continuous state distortions. Power cal system vary greatly within different wave. The result of this action, aside
system harmonics are a continuous state parts of the same distribution system from improved efficiency, is that high
problem with dangerous results. and are not limited simply to the supply frequency harmonics are superimposed
harmonics can be present in current, of the harmonic producing device. onto the fundamental 60Hz frequency.
voltage, or both. It is estimated that as Harmonics can interact within the sys-
many as 60% of all electrical devices tem through direct system connections The harmonics are produced by the
operate with non-linear current draw. or even through capacitive or inductive diode-capacitor input section which
coupling. rectifies the AC signal into DC. The
Utility companies invest millions of
circuit draws current from the line only
dollars each year to ensure that voltage A harmonic may be defined as an integer during the peaks of the voltage wave-
supplied to their customers is as close multiple of a fundamental frequency. form, thereby charging a capacitor to the
as possible to a sinusoidal waveform. If Harmonics are designated by the peak of line voltage. The equipment DC
the power user connects loads to the harmonic number. For our discussion, requirements are fed from this capacitor
system which are resistive, such as we will focus on the 60Hz power and as a result the current waveform
incandescent light bulb, the resulting frequency. The second harmonic would becomes distorted.
current waveform will also be sinusoidal. be two times the fundamental or 120Hz.
However, if the loads are nonlinear, The third would be three times the
which is typically the case, the current is fundamental or 180Hz, and so on.
drawn in short pulses and the current
waveform will be distorted. Total current Nonlinear equipment generates harmonic
frequencies. The nonlinear nature of a
device draws current waveforms that do
not follow the voltage waveform.
Electronic equipment is a good example.
While this broad category encompasses
many different types of equipment, most Figure 7: Nonlinear Current Draw
of these devices have one characteristic
in common. They rely on an internal DC Harmonics in the electric power system
power source for their operation. combine with the fundamental frequency
to create distortion. The level of distor-
Loads which produce harmonic currents
tion is directly related to the frequencies
include:
and amplitudes of the harmonic current.
• Electronic lighting ballasts The contribution of all harmonic frequency
currents to the fundamental current is
• Adjustable speed drives known as “Total Harmonic Distortion” or
• Electric arc furnaces THD. This THD value is expressed as a
percentage of the fundamental current.
• Personal computers THD values of over 10% are reason for
• Electric welding equipment concern.
• Solid state rectifiers THD is calculated as the square root of
the sum of the squares of all the
• Industrial process controls harmonics divided by the fundamental
Figure 6: Composite Waveform • UPS systems signal (50 or 60Hz). This calculation
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