Solar Panel

Solar panel
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"Photovoltaic module" redirects here. For the heat collectors, see Solar thermal collector.
An installation of solar panels in rural Mongolia
A solar panel, or photovoltaic module, is composed of individual PV cells. This

crystalline-silicon panel has an aluminium frame and glass on the front.
A PV module on the ISS.
A solar panel (photovoltaic module or photovoltaic panel) is a packaged

interconnected assembly of solar cells, also known as photovoltaic cells. The solar panel
can be used as a component of a larger photovoltaic system to generate and supply
electricity in commercial and residential applications.
Because a single solar panel can only produce a limited amount of power, many
installations contain several panels. This is known as a photovoltaic array. A photovoltaic
installation typically includes an array of solar panels, an inverter, batteries and
interconnection wiring.
Photovoltaic systems are used for either on- or off-grid applications, and on spacecraft.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Theory and construction

• 2 Crystalline silicon modules
• 3 Thin-film modules
o 3.1 Rigid thin-film modules
o 3.2 Flexible thin-film modules
• 4 Module embedded electronics
• 5 Module performance and lifetime
• 6 Production
o 6.1 Top ten
• 7 Price
• 8 Mounting Systems
o 8.1 Trackers
o 8.2 Fixed Racks
• 9 Standards
• 10 Devices with photovoltaic modules
• 11 See also
• 12 References
• 13 External links
[edit] Theory and construction

See also: Photovoltaic cell
PV cells connected together in a solar panel.

Solar panels use light energy (photons) from the sun to generate electricity through the
photovoltaic effect. The structural (load carrying) member of a module can either be the
top layer (superstrate) or the back layer (substrate). The majority of modules use wafer-
based crystalline silicon cells or thin-film cells based on cadmium telluride or silicon.
Crystalline silicon is a commonly used semiconductor.
In order to use the cells in practical applications, they must be:
• connected electrically to one another and to the rest of the system

• protected from mechanical damage during manufacture, transport, installation and
use (in particular against hail impact, wind and snow loads). This is especially
important for wafer-based silicon cells which are brittle.
• protected from moisture, which corrodes metal contacts and interconnections, and
for thin-film cells the transparent conductive oxide layer, thus decreasing
performance and lifetime.
Most solar panels are rigid, but semi-flexible ones are available, based on thin-film cells.
Electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage and/or in
parallel to provide a desired amount of current source capability.
Separate diodes may be needed to avoid reverse currents, in case of partial or total
shading, and at night. The p-n junctions of mono-crystalline silicon cells may have
adequate reverse current characteristics that these are not necessary. Reverse currents are
not only inefficient as they represent power losses, but they can also lead to problematic
heating of shaded cells. Solar cells become less efficient at higher temperatures and so it
desirable to minimize heat in the panels. Very few modules incorporate any design
features to decrease temperature, but installers try to provide good ventilation behind
solar panels.[1]
Some recent solar panel designs include concentrators in which light is focused by lenses
or mirrors onto an array of smaller cells. This enables the use of cells with a high cost per
unit area (such as gallium arsenide) in a cost-effective way.[citation needed]
Depending on construction, photovoltaic panels can produce electricity from a range of

frequencies of light, but usually cannot cover the entire solar range (specifically,
ultraviolet, infrared and low or diffused light). Hence much of the incident sunlight
energy is wasted by solar panels, and they can give far higher efficiencies if illuminated
with monochromatic light. Therefore another design concept is to split the light into
different wavelength ranges and direct the beams onto different cells tuned to those
ranges.[2] This has been projected to be capable of raising efficiency by 50%. The use of
infrared photovoltaic cells has also been proposed to increase efficiencies, and perhaps
produce power at night.[citation needed]
Sunlight conversion rates (solar panel efficiencies) can vary from 5-18% in commercial
production, typically lower than the efficiencies of their cells in isolation. Panels with
conversion rates around 18% are in development incorporating innovations such as
power generation on the front and back sides.[citation needed] The Energy Density of a solar
panel is the efficiency described in terms of peak power output per unit of surface area,
commonly expressed in units of Watts per square foot (W/ft2). The energy density of the
most efficient mass produced solar panels are over 13 W/ft2.
[edit] Crystalline silicon modules

Main article: Solar Cell
Most solar modules are currently produced from silicon PV cells. These are typically
categorized into either monocrystalline or multicrystalline modules.
[edit] Thin-film modules

Main articles: Thin film solar cell, Third generation solar cell, and Low-cost photovoltaic
cell
Third generation solar cells are advanced thin-film cells. They produce high-efficiency
conversion at low cost.
[edit] Rigid thin-film modules
In rigid thin film modules, the cell and the module are manufactured in the same
production line.
The cell is created on a glass substrate or superstrate, and the electrical connections are
created in situ, a so called "monolithic integration". The substrate or superstrate is
laminated with an encapsulant to a front or back sheet, usually another sheet of glass.
The main cell technologies in this category are CdTe, or a-Si, or a-Si+uc-Si tandem, or
CIGS (or variant). Amorphous silicon has a sunlight conversion rate of 6-12%.
[edit] Flexible thin-film modules
Flexible thin film cells and modules are created on the same production line by
depositing the photoactive layer and other necessary layers on a flexible substrate.
If the substrate is an insulator (e.g. polyester or polyimide film) then monolithic

integration can be used.
If it is a conductor then another technique for electrical connection must be used.
The cells are assembled into modules by laminating them to a transparent colourless
fluoropolymer on the front side (typically ETFE or FEP) and a polymer suitable for
bonding to the final substrate on the other side. The only commercially available (in MW
quantities) flexible module uses amorphous silicon triple junction (from Unisolar).
So-called inverted metamorphic (IMM) multijunction solar cells made on compound-

semiconductor technology are just becoming commercialized in July 2008. The
University of Michigan's solar car that won the North American Solar challenge in July
2008 used IMM thin-film flexible solar cells.
The requirements for residential and commercial are different in that the residential needs
are simple and can be packaged so that as technology at the solar cell progress, the other
base line equipment such as the battery, inverter and voltage sensing transfer switch still
need to be compacted and unitized for residential use. Commercial use, depending on the
size of the service will be limited in the photovoltaic cell arena, and more complex
parabolic reflectors and solar concentrators are becoming the dominant technology.
The global flexible and thin-film photovoltaic (PV) market, despite caution in the overall
PV industry, is expected to experience a CAGR of over 35% to 2019, surpassing 32GW
according to a major new study by IntertechPira.[3]
[edit] Module embedded electronics

See also: Microinverter
Several companies have begun embedding electronics into PV modules. This enables
performing Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) for each module individually, and
the measurement of performance data for monitoring and fault detection at module level.
Some of these solutions make use of Power Optimizers, a DC to DC converter
technology developed to maximize the power harvest from solar photovoltaic systems.
[edit] Module performance and lifetime

Module performance is generally rated under Standard Test Conditions (STC) :
irradiance of 1,000 W/m², solar spectrum of AM 1.5 and module temperature at 25°C.
Electrical characteristics include nominal power (PMAX, measured in W), open circuit
voltage (VOC), short circuit current (ISC, measured in amperes), maximum power voltage
(VMPP), maximum power current (IMPP), peak power, kWp, and module efficiency (%).
Nominal voltage refers to the voltage of the battery that the module is best suited to
charge; this is a leftover term from the days when solar panels were used only to charge
batteries. The actual voltage output of the panel changes as lighting, temperature and load
conditions change, so there is never one specific voltage at which the panel operates.
Nominal voltage allows users, at a glance, to make sure the panel is compatible with a
given system.
Open circuit voltage or VOC is the maximum voltage that the panel can produce when not
connected to an electrical circuit or system. VOC can be measured with a meter directly on
an illuminated panel's terminals or on its disconnected cable.[4]
The peak power rating, kWp, is the maximum output according to STC (not the maximum
possible output).
Solar panels must withstand heat, cold, rain and hail for many years. Many crystalline
silicon module manufacturers offer a warranty that guarantees electrical production for
10 years at 90% of rated power output and 25 years at 80% [5]
[edit] Production
7.5 GW of installations were completed and connected in 2009. IMS Research estimates
that shipments of PV modules were far higher. Shipments exceeded installations due to
the record amount of modules shipped in the final quarter of the year to serve
installations completed in the first quarter of 2010 in booming European markets such as
Germany, Italy, France and Czech Republic[6]
[edit] Top ten
Top ten suppliers (by power) in 2009 were:[6]
1. First Solar
2. Suntech
3. Sharp
4. Yingli
5. Trina Solar
6. Sunpower Corporation
7. Kyocera Corporation
8. Canadian Solar
9. SolarWorld AG
10. Sanyo Electric
[edit] Price
See also: Grid parity
Average pricing information divides in three pricing categories: those buying small
quantities (modules of all sizes in the kilowatt range annually), mid-range buyers
(typically up to 10 MWp annually), and large quantity buyers (self explanatory—and
with access to the lowest prices). Over the long term—and only in the long-term—there
is clearly a systematic reduction in the price of cells and modules. For example in 1998 it
was estimated that the quantity cost per watt was about $4.50, which was 33 times lower
than the cost in 1970 of $150.[7][8]
Following to RMI, Balance-of-System (BoS) elements, this is, non-module cost of non-
microinverter solar panels (as wiring, converters, racking systems and various
components) make up about half of the total costs of installations. Also, standardizing
technologies could encourage greater adoption of solar panels and, in turn, economies of
scale.[citation needed]
[edit] Mounting Systems

[edit] Trackers
Solar Trackers increase the amount of energy produced per panel.
[edit] Fixed Racks
Fixed racks hold panels in a single location as the sun moves across the sky.
The fixed rack sets the angle at which the panel is held. Tilt angles equivalent to an
installation's latitude is common.
[edit] Standards
Standards generally used in photovoltaic panels:
• IEC 61215 (crystalline silicon performance), 61646 (thin film performance) and
61730 (all modules, safety)
• ISO 9488 Solar energy—Vocabulary.
• UL 1703
• CE mark
• Electrical Safety Tester (EST) Series (EST-460, EST-22V, EST-22H, EST-110).
[edit] Devices with photovoltaic modules

Further information: Solar panels on spacecraft and Solar charger
Electric devices that includes solar panels:
• Solar cell phone : Sharp announced that its first solar-powered cell phone would
be released in summer, 2009.[9]
• Solar lamp
• Solar notebook: IUNIKA makes the first Solar Powered Netbook, the Gyy.[10]
• Solar-pumped laser
• Solar vehicle
• Solar plane
Space stations and various spacecraft employ, or have employed photovoltaic panels to
generate power.
• Soyuz spacecraft
• International Space Station
• Skylab space laboratory
• Mir space station
This section requires expansion.
[edit] See also

Renewable energy portal
Energy portal
• Building-integrated photovoltaic (BIPV).

• Cleaning event (Mars Exploration Rover phenomenon)
• Distributed inverter architecture
• Domestic energy consumption; supplies energy requirement numbers for private
homes which is needed for anyone thinking of installing their own PV solar
panels
• Insulated glazing
• Moore's Law
• Photovoltaics e.g. applications
• Photovoltaic system
• List of photovoltaics companies
• Sky footage
• Smart grid
• Solar roadway
• Superstrate
• UV degradation
• Solar pond
[edit] References
1. ^ "Diodes". Kpsec.freeuk.com.
http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/components/diode.htm. Retrieved 2010-10-18.
2. ^ STO: Very High Efficient Solar Cells
3. ^ "Global flexible and thin-film PV market expected to reach US$58b in
2019,reports by IntertechPira study". Globalsolartechnology. 2009-09-11.
http://globalsolartechnology.com/index.php?
option=com_content&task=view&id=3981&Itemid=9.
4. ^ "Introduction to Solar Electricity and Residential Solar Panels - AltE".
altestore.com. http://www.altestore.com/howto/Getting-Started-Renewable-
Energy-Sustainable-Living/Introduction-to-Solar-Electricity/a89/. Retrieved
September 3, 2010.
5. ^ "CTI Solar sales brochure". cti-solar.com. http://www.cti-
solar.com/userfiles/file/brochlet%20CTI-SOLAR%20vers%20EN.pdf. Retrieved
September 3, 2010.
6. ^ a b "IMS Market Research - Press". Pvmarketresearch.com. 2010-05-05.
http://www.pvmarketresearch.com/press-details.php?id=18. Retrieved 2010-10-
18.
7. ^ Harnessing Light. National Research Council. 1998. p. 162.
http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=5954.
8. ^ Paula Mints (24 September 2009). "Module Pricing: Rational, Or Just Plain
Nuts?". Photovoltaics World Magazine.
http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2009/09/module-pricing-
rational-or-just-plain-nuts?cmpid=WNL-Friday-September25-2009.
9. ^ "Transition from Coal- to Solar-powered cell phones this summer « SET
Energy". Setenergy.org. 2009-04-21. http://setenergy.org/2009/04/21/transition-
from-coal-to-solar-powered-cell-phones-this-summer/. Retrieved 2010-10-18.
10. ^ "Meet Gyy, The First Solar Powered Netbook". PCWorld. 2009-05-15.
http://www.pcworld.com/article/164943/meet_gyy_the_first_solar_powered_netb
ook.html. Retrieved 2010-10-18.
[edit] External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Photovoltaics
• The Next Solar Frontier: Distributed Inverter Architecture

• Solar Power Calculator
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_panel"

Categories: Photovoltaics | Solar powered devices
Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced
statements from October 2010 | Articles with unsourced statements from November 2010
| Articles to be expanded from December 2009 | All articles to be expanded
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Battery charger
This unit charges the batteries until they reach a specific voltage and then it trickle
charges the batteries until it is disconnected.
A simple charger equivalent to a AC/DC wall adapter. It applies 300mA to the battery at
all times, which will damage the battery if left connected too long.
A battery charger is a device used to put energy into a secondary cell or (rechargeable)
battery by forcing an electric current through it.
The charge current depends upon the technology and capacity of the battery being
charged. For example, the current that should be applied to recharge a 12 V car battery
will be very different from the current for a mobile phone battery.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Types of battery chargers

o 1.1 Simple
o 1.2 Trickle
o 1.3 Timer-based
o 1.4 Intelligent
o 1.5 Fast
o 1.6 Pulse
o 1.7 Inductive
o 1.8 USB-based
o 1.9 Solar chargers
• 2 Charge rate
• 3 Applications
o 3.1 Mobile phone charger
o 3.2 Battery charger for vehicles
o 3.3 Battery electric vehicle
o 3.4 Use in experiments
• 4 Prolonging battery life
• 5 See also
• 6 References
[edit] Types of battery chargers

[edit] Simple
A simple charger works by supplying a constant or DC pulsed DC power source to a

battery being charged. The simple charger does not alter its output based on time or the
charge on the battery. This simplicity means that a simple charger is inexpensive, but
there is a tradeoff in quality. Typically, a simple charger takes longer to charge a battery
to prevent severe over-charging. Even so, a battery left in a simple charger for too long
will be weakened or destroyed due to over-charging. These chargers can supply either a
constant voltage or a constant current to the battery.
[edit] Trickle
Main article: Trickle charging
A trickle charger, also known as a battery trickle charger, is typically a low-current (500–
1,500 mA) battery charger. A trickle charger is generally used to charge small capacity
batteries (2–30 Ah). These types of battery chargers are also used to maintain larger
capacity batteries (> 30 Ah) that are typically found on cars, boats, RVs and other related
vehicles. In larger applications, the current of the battery charger is sufficient only to
provide a maintenance or trickle current (trickle is commonly the last charging stage of
most battery chargers). Depending on the technology of the trickle charger, it can be left
connected to the battery indefinitely. Battery chargers that can be left connected to the
battery without causing the battery damage are also referred to as smart or intelligent
chargers.
[edit] Timer-based
This section does not cite any references or sources.

Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may
be challenged and removed. (June 2010)
The output of a timer charger is terminated after a pre-determined time. Timer chargers
were the most common type for high-capacity Ni-Cd cells in the late 1990s for example
(low-capacity consumer Ni-Cd cells were typically charged with a simple charger).
Often a timer charger and set of batteries could be bought as a bundle and the charger
time was set to suit those batteries. If batteries of lower capacity were charged then they
would be overcharged, and if batteries of higher capacity were charged they would be
only partly charged. With the trend for battery technology to increase capacity year on
year, an old timer charger would only partly charge the newer batteries.
Timer based chargers also had the drawback that charging batteries that were not fully
discharged, even if those batteries were of the correct capacity for the particular timed
charger, would result in over-charging.
[edit] Intelligent
Output current depends upon the battery's state. An intelligent charger may monitor the
battery's voltage, temperature and/or time under charge to determine the optimum charge
current at that instant. Charging is terminated when a combination of the voltage,
temperature and/or time indicates that the battery is fully charged.
For Ni-Cd and NiMH batteries, the voltage across the battery increases slowly during the
charging process, until the battery is fully charged. After that, the voltage decreases,
which indicates to an intelligent charger that the battery is fully charged. Such chargers
are often labeled as a ΔV, "delta-V," or sometimes "delta peak", charger, indicating that
they monitor the voltage change.
The problem is, the magnitude of "delta-V" can become very small or even non-existent
if (very) high[quantify] capacity rechargeable batteries are recharged.[citation needed] This can
cause even an intelligent battery charger to not sense that the batteries are actually
already fully charged, and continue charging. Overcharging of the batteries will result in
some cases. However, many so called intelligent chargers employ a combination of cut
off systems, which should prevent overcharging in the vast majority of cases.
A typical intelligent charger fast-charges a battery up to about 85% of its maximum

capacity in less than an hour, then switches to trickle charging, which takes several hours
to top off the battery to its full capacity.[1]
[edit] Fast
Fast chargers make use of control circuitry in the batteries being charged to rapidly
charge the batteries without damaging the cells' elements. Most such chargers have a
cooling fan to help keep the temperature of the cells under control. Most are also capable
of acting as standard overnight chargers if used with standard NiMH cells that do not
have the special control circuitry. Some fast chargers, such as those made by Energizer,
can fast-charge any NiMH battery even if it does not have the control circuit.
[edit] Pulse
Some chargers use pulse technology in which a pulse is fed to the battery. This DC pulse
has a strictly controlled rise time, pulse width, pulse repetition rate (frequency) and
amplitude. This technology is said to work with any size, voltage, capacity or chemistry
of batteries, including automotive and valve-regulated batteries.[2] With pulse charging,
high instantaneous voltages can be applied without overheating the battery. In a Lead–
acid battery, this breaks down lead-sulfate crystals, thus greatly extending the battery
service life.[3]
Several kinds of pulse charging are patented.[4][5][6] Others are open source hardware.[7]
Some chargers use pulses to check the current battery state when the charger is first
connected, then use constant current charging during fast charging, then use pulse
charging as a kind of trickle charging to maintain the charge.[8]
Some chargers use "negative pulse charging", also called "reflex charging" or "burp
charging".[9] Such chargers use both positive and brief negative current pulses. There is
no significant evidence, however, that negative pulse charging is more effective than
ordinary pulse charging.[10][11]
[edit] Inductive
Main article: Inductive charging
Inductive battery chargers use electromagnetic induction to charge batteries. A charging

station sends electromagnetic energy through inductive coupling to an electrical device,
which stores the energy in the batteries. This is achieved without the need for metal
contacts between the charger and the battery. It is commonly used in electric toothbrushes
and other devices used in bathrooms. Because there are no open electrical contacts, there
is no risk of electrocution.
[edit] USB-based
Pay-per-charge kiosk, illustrating the variety of mobile phone charger connectors
Since the Universal Serial Bus specification provides for a five-volt power supply, it is
possible to use a USB cable as a power source for recharging batteries. Products based on
this approach include chargers for cellular phones and portable digital audio players.
They may be fully compliant USB peripheral devices adhering to USB power discipline,
or uncontrolled in the manner of USB decorations.
[edit] Solar chargers
Further information: Solar charger and energy harvesting
Solar chargers convert light energy into DC current. They are generally portable, but can
also be fixed mount. Fixed mount solar chargers are also known as solar panels. Solar
panels are often connected to the electrical grid, where as portable solar chargers as used
off-the-grid (i.e. cars, boats, or RVs).
Although portable solar chargers obtain energy from the sun only, they still can
(depending on the technology) be used in low light (i.e. cloudy) applications. Portable
solar charger are typically used for trickle charging, although some solar charger
(depending on the wattage), can completely recharge batteries. Although Portable wind
turbines are also sold. Some, including the Kinesis K3, can work either way.
[edit] Charge rate

Charge rate is often denoted as C or C-rate and signifies a charge or discharge rate equal
to the capacity of a battery in one hour.[12] For a 1.6Ah battery, C = 1.6A. A charge rate of
C/2 = 0.8A would need two hours, and a charge rate of 2C = 3.2A would need 30 minutes
to fully charge the battery from an empty state, if supported by the battery. This also
assumes that the battery is 100% efficient at absorbing the charge.
[edit] Applications
Since a battery charger is intended to be connected to a battery, it may not have voltage
regulation or filtering of the DC voltage output. Battery chargers equipped with both
voltage regulation and filtering may be identified as battery eliminators.
[edit] Mobile phone charger
Micro USB mobile phone charger
Most mobile phone chargers are not really chargers, only adapters that provide a power
source for the charging circuitry which is almost always contained within the mobile
phone.[13] They are notoriously diverse, having a wide variety of DC connector-styles and
voltages, most of which are not compatible with other manufacturers' phones or even
different models of phones from a single manufacturer.
Users of publicly accessible charging kiosks must be able to cross-reference connectors

with device brands/models and individual charge parameters and thus ensure delivery of
the correct charge for their mobile device. A database-driven system is one solution, and
is being incorporated into some designs of charging kiosks.
Mobile phones can usually accept relatively wide range of voltages[citation needed], as long as
it is sufficiently above the phone battery's voltage. However, if the voltage is too high, it
can damage the phone. Mostly, the voltage is 5 volts or slightly higher, but it can
sometimes vary up to 12 volts when the power source is not loaded.
There are also human-powered chargers sold on the market, which typically consists of a
dynamo powered by a hand crank and extension cords. There are also solar chargers.
China and other countries are making a national standard on mobile phone chargers using
the USB standard.[14] in June 2009, 10 of the world's largest mobile phone manufacturers
signed a Memorandum of Understanding to develop specifications for and support a
microUSB-equipped common External Power Supply (EPS) for all data-enabled mobile
phones sold in the EU.[15][16] On October 22, 2009, the International Telecommunication
Union announced a standard for a universal charger for mobile handsets (Micro-USB).[17]
[edit] Battery charger for vehicles
Further information: Charging station
There are two main types of charges for vehicles:
• To recharge a fuel vehicle's starter battery, where a modular charger is used.

• To recharge an electric vehicle (EV) battery pack.
[edit] Battery electric vehicle
These vehicles include a battery pack, so generally use series charger.
A 10 Ampere-hour battery could take 15 hours to reach a fully charged state from a fully
discharged condition with a 1 Ampere charger as it would require roughly 1.5 times the
battery's capacity.
Public EV charging[18] heads (aka: stations) provide 6 kW (host power of 208 to 240 VAC
off a 40 amp circuit). 6 kW will recharge an EV roughly 6 times faster than 1 kW
overnight charging.
Rapid charging results in even faster recharge times and is limited only by available AC
power and the type of charging system.[19]
On board EV chargers (change AC power to DC power to recharge the EV's pack) can
be:
• Isolated: they make no physical connection between the A/C electrical mains and
the batteries being charged. These typically employ some form of Inductive
charging. Some isolated chargers may be used in parallel. This allows for an
increased charge current and reduced charging times. The battery has a maximum
current rating that cannot be exceeded
• Non-isolated: the battery charger has a direct electrical connection to the A/C
outlet's wiring. Non-isolated chargers cannot be used in parallel.
Power Factor Correction (PFC) chargers can more closely approach the maximum
current the plug can deliver, shortening charging time.
Charge stations
Main article: Charging station
There is a list of public EV charging stations in the U.S.A. and worldwide[18]
Project Better Place is deploying a network of charging stations and subsidizing vehicle
battery costs through leases and credits.
Auxiliary charger designed to fit a variety of proprietary devices
Non-contact magnetic charging
Researchers at the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) have
developed an electric transport system (called Online Electric Vehicle, OLEV) where the
vehicles get their power needs from cables underneath the surface of the road via non-
contact magnetic charging, (where a power source is placed underneath the road surface
and power is wirelessly picked up on the vehicle itself. As a possible solution to traffic
congestion and to improve overall efficiency by minimizing air resistance and so reduce
energy consumption, the test vehicles followed the power track in a convoy formation[20]
[edit] Use in experiments
A battery charger can work as a DC power adapter for experimentation. It may, however,
require an external capacitor to be connected across its output terminals in order to
"smooth" the voltage sufficiently, which may be thought of as a DC voltage plus a
"ripple" voltage added to it. Note that there may be an internal resistance connected to
limit the short circuit current, and the value of that internal resistance may have to be
taken into consideration in experiments.
[edit] Prolonging battery life

What practices are best depend on the type of battery. Nickel-based cells, such as NiMH
and NiCd, need to be fully discharged occasionally, or else the battery loses capacity over
time in a phenomenon known as "memory effect". Once a month (once every 30 charges)
is sometimes recommended.[citation needed] This extends the life of the battery since memory
effect is prevented while avoiding full charge cycles which are known to be hard on all
types of dry-cell batteries, eventually resulting in a permanent decrease in battery
capacity.
Most modern cell phones, laptops, and most electric vehicles use Lithium-ion batteries.
These batteries last longest if the battery is frequently charged; fully discharging them
will degrade their capacity relatively quickly.[21] When storing however, lithium batteries
degrade more while fully charged than if they are only 40% charged. Degradation also
occurs faster at higher temperatures. Degradation in lithium-ion batteries is caused by an
increased internal battery resistance due to cell oxidation. This decreases the efficiency of
the battery, resulting in less net current available to be drawn from the battery.[citation needed]
Internal combustion engine vehicles, such as boats, RVs, ATVs, motorcycles, cars,
trucks, and more use lead–acid batteries. These batteries employ a sulfuric acid
electrolyte and can generally be charged and discharged without exhibiting memory
effect, though sulfation (a chemical reaction in the battery which deposits a layer of
sulfates on the lead) will occur over time. Keeping the electrolyte level in the
recommended range is necessary. When discharged, these batteries should be recharged
immediately in order to prevent sulfation. These sulfates are electrically insulating and
therefore interfere with the transfer of charge from the sulfuric acid to the lead, resulting
in a lower maximum current than can be drawn from the battery. Sulfated lead acid
batteries typically need replacing.
Lead–acid batteries will experience substantially longer life when a maintenance charger
is used to float the battery. This prevents the battery from ever being below 100% charge,
preventing sulfate from forming. Proper temperature compensated float voltage should be
used to achieve the best results.
[edit] See also

• Battery eliminator
• Battery holder
• Battery management system
• List of battery sizes
• Carport
• Charge controller
• Lithium-ion battery
• Recharging alkaline batteries
• Solar energy
• Solar lamp
• Underwriters Laboratories (UL) certification.
[edit] References
1. ^ Dave Etchells. "The Great Battery Shootout". http://www.imaging-
resource.com/ACCS/BATTS/BATTS.HTM.
2. ^ "AN913: Switch-Mode, Linear, and Pulse Charging Techniques for Li+ Battery
in Mobile Phones and PDAs". Maxim. 2001. http://www.maxim-
ic.com/appnotes.cfm/appnote_number/913/.
3. ^ "Lead–acid battery sulfation". Archived from the original on 2007-04-02.
http://web.archive.org/web/20070402140958/http://www.dallas.net/~jvpoll/Batter
y/aaPictures.html.
4. ^ ""fast pulse battery charger" patent". 2003.
http://www.wipo.int/pctdb/en/wo.jsp?wo=2003088447.
5. ^ "Battery charger with current pulse regulation" patented 1981 United States
Patent 4355275
6. ^ "Pulse-charge battery charger" patented 1997 United States Patent 5633574
7. ^ http://www.dallas.net/~jvpoll/Battery/aaPictures.html Pulse-charger/desulfator
circuit schematic
8. ^ "Pulse Maintenance charging."
9. ^ "The pulse power(tm) battery charging system"
10. ^ "Negative Pulse Charge, or "Burp" Charging: Fact or Fiction?"
11. ^ Tech Brief: Negative Pulse Charging Myths and Facts and Negative Pulse
Charging: Myths and Facts
12. ^ [1] A Guide to Understanding Battery Specifications, MIT Electric Vehicle
Team, December 2008
13. ^ Mobile phone battery care
14. ^ China to work out national standard for mobile phone chargers
15. ^ "Cellphone charger harmonization". ec.europa.eu.
http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/sectors/rtte/chargers/index_en.htm. Retrieved 2011-
01-21.
16. ^ PC World:Universal Chargers are a Good Start Jan 2009
17. ^ Oct 22, 2009, ITU press release Universal charger for mobile phone handsets
18. ^ a b EV Charger News - Home
19. ^ Green Car Congress: Fuji Heavy Speeds Up Recharging of R1e EV
20. ^ http://www.gizmag.com/kaist-olev-electric-vehicle/12557/
21. ^ "How to prolong lithium-based batteries". September 2006.
http://www.batteryuniversity.com/parttwo-34.htm. Retrieved November 21, 2009.
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Battery charger
This unit charges the batteries until they reach a specific voltage and then it trickle
charges the batteries until it is disconnected.
A simple charger equivalent to a AC/DC wall adapter. It applies 300mA to the battery at
all times, which will damage the battery if left connected too long.
A battery charger is a device used to put energy into a secondary cell or (rechargeable)
battery by forcing an electric current through it.
The charge current depends upon the technology and capacity of the battery being
charged. For example, the current that should be applied to recharge a 12 V car battery
will be very different from the current for a mobile phone battery.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Types of battery chargers

o 1.1 Simple
o 1.2 Trickle
o 1.3 Timer-based
o 1.4 Intelligent
o 1.5 Fast
o 1.6 Pulse
o 1.7 Inductive
o 1.8 USB-based
o 1.9 Solar chargers
• 2 Charge rate
• 3 Applications
o 3.1 Mobile phone charger
o 3.2 Battery charger for vehicles
o 3.3 Battery electric vehicle
o 3.4 Use in experiments
• 4 Prolonging battery life
• 5 See also
• 6 References
[edit] Types of battery chargers

[edit] Simple
A simple charger works by supplying a constant or DC pulsed DC power source to a

battery being charged. The simple charger does not alter its output based on time or the
charge on the battery. This simplicity means that a simple charger is inexpensive, but
there is a tradeoff in quality. Typically, a simple charger takes longer to charge a battery
to prevent severe over-charging. Even so, a battery left in a simple charger for too long
will be weakened or destroyed due to over-charging. These chargers can supply either a
constant voltage or a constant current to the battery.
[edit] Trickle
Main article: Trickle charging
A trickle charger, also known as a battery trickle charger, is typically a low-current (500–
1,500 mA) battery charger. A trickle charger is generally used to charge small capacity
batteries (2–30 Ah). These types of battery chargers are also used to maintain larger
capacity batteries (> 30 Ah) that are typically found on cars, boats, RVs and other related
vehicles. In larger applications, the current of the battery charger is sufficient only to
provide a maintenance or trickle current (trickle is commonly the last charging stage of
most battery chargers). Depending on the technology of the trickle charger, it can be left
connected to the battery indefinitely. Battery chargers that can be left connected to the
battery without causing the battery damage are also referred to as smart or intelligent
chargers.
[edit] Timer-based

The output of a timer charger is terminated after a pre-determined time. Timer chargers
were the most common type for high-capacity Ni-Cd cells in the late 1990s for example
(low-capacity consumer Ni-Cd cells were typically charged with a simple charger).
Often a timer charger and set of batteries could be bought as a bundle and the charger
time was set to suit those batteries. If batteries of lower capacity were charged then they
would be overcharged, and if batteries of higher capacity were charged they would be
only partly charged. With the trend for battery technology to increase capacity year on
year, an old timer charger would only partly charge the newer batteries.
Timer based chargers also had the drawback that charging batteries that were not fully
discharged, even if those batteries were of the correct capacity for the particular timed
charger, would result in over-charging.
[edit] Intelligent
Output current depends upon the battery's state. An intelligent charger may monitor the
battery's voltage, temperature and/or time under charge to determine the optimum charge
current at that instant. Charging is terminated when a combination of the voltage,
temperature and/or time indicates that the battery is fully charged.
For Ni-Cd and NiMH batteries, the voltage across the battery increases slowly during the
charging process, until the battery is fully charged. After that, the voltage decreases,
which indicates to an intelligent charger that the battery is fully charged. Such chargers
are often labeled as a ΔV, "delta-V," or sometimes "delta peak", charger, indicating that
they monitor the voltage change.
The problem is, the magnitude of "delta-V" can become very small or even non-existent
if (very) high[quantify] capacity rechargeable batteries are recharged.[citation needed] This can
cause even an intelligent battery charger to not sense that the batteries are actually
already fully charged, and continue charging. Overcharging of the batteries will result in
some cases. However, many so called intelligent chargers employ a combination of cut
off systems, which should prevent overcharging in the vast majority of cases.
A typical intelligent charger fast-charges a battery up to about 85% of its maximum

capacity in less than an hour, then switches to trickle charging, which takes several hours
to top off the battery to its full capacity.[1]
[edit] Fast
Fast chargers make use of control circuitry in the batteries being charged to rapidly
charge the batteries without damaging the cells' elements. Most such chargers have a
cooling fan to help keep the temperature of the cells under control. Most are also capable
of acting as standard overnight chargers if used with standard NiMH cells that do not
have the special control circuitry. Some fast chargers, such as those made by Energizer,
can fast-charge any NiMH battery even if it does not have the control circuit.
[edit] Pulse
Some chargers use pulse technology in which a pulse is fed to the battery. This DC pulse
has a strictly controlled rise time, pulse width, pulse repetition rate (frequency) and
amplitude. This technology is said to work with any size, voltage, capacity or chemistry
of batteries, including automotive and valve-regulated batteries.[2] With pulse charging,
high instantaneous voltages can be applied without overheating the battery. In a Lead–
acid battery, this breaks down lead-sulfate crystals, thus greatly extending the battery
service life.[3]
Several kinds of pulse charging are patented.[4][5][6] Others are open source hardware.[7]
Some chargers use pulses to check the current battery state when the charger is first
connected, then use constant current charging during fast charging, then use pulse
charging as a kind of trickle charging to maintain the charge.[8]
Some chargers use "negative pulse charging", also called "reflex charging" or "burp
charging".[9] Such chargers use both positive and brief negative current pulses. There is
no significant evidence, however, that negative pulse charging is more effective than
ordinary pulse charging.[10][11]
[edit] Inductive
Main article: Inductive charging
Inductive battery chargers use electromagnetic induction to charge batteries. A charging

station sends electromagnetic energy through inductive coupling to an electrical device,
which stores the energy in the batteries. This is achieved without the need for metal
contacts between the charger and the battery. It is commonly used in electric toothbrushes
and other devices used in bathrooms. Because there are no open electrical contacts, there
is no risk of electrocution.
[edit] USB-based
Pay-per-charge kiosk, illustrating the variety of mobile phone charger connectors
Since the Universal Serial Bus specification provides for a five-volt power supply, it is
possible to use a USB cable as a power source for recharging batteries. Products based on
this approach include chargers for cellular phones and portable digital audio players.
They may be fully compliant USB peripheral devices adhering to USB power discipline,
or uncontrolled in the manner of USB decorations.
[edit] Solar chargers
Further information: Solar charger and energy harvesting
Solar chargers convert light energy into DC current. They are generally portable, but can
also be fixed mount. Fixed mount solar chargers are also known as solar panels. Solar
panels are often connected to the electrical grid, where as portable solar chargers as used
off-the-grid (i.e. cars, boats, or RVs).
Although portable solar chargers obtain energy from the sun only, they still can
(depending on the technology) be used in low light (i.e. cloudy) applications. Portable
solar charger are typically used for trickle charging, although some solar charger
(depending on the wattage), can completely recharge batteries. Although Portable wind
turbines are also sold. Some, including the Kinesis K3, can work either way.
[edit] Charge rate

Charge rate is often denoted as C or C-rate and signifies a charge or discharge rate equal
to the capacity of a battery in one hour.[12] For a 1.6Ah battery, C = 1.6A. A charge rate of
C/2 = 0.8A would need two hours, and a charge rate of 2C = 3.2A would need 30 minutes
to fully charge the battery from an empty state, if supported by the battery. This also
assumes that the battery is 100% efficient at absorbing the charge.
[edit] Applications
Since a battery charger is intended to be connected to a battery, it may not have voltage
regulation or filtering of the DC voltage output. Battery chargers equipped with both
voltage regulation and filtering may be identified as battery eliminators.
[edit] Mobile phone charger
Micro USB mobile phone charger
Most mobile phone chargers are not really chargers, only adapters that provide a power
source for the charging circuitry which is almost always contained within the mobile
phone.[13] They are notoriously diverse, having a wide variety of DC connector-styles and
voltages, most of which are not compatible with other manufacturers' phones or even
different models of phones from a single manufacturer.
Users of publicly accessible charging kiosks must be able to cross-reference connectors

with device brands/models and individual charge parameters and thus ensure delivery of
the correct charge for their mobile device. A database-driven system is one solution, and
is being incorporated into some designs of charging kiosks.
Mobile phones can usually accept relatively wide range of voltages[citation needed], as long as
it is sufficiently above the phone battery's voltage. However, if the voltage is too high, it
can damage the phone. Mostly, the voltage is 5 volts or slightly higher, but it can
sometimes vary up to 12 volts when the power source is not loaded.
There are also human-powered chargers sold on the market, which typically consists of a
dynamo powered by a hand crank and extension cords. There are also solar chargers.
China and other countries are making a national standard on mobile phone chargers using
the USB standard.[14] in June 2009, 10 of the world's largest mobile phone manufacturers
signed a Memorandum of Understanding to develop specifications for and support a
microUSB-equipped common External Power Supply (EPS) for all data-enabled mobile
phones sold in the EU.[15][16] On October 22, 2009, the International Telecommunication
Union announced a standard for a universal charger for mobile handsets (Micro-USB).[17]
[edit] Battery charger for vehicles
Further information: Charging station
There are two main types of charges for vehicles:
• To recharge a fuel vehicle's starter battery, where a modular charger is used.

• To recharge an electric vehicle (EV) battery pack.
[edit] Battery electric vehicle
These vehicles include a battery pack, so generally use series charger.
A 10 Ampere-hour battery could take 15 hours to reach a fully charged state from a fully
discharged condition with a 1 Ampere charger as it would require roughly 1.5 times the
battery's capacity.
Public EV charging[18] heads (aka: stations) provide 6 kW (host power of 208 to 240 VAC
off a 40 amp circuit). 6 kW will recharge an EV roughly 6 times faster than 1 kW
overnight charging.
Rapid charging results in even faster recharge times and is limited only by available AC
power and the type of charging system.[19]
On board EV chargers (change AC power to DC power to recharge the EV's pack) can
be:
• Isolated: they make no physical connection between the A/C electrical mains and
the batteries being charged. These typically employ some form of Inductive
charging. Some isolated chargers may be used in parallel. This allows for an
increased charge current and reduced charging times. The battery has a maximum
current rating that cannot be exceeded
• Non-isolated: the battery charger has a direct electrical connection to the A/C
outlet's wiring. Non-isolated chargers cannot be used in parallel.
Power Factor Correction (PFC) chargers can more closely approach the maximum
current the plug can deliver, shortening charging time.
Charge stations
There is a list of public EV charging stations in the U.S.A. and worldwide[18]
Project Better Place is deploying a network of charging stations and subsidizing vehicle
battery costs through leases and credits.
Auxiliary charger designed to fit a variety of proprietary devices
Non-contact magnetic charging
Researchers at the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) have
developed an electric transport system (called Online Electric Vehicle, OLEV) where the
vehicles get their power needs from cables underneath the surface of the road via non-
contact magnetic charging, (where a power source is placed underneath the road surface
and power is wirelessly picked up on the vehicle itself. As a possible solution to traffic
congestion and to improve overall efficiency by minimizing air resistance and so reduce
energy consumption, the test vehicles followed the power track in a convoy formation[20]
[edit] Use in experiments
A battery charger can work as a DC power adapter for experimentation. It may, however,
require an external capacitor to be connected across its output terminals in order to
"smooth" the voltage sufficiently, which may be thought of as a DC voltage plus a
"ripple" voltage added to it. Note that there may be an internal resistance connected to
limit the short circuit current, and the value of that internal resistance may have to be
taken into consideration in experiments.
[edit] Prolonging battery life

What practices are best depend on the type of battery. Nickel-based cells, such as NiMH
and NiCd, need to be fully discharged occasionally, or else the battery loses capacity over
time in a phenomenon known as "memory effect". Once a month (once every 30 charges)
is sometimes recommended.[citation needed] This extends the life of the battery since memory
effect is prevented while avoiding full charge cycles which are known to be hard on all
types of dry-cell batteries, eventually resulting in a permanent decrease in battery
capacity.
Most modern cell phones, laptops, and most electric vehicles use Lithium-ion batteries.
These batteries last longest if the battery is frequently charged; fully discharging them
will degrade their capacity relatively quickly.[21] When storing however, lithium batteries
degrade more while fully charged than if they are only 40% charged. Degradation also
occurs faster at higher temperatures. Degradation in lithium-ion batteries is caused by an
increased internal battery resistance due to cell oxidation. This decreases the efficiency of
the battery, resulting in less net current available to be drawn from the battery.[citation needed]
Internal combustion engine vehicles, such as boats, RVs, ATVs, motorcycles, cars,
trucks, and more use lead–acid batteries. These batteries employ a sulfuric acid
electrolyte and can generally be charged and discharged without exhibiting memory
effect, though sulfation (a chemical reaction in the battery which deposits a layer of
sulfates on the lead) will occur over time. Keeping the electrolyte level in the
recommended range is necessary. When discharged, these batteries should be recharged
immediately in order to prevent sulfation. These sulfates are electrically insulating and
therefore interfere with the transfer of charge from the sulfuric acid to the lead, resulting
in a lower maximum current than can be drawn from the battery. Sulfated lead acid
batteries typically need replacing.
Lead–acid batteries will experience substantially longer life when a maintenance charger
is used to float the battery. This prevents the battery from ever being below 100% charge,
preventing sulfate from forming. Proper temperature compensated float voltage should be
used to achieve the best results.
[edit] See also

• Battery eliminator
• Battery holder
• Battery management system
• List of battery sizes
• Carport
• Charge controller
• Lithium-ion battery
• Recharging alkaline batteries
• Solar energy
• Solar lamp
• Underwriters Laboratories (UL) certification.
[edit] References
1. ^ Dave Etchells. "The Great Battery Shootout". http://www.imaging-
resource.com/ACCS/BATTS/BATTS.HTM.
2. ^ "AN913: Switch-Mode, Linear, and Pulse Charging Techniques for Li+ Battery
in Mobile Phones and PDAs". Maxim. 2001. http://www.maxim-
ic.com/appnotes.cfm/appnote_number/913/.
3. ^ "Lead–acid battery sulfation". Archived from the original on 2007-04-02.
http://web.archive.org/web/20070402140958/http://www.dallas.net/~jvpoll/Batter
y/aaPictures.html.
4. ^ ""fast pulse battery charger" patent". 2003.
http://www.wipo.int/pctdb/en/wo.jsp?wo=2003088447.
5. ^ "Battery charger with current pulse regulation" patented 1981 United States
Patent 4355275
6. ^ "Pulse-charge battery charger" patented 1997 United States Patent 5633574
7. ^ http://www.dallas.net/~jvpoll/Battery/aaPictures.html Pulse-charger/desulfator
circuit schematic
8. ^ "Pulse Maintenance charging."
9. ^ "The pulse power(tm) battery charging system"
10. ^ "Negative Pulse Charge, or "Burp" Charging: Fact or Fiction?"
11. ^ Tech Brief: Negative Pulse Charging Myths and Facts and Negative Pulse
Charging: Myths and Facts
12. ^ [1] A Guide to Understanding Battery Specifications, MIT Electric Vehicle
Team, December 2008
13. ^ Mobile phone battery care
14. ^ China to work out national standard for mobile phone chargers
15. ^ "Cellphone charger harmonization". ec.europa.eu.
http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/sectors/rtte/chargers/index_en.htm. Retrieved 2011-
01-21.
16. ^ PC World:Universal Chargers are a Good Start Jan 2009
17. ^ Oct 22, 2009, ITU press release Universal charger for mobile phone handsets
18. ^ a b EV Charger News - Home
19. ^ Green Car Congress: Fuji Heavy Speeds Up Recharging of R1e EV
20. ^ http://www.gizmag.com/kaist-olev-electric-vehicle/12557/
21. ^ "How to prolong lithium-based batteries". September 2006.
http://www.batteryuniversity.com/parttwo-34.htm. Retrieved November 21, 2009.
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Contents
[hide]
•
• 1 Distance races
• o 1.1 Support
o 1.2 World Solar Challenge
o 1.3 North American Solar Challenge
o 1.4 The Dell-Winston School Solar Car Challenge
o 1.5 South African Solar Challenge
Solar car o 1.6 Other races
• 2 Solar drag races
racing • 3 Speed Record
• 4 Vehicle design
From Wikipedia, the o 4.1 Electrical system
free encyclopedia o 4.2 Mechanical systems
Jump to: navigation, o 4.3 Solar array
search o 4.4 Aerodynamics
o 4.5 Mass
Solar car racing o 4.6 Rolling resistance
refers to competitive o 4.7 Performance equation
races of electric o 4.8 Race route considerations
vehicles which are • 5 Race strategy
powered by solar o 5.1 Energy consumption
energy obtained from o 5.2 Race route
solar panels on the o 5.3 Weather forecasting
• 6 See also
• 7 References
surface of the car (solar cars). The first solar car race was the Tour de Sol in 1985 which
led to several similar races in Europe, USA and Australia. Such challenges are often
entered by universities to develop their students' engineering and technological skills, but
many business corporations have entered competitions in the past. A small number of
high school teams participate in solar car races designed exclusively for high school
students.
Distance races
The two most notable solar car distance (overland) races are the World Solar Challenge
and the North American Solar Challenge. They are contested by a variety of university
and corporate teams. Corporate teams participate in the races to give their design teams
experience of working with both alternative energy sources and advanced materials.
University teams participate in order to give their students experience in designing high
technology cars and working with environmental and advanced materials technology.
These races are often sponsored by government or educational agencies[citation needed], and
businesses such as Toyota[1] keen to promote renewable energy sources.
Support
The cars require intensive support teams similar in size to professional motor racing
teams. This is especially the case with the World Solar Challenge where sections of the
race run through very remote country. The solar car will travel escorted by a small
caravan of support cars. In a long distance race each solar car will be preceded by a lead
car that can identify problems or obstacles ahead of the race car. Behind the solar car
there wil be a mission control vehicle from which the race pace is controlled. Here
tactical decisions will be made based on Wi-Fi information from the solar car and
environmental information about the weather and terrain. The mission control car could
be able to remote control the vehicle power/speed using adaptive cruise control leaving
the driver only to do the steering. Behind the mission control there might be one or more
other vehicles carrying replacement drivers and maintenance support as well as supplies
and camping equipment for the entire team.
Dutch Nuna 3 team during testing in 2005.
World Solar Challenge
Main article: World Solar Challenge
This race features a field of competitors from around the world who race to cross the
Australian continent. In 2005, the Dutch Nuna 3 team won this challenge for a 3rd time in
a record average speed of 102.75 km/h over a distance of 3000 km, followed by the
Australian Aurora (92.03 km/h) and the University of Michigan (90.03 km/h). The
increasingly high speeds of the 2005 race participants has led to the rules being changed
for future solar cars starting in the 2007 race.
The 20th Anniversary race of the World Solar Challenge ran in October 2007. Major
regulation changes were released in June 2006 for this race to increase safety, to build a
new generation of solar car, which with little modification could be the basis for a
practical proposition for sustainable transport and intended to slow down cars in the main
event, which could easily exceed the speed limit (110 km/h) in previous years. The
winner again was the Nuna 4 team averaging 90.87 km/h. The winner in the Adventure
Class (driving under old rules) was the Ashiya University Solar Car Project team
averaging 93.57 km/h.[2]
North American Solar Challenge
Main article: North American Solar Challenge
The North American Solar Challenge, previously known as the 'American Solar
Challenge' and 'Sunrayce USA', features mostly collegiate teams racing in timed intervals
in the United States and Canada.
The North American Solar Challenge was sponsored in part by the US Department of
Energy. However, funding was cut near the end of 2005, and the NASC 2007 was
cancelled. The North American solar racing community worked to find a solution,
bringing in Toyota as a primary sponsor for a 2008 race.[3][4] The last North American
Solar Challenge was run from July 13-21, 2008, from Dallas, Texas to Calgary, Alberta.
The race was won by the University of Michigan Solar Car Team.
The Dell-Winston School Solar Car Challenge
Main article: Dell-Winston School Solar Car Challenge
The Dell-Winston School Solar Car Challenge is an annual solar-powered car race for
high school students. The event attracts teams from around the world, but mostly from
American high schools. The race was first held in 1995. Each event is the end product of
a two year education cycle launched by the Winston Solar Car Team. On odd-numbered
years, the race is a road course that starts at the Dell Diamond in Round Rock, Texas; the
end of the course varies from year to year. On even-numbered years, the race is a track
race around the Texas Motor Speedway. Dell has sponsored the event since 2002.[1]
South African Solar Challenge
Main article: South African Solar Challenge
The South African Solar Challenge is an epic, bi-annual, two-week race of solar-powered
cars through the length and breadth of South Africa. Teams will have to build their own
cars, design their own engineering systems and race those same machines through the
most demanding terrain that solar cars have ever seen. The 2008 race proved that this
event can attract the interest of the public, and that it has the necessary international
backing from the FIA. Late in September, all entrants will take off from Pretoria and
make their way to Cape Town via the N1, then drive along the coast to Durban, before
climbing the escarpment on their way back to the finish line in Pretoria 10 days later. In
2008 the event was endorsed by International Solarcar Federation (ISF), Fédération
Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), World Wildlife Fund (WWF) making it the first
Solar Race to receive endorsement from these 3 organizations.
Other races
• Formula-G, a yearly track race in Turkey.

• Suzuka, a yearly track race in Japan.
• Phaethon[2], part of the Cultural Olympiad in Greece prior to the 2004 Olympics.
• World Solar Rally.
• Eco-marathon Americas
Solar drag races

Solar drag races are another form of solar racing. Unlike long distance solar races, solar
dragsters do not use any batteries or pre-charged energy storage devices. Racers go head-
to-head over a straight quarter kilometer distance. Currently, a solar drag race is held
each year on the Saturday closest to the summer solstice in Wenatchee, Washington,
USA. The world record for this event is 29.5 seconds set by the South Whidbey High
School team on June 23, 2007.[5]
Sunswift IV and control vehicle during speed record attempts at the HMAS Albatross.
Speed Record
Guinness world records recognize a land speed record for vehicles powered only by solar
panels. This record is currently held by the University of New South Wales with the car
Sunswift IV[6]. The record of 88.8 km/h, was set on the 7th of January 2011 at the HMAS
Albatross in Nowra, breaking the record previously held by The General Motors car
Sunraycer of 78.3 km/h. The record takes place over a flying 500m stretch, and is the
average of 2 runs in opposite directions.
Vehicle design
Solar cars combine technology used in the aerospace, bicycle, alternative energy and
automotive industries. Unlike most race cars, solar cars are designed with severe energy
constraints imposed by the race regulations. These rules limit the energy used to only that
collected from solar radiation, albeit starting with a full charged battery pack. Some
vehicle classes also allow human power input. As a result optimizing the design to
account for aerodynamic drag, vehicle weight, rolling resistance and electrical efficiency
are paramount.
A usual design for today's successful vehicles is a small canopy in the middle of a curved
wing-like array, entirely covered in cells, with 3 wheels. Before, the cockroach style with
a smooth nose fairing into the panel was more successful. At lower speeds, with less
powerful arrays, other configurations are viable and easier to construct, e.g. covering
available surfaces of existing electric vehicles with solar cells or fastening solar canopies
above them.
Race vehicles head toward the finish line in the 2005 North American Solar Challenge.
Electrical system
The electrical system controls all of the power entering and leaving the system. The
battery pack stores surplus solar energy produced when the vehicle is stationary or
travelling slowly or downhill. Solar cars use a range of batteries including lead-acid
batteries, nickel-metal hydride batteries (NiMH), nickel-cadmium batteries (NiCd),
lithium ion batteries and lithium polymer batteries.
Power electronics may be used to optimise the electrical system. The maximum power
tracker adjusts the operating point of the solar array to that voltage which produces the
most power for the given conditions, e.g. temperature. The battery manager protects the
batteries from overcharging. The motor controller controls the desired motor power.
Many controllers allow regenerative braking, i.e. power is fed back into the battery
during decceleration.
Some solar cars have complex data acquisition systems that monitor the whole electrical
system, while basic cars show battery voltage and motor current. In order to judge the
range available with varying solar production and motive consumption, an ampere-hour
meter multiplies battery current and rate, thus providing the remaining vehicle range at
each moment in the given conditions.
A wide variety of motor types have been used. The most efficient motors exceed 98%
efficiency. These are brushless three-"phase" DC, electronically commutated, wheel
motors, with a Halbach array configuration for the neodymium-iron-boron magnets, and
Litz wire for the windings.[7] Cheaper alternatives are asynchronous AC or brushed DC
motors.
A test chassis at Ford Proving Grounds in 1992.
Mechanical systems
The mechanical systems are designed to keep friction and weight to a minimum while
maintaining strength and stiffness. Designers normally use aluminium, titanium and
composites to provide a structure that meets strength and stiffness requirements whilst
being fairly light. Steel is used for some suspension parts on many cars.
Solar cars usually have three wheels, but some have four. Three wheelers usually have
two front wheels and one rear wheel: the front wheels steer and the rear wheel follows.
Four wheel vehicles are set up like normal cars or similarly to three wheeled vehicles
with the two rear wheels close together.
Solar cars have a wide range of suspensions because of varying bodies and chassis. The
most common front suspension is the double wishbone suspension. The rear suspension
is often a trailing-arm suspension as found in motor cycles.
Solar cars are required to meet rigorous standards for brakes. Disc brakes are the most
commonly used due to their good braking ability and ability to adjust. Mechanical and
hydraulic brakes are both widely used. The brake pads or shoes are typically designed to
retract to minimize brake drag, on leading cars.
Steering systems for solar cars also vary. The major design factors for steering systems
are efficiency, reliability and precision alignment to minimize tire wear and power loss.
The popularity of solar car racing has led to some tire manufacturers designing tires for
solar vehicles. This has increased overall safety and performance.
All the top teams now use wheel motors, eliminating belt or chain drives.
Testing is essential to demonstrating vehicle reliability prior to a race. It is easy to spend

a hundred thousand dollars to gain a two hour advantage, and equally easy to lose two
hours due to reliability issues.
Solar array
The solar array consists of hundreds (or thousands) of photovoltaic solar cells converting
sunlight into electricity. Cars can use a variety of solar cell technologies; most often
polycrystalline silicon, monocrystalline silicon, or gallium arsenide. The cells are wired
together into strings while strings are often wired together to form a panel. Panels
normally have voltages close to the nominal battery voltage. The main aim is to get as
much cell area in as small a space as possible. Designers encapsulate the cells to protect
them from the weather and breakage.
Designing a solar array is more than just stringing a bunch of cells together. A solar array
acts like many very small batteries all hooked together in series. The total voltage
produced is the sum of all cell voltages. The problem is that if a single cell is in shadow it
acts like a diode, blocking the current for the entire string of cells. To design against this,
array designers use by-pass diodes in parallel with smaller segments of the string of cells,
allowing current around the non-functioning cell(s). Another consideration is that the
battery itself can force current backwards through the array unless there are blocking
diodes put at the end of each panel.
The power produced by the solar array depends on the weather conditions, the position of
the sun and the capacity of the array. At noon on a bright day, a good array can produce
over 2 kilowatts (2.6 hp). A 6 m2 array of 20% cells will produce roughly 6 kW·h (22 kJ)
of energy during a typical day on the WSC.
Some cars have employed free-standing or integrated sails to harness wind energy.[8]
Many races, including the WSC and NASC, consider wind energy to be solar energy, so
their race regulations allow this practice.
Aerodynamics
Aerodynamic drag is the main source of losses on a solar race car. The aerodynamic drag
of a vehicle is the product of the frontal area and its Cd. For most solar cars the frontal
area is 0.75 to 1.3 m2. While Cd as low as 0.10 have been reported, 0.13 is more typical.
This needs a great deal of attention to detail.[9]
Mass
The vehicle's mass is also a significant factor. A light vehicle generates less rolling
resistance and will need smaller lighter brakes and other suspension components. This is
the virtuous circle when designing lightweight vehicles.
Rolling resistance
Rolling resistance can be minimised by using the right tires, inflated to the right pressure,
correctly aligned, and by minimising the weight of the vehicle.
Performance equation
The design of a solar car is governed by the following work equation:
[10]
which can be usefully simplified to the performance equation
for long distance races, and values seen in practice.
Briefly, the left hand side represents the energy input into the car (batteries and power
from the sun) and the right hand side is the energy needed to drive the car along the race
route (overcoming rolling resistance, aerodynamic drag, going uphill and accelerating).
Everything in this equation can be estimated except v. The parameters include:
Computer simulation of a solar car body design.

Ford
Symbol Description Aurora Aurora Aurora
Australia
Year 1987 1993 1999 2007
Motor, controller and drive train
η 0.82 0.80 0.97 0.97
efficiency (decimal)
1.00
ηb Watt-hour battery efficiency (decimal) 0.82 0.92 0.82
(LiPoly)
Energy available in the batteries
E 1.2e7 1.8e7 1.8e7 1.8e7
(joules)
Estimated average power from the
P 918 902 1050 972
array (1) (watts)
x Race route distance (meters) 3e6 3.007e6 3.007e6 3.007e6
Weight of the vehicle including
W 2690 2950 3000 2400
payload (newtons)
Crr1 First coefficient of rolling resistance 0.0060 0.0050 0.0027 0.0027
(non-dimensional)
Second coefficient of rolling resistance
Crr2 0 0 0 0
(newton-seconds per meter)
Number of wheels on the vehicle
N 4 3 3 3
(integer)
ρ Air density (kilograms per cubic meter) 1.22 1.22 1.22 1.22
Cd Coefficient of drag (non-dimensional) 0.26 0.133 0.10 0.10
A Frontal area (square meters) 0.70 0.75 0.75 0.76
Total height that the vehicle will climb
h 0 0 0 0
(meters)
Number of times the vehicle will
Na 4 4 4 4
accelerate in a race day (integer)
Local acceleration due to gravity
g 9.81 9.81 9.81 9.81
variable (meters per second squared)
Calculated average velocity over the
v 16.8 20.3 27.2 27.1
route (meters per second)
Calculated average speed in km/h 60.5 73.1 97.9 97.6
Actual race speed km/h 44.8 70.1 73 85
Note 1 For the WSC the average panel power can be approximated as (7/9)×nominal
power.
Solving the long form of the equation for velocity results in a large equation
(approximately 100 terms). Using the power equation as the arbiter, vehicle designers can
compare various car designs and evaluate the comparative performance over a given
route. Combined with CAE and systems modeling, the power equation can be a useful
tool in solar car design.
Race route considerations
The directional orientation of a solar car race route affects the apparent position of the
sun in the sky during a race day, which in turn affects the energy input to the vehicle.
• In a south-to-north race route alignment, for example, the sun would rise over the
driver's right shoulder and finish over his left (due to the east-west apparent
motion of the sun).
• In an east-west race route alignment, the sun would rise behind the vehicle, and
appear to move in the direction of the vehicle's movement, setting in the front of
the car.
• A hybrid route alignment includes significant sections of south-north and east-
west routes together.
This is significant to designers, who seek to maximize energy input to a panel of solar
cells (often called an "array" of cells) by designing the array to point directly toward the
sun for as long as possible during the race day. Thus, a south-north race car designer
might increase the car's total energy input by using solar cells on the sides of the vehicle
where the sun will strike them (or by creating a convex array coaxial with the vehicle's
movement). In contrast, an east-west race alignment might reduce the benefit from
having cells on the side of the vehicle, and thus might encourage design of a flat array.
Because solar cars are often purpose-built, and because arrays do not usually move in
relation to the rest of the vehicle (with notable exceptions), this race-route-driven, flat-
panel versus convex design compromise is one of the most significant decisions that a
solar car designer must make.
For example, the 1990 and 1993 Sunrayce USA events were won by vehicles with
significantly convex arrays, corresponding to the south-north race alignments; by 1997,
however, most cars in that event had flat arrays to match the change to an east-west route.
Race strategy
Energy consumption
Optimizing energy consumption is of prime importance in a solar car race. Therefore it is

useful to be able to continually monitor and optimise the vehicle's energy parameters.
Given the variable conditions, most teams have race speed optimization programs that
continuously update the team on how fast the vehicle should be traveling. Some teams
employ telemetry that relays vehicle performance data to a following support vehicle,
which can provide the vehicle's driver with an optimum strategy.
Elevation (in meters) of a race route that crossed the Rocky Mountains, from Illinois to
California.
Race route
The race route itself will affect strategy, because the apparent position of the sun in the
sky will vary depending various factors which are specific to the vehicle's orientation (see
"Race Route Considerations," above).
In addition, elevation changes over a race route can dramatically change the amount of
power needed to travel the route. For example, the 2001 and 2003 North American Solar
Challenge route crossed the Rocky Mountains (see graph at right).
Weather forecasting
A successful solar car racing team will need to have access to reliable weather forecasts
in order to predict the power input to the vehicle from the sun during each race day.
Measured array power for Aurora's Christine in the 2008 WSC.
See also
• List of solar car teams
• Race the Sun
• South African Solar Challenge
• Tour de Sol
• Hunt-Winston School Solar Car Challenge
References
1. ^ Toyota Sponsors World's Longest Solar Car Race
2. ^ WSC 2007 Final Results
3. ^ Official NASC2008 Announcement
4. ^ Official NASC Website
5. ^ solar drag
6. ^ [1]
7. ^ In-wheel motor for solar-powered electric vehicles: technical details
(Publication - Technical)
8. ^ The Leading Edge, Tamai, Goro, Robert Bently, Inc., 1999, p. 137
9. ^ Roche, Schinkel, Storey, Humphris & Guelden, Speed of Light. ISBN 0 7334
1527 X
10. ^ Solar Vehicle Performance, Dr. Eric Slimko, December 1, 1991
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Solar-powered automobiles
• Howstuffworks.com: How solar cars work

• Solar Decathlon Web site.
o DOE announced that the third Solar Decathlon competition will be held
from 2007-October 12th through the 20th in Washington, D.C.
• Solar cars in inventors.about.com
• American Solar Challenge on solar cars article
• World Solar Challenge website
• North American Solar Challenge 2005
• International Solar Car A - Z
• The Dell-Winston Solar Challenge
• South African Solar Challenge
• http://web.ew.usna.edu/~bruninga/APRS-SPHEV.html
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_car_racing"

Categories: Electric vehicles | Solar powered vehicle racing
Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced
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Plug-in hybrid
The Chevrolet Volt is the first mass production plug-in hybrid available in the United
States.
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Plug-in hybrids · Electric vehicles
Environment Portal
v·d·e
A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV or PHV), also known as a plug-in hybrid, is
a hybrid vehicle with rechargeable batteries that can be restored to full charge by
connecting a plug to an external electric power source (usually simply a normal electric
wall socket). A PHEV shares the characteristics of both a conventional hybrid electric
vehicle, having an electric motor and an internal combustion engine; and of an all-electric
vehicle, also having a plug to connect to the electrical grid. Most PHEVs on the road
today are passenger cars, but there are also PHEV versions of commercial vehicles and
vans, utility trucks, buses, trains, motorcycles, scooters, and military vehicles.
The cost for electricity to power plug-in hybrids for all-electric operation has been
estimated at less than one quarter of the cost of gasoline.[1] Compared to conventional
vehicles, PHEVs reduce air pollution locally and dependence on petroleum. PHEVs may
reduce greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to global warming,[2][3] compared with
conventional vehicles. PHEVs also eliminate the problem of range anxiety associated to
all-electric vehicles, because the combustion engine works as a backup when the batteries
are depleted, giving PHEVs driving range comparable to other vehicles with gasoline
tanks.[4][5][6] Plug-in hybrids use no fossil fuel during their all-electric range and produce
lower greenhouse gas emissions if their batteries are charged from renewable electricity.
Other benefits include improved national energy security, fewer fill-ups at the filling
station, the convenience of home recharging, opportunities to provide emergency backup
power in the home, and vehicle-to-grid (V2G) applications.[7][8]
Chinese battery manufacturer and automaker BYD Auto released the F3DM PHEV-62
(PHEV-100 km) to the Chinese fleet market on December 15, 2008[9][10][11] and began
sales to the general public in Shenzhen in March 2010.[12][13] General Motors officially
launched the Chevrolet Volt PHEV-35 (PHEV-100 km) in the U.S. on November 30,
2010.[14][15] Other plug-in vehicles ongoing demonstration trials or slated to the market for
2011 and 2012 are the Fisker Karma, Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid, Ford Escape Plug-in
Hybrid, Volvo V70 Plug-in Hybrid, Suzuki Swift Plug-in, and Audi A1 e-tron.
Until 2010 most PHEVs on the road in the US are conversions of conventional hybrid
electric vehicles,[5] and the most prominent PHEVs are conversions of 2004 or later
Toyota Prius, which have had plug-in charging and more batteries added and their
electric-only range extended.[16] Several countries, including the United States and several
European countries, have enacted laws to facilitate the introduction of PHEVs through
grants and tax credits, emissions mandates, and by financing research and development of
advanced batteries and other related technologies.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Terminology
• 2 History
• 3 Technology
o 3.1 Powertrains
o 3.2 Charging systems
o 3.3 Modes of operation
o 3.4 Electric power storage
o 3.5 Conversions of production vehicles
 3.5.1 Conversion of fossil-fuel vehicles
 3.5.2 Conversions of gas-only hybrids
• 4 Advantages
o 4.1 Energy resilience and petroleum displacement
o 4.2 Fuel efficiency
o 4.3 Operating costs
o 4.4 Range anxiety elimination
o 4.5 Smog
o 4.6 Vehicle-to-grid electricity
• 5 Disadvantages
o 5.1 Cost of batteries
o 5.2 Recharging outside home garages
o 5.3 Emissions shifted to electric plants in some countries
o 5.4 Tiered rate structure for electric bills
o 5.5 Lithium availability and supply security
• 6 Greenhouse gas emissions
• 7 Production and commercialization
o 7.1 Current production models
o 7.2 Future production
o 7.3 Government support and public deployment
 7.3.1 United States
 7.3.2 Canada
 7.3.3 European Union
 7.3.3.1 France
 7.3.3.2 Germany
 7.3.3.3 Spain
 7.3.3.4 United Kingdom
o 7.4 Supportive organizations
o 7.5 NiMH battery patent encumbrance
• 8 See also
• 9 References
o 10.1 Past conferences and events
o 10.2 News
o 10.3 Video
o 10.4 Books
[edit] Terminology
Hybrids Plus plug-in hybrid Toyota Prius conversion with PHEV-30 (30 mile or 48 km
all-electric range) battery packs
A plug-in hybrid's all-electric range is designated by PHEV-[miles] or

PHEV[kilometers]km in which the number represents the distance the vehicle can travel
on battery power alone. For example, a PHEV-20 can travel twenty miles (32 km)
without using its combustion engine, so it may also be designated as a PHEV32km.[17]
The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 defines a plug-in electric drive
vehicle as a vehicle that:
• draws motive power from a battery with a capacity of at least 4 kilowatt hours;
• can be recharged from an external source of electricity for motive power; and
• is a light-, medium-, or heavy-duty motor vehicle or nonroad vehicle.
This distinguishes PHEVs from regular hybrid cars mass marketed today, which do not
use any electricity from the grid.
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) defines PHEVs similarly, but
also requires that the hybrid electric vehicle can drive at least ten miles (16 km) in all-
electric mode (PHEV-10; PHEV16km), while consuming no gasoline or diesel fuel.[18]
The California Air Resources Board uses the term "off-vehicle charge capable" (OVCC)
to mean having the capability to charge a battery from an off-vehicle electric energy
source that cannot be connected or coupled to the vehicle in any manner while the vehicle
is being driven.[19]
Other popular terms sometimes used for plug-in hybrids are "grid-connected hybrids",
"Gas-Optional Hybrid Electric Vehicle" (GO-HEV) or simply "gas-optional hybrids".[20]
[21][22]
General Motors is calling its Chevrolet Volt series plug-in hybrid an "Extended-
Range Electric Vehicle".[23]
[edit] History
Further information: History of plug-in hybrids
Lithium-ion battery pack, with cover removed, in a CalCars "PRIUS+" plug-in hybrid
converted Toyota Prius converted by EnergyCS.
Several plug-in hybrid converted Toyota Prius at Professorville, Palo Alto. The right side
car is a Prius + converted by CalCars with a fuel economy of over 100 miles per gallon.
Hybrid vehicles were produced as early as 1899 by Lohner-Porsche. Early hybrids could
be charged from an external source before operation. However, the term "plug-in hybrid"
has come to mean a hybrid vehicle that can be charged from a standard electrical wall
socket. The July 1969 issue of Popular Science featured an article on the General Motors
XP-883 plug-in hybrid. The concept commuter vehicle housed six 12-volt lead-acid
batteries in the trunk area and a transverse-mounted DC electric motor turning a front-
wheel drive.[24] The car could be plugged into a standard North American 120 volt AC
outlet for recharging.
In 2003, Renault began selling the Elect'road, a plug-in series hybrid version of their
popular Kangoo, in Europe. It was sold alongside Renault's "Electri'cité" electric-drive
Kangoo battery electric van. The Elect'road had a 150 km (93 mi) range using a nickel-
cadmium battery pack and a 500 cc (31 cu in), 16 kilowatt liquid-cooled gasoline "range-
extender" engine. It powered two high voltage/high output/low volume alternators, each
of which supplied up to 5.5 kW at 132 volts at 5000 rpm.[25] The operating speed of the
internal combustion engine—and therefore the output delivered by the generators—
varied according to demand. The fuel tank had a capacity of 10 liters (2.6 U.S. gal;
2.2 imp gal) and was housed within the right rear wheel arch. The range extender
function was activated by a switch on the dashboard. The on-board 3.5 kilowatt charger
could charge a depleted battery pack to 95% charge in about four hours from a 240 volts
supply.[26] Passenger compartment heating was powered by the battery pack as well as an
auxiliary coolant circuit that was supplied by the range extender engine. After selling
about 500 vehicles, primarily in France, Norway and the UK, at a price of about €25,000,
[25]
the Elect'road was redesigned in 2007.
In September 2004, CalCars converted a 2004 Toyota Prius into a prototype of what it
called the PRIUS+. With the addition of 130 kg (300 lb) of lead-acid batteries, the
PRIUS+ achieved roughly double the fuel economy of a standard Prius and could make
trips of up to 15 km (9 mi) using only electric power. The vehicle, which is owned by
CalCars technical lead Ron Gremban, is used in daily driving, as well as a test bed for
various improvements to the system.[27]
On July 18, 2006, Toyota announced that it "plans to develop a hybrid vehicle that will
run locally on batteries charged by a household electrical outlet before switching over to
a gasoline engine for longer hauls."[28] Toyota has said it plans to migrate to lithium-ion
batteries in future hybrid models,[29] but not in the next-generation Prius, expected in fall
2008.[30] Lithium-ion batteries are expected to significantly improve fuel economy, and
have a higher energy-to-weight ratio, but cost more to produce, and raise safety concerns
due to high operating temperatures.[30]
On November 29, 2006, GM announced plans to introduce a production plug-in hybrid

version of Saturn's Greenline Vue SUV with an all-electric range of 10 mi (16 km).[31]
The model's sale is anticipated by fall 2009,[30] and GM announced in January 2007 that
contracts had been awarded to two companies to design and test lithium-ion batteries for
the vehicle.[32] GM has said that they plan on introducing plug-in and other hybrids "for
the next several years".[31]
In January 2007, GM unveiled the prototype of the Chevrolet Volt, which was expected
to feature a plug-in capable, battery-dominant series hybrid architecture called E-Flex.[33]
Future E-Flex plug-in hybrid vehicles may use gasoline, diesel, or hydrogen fuel cell
power to supplement the vehicle's battery. General Motors envisions an eventual
progression of E-Flex vehicles from plug-in hybrids to pure electric vehicles, as battery
technology improves.[34]
On July 25, Japan's Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport certified Toyota's
plug-in hybrid for use on public roads, making it the first automobile to attain such
approval. Toyota plans to conduct road tests to verify its all-electric range. The plug-in
Prius was said to have an all-electric range of 13 km (8 mi).[35] But later prototypes shown
at the 2008 Paris Auto Show had an electric-only range of "just a little over six miles."[36]
President Bush with A123Systems CEO on the White House South Lawn examining a
Toyota Prius converted to plug-in hybrid with Hymotion technology.
President Barack Obama behind the wheel of a Chevy Volt plug-in during his tour of the
General Motors Auto Plant in Hamtramck, Michigan.
Demonstration Ford Escape plug-in hybrid in New York City.
On August 9, 2007, General Motors vice-president Robert Lutz announced that GM is on

track for Chevrolet Volt road testing in 2008 and production to begin by 2010.
Announcing an agreement with A123Systems, Lutz said GM would like to have their
planned Saturn Vue plug-in on the roads by 2009.[37] The Volt has an all-electric range of
40 mi (64 km). On September 5, Quantum Technologies and Fisker Coachbuild, LLC
announced the launch of a joint venture in Fisker Automotive.[38] Fisker intends to build a
US$80,000 luxury PHEV-50, the Fisker Karma, anticipated in late 2009.[39] In September,
Aptera Motors announced their Typ-1 two-seater. They plan to produce both an electric
2e and a plug-in series hybrid 2h with a common three-wheeled, composite body design.
As of 2009, over two thousand hybrid pre-orders have been accepted, and production of
the hybrid configuration is expected to begin in 2010.[40]
On October 9, 2007, Chinese manufacturer BYD Automobile Company (which is owned

by China's largest mobile phone battery maker) announced that it would be introducing a
production PHEV-60 sedan in China in the second half of 2008. BYD exhibited it
January 2008 at the North American International Auto Show in Detroit. Based on BYD's
midsize F6 sedan, it uses lithium iron phosphate (LiFeP04)-based batteries instead of
lithium-ion, and can be recharged to 70% of capacity in just 10 minutes.[41]
On December 2007 Ford delivered the first Ford Escape Plug-in Hybrid of a fleet of 20
demonstration PHEVs to Southern California Edison.[42] As part of this demonstration
program Ford also developed the first ever flexible-fuel plug-in hybrid SUV, which was
delivered in June 2008.[43] This demonstration fleet of plug-ins has been in field testing
with utility company fleets in the U.S. and Canada,[44] and during the first two years since
the program began, the fleet has logged more than 75,000 miles.[45] On August 2009 Ford
delivered the first Escape Plug-in equipped with intelligent vehicle-to-grid (V2G)
communications and control system technology, and Ford plans to equip all 21 plug-in
hybrid Escapes with the vehicle-to-grid communications technology.[45] Sales of the
Escape PHEV are scheduled for 2012.[44]
In January 2008, a privately run waiting list to purchase the Chevy Volt reached 10,000
members. The list, administered by Lyle Dennis, was started one year prior.[46] Dr. Yi Cui
and colleagues at Stanford University's Department of Materials Science and
Engineering[47] have discovered that silicon nanowires give rechargeable lithium ion
batteries 10 times more charge.[48][49] On January 7, Bob Lutz, the Vice Chairman of
General Motors said, "The electrification of the automobile is inevitable."[50] On January
14, Toyota announced they would start sales of lithium-ion battery PHEVs by 2010,[51][52]
but later in the year Toyota indicated they would be offered to commercial fleets in 2009.
[53]
On March 27, the California Air Resources Board modified their regulations, requiring
automobile manufacturers to produce 58,000 plug-in hybrids during 2012 through 2014.
[54]
This requirement is an asked-for alternative to an earlier mandate to produce 25,000
pure zero-emissions vehicles, reducing that requirement to 5,000.[55] On June 26,
Volkswagen announced that they would be introducing production plug-ins based on the
Golf compact. Volkswagen uses the term 'TwinDrive' to denote a PHEV.[56] In
September, Mazda was reported to be planning PHEVs.[57] On September 23, Chrysler
announced that they had prototyped a plug-in Jeep Wrangler and a Chrysler Town and
Country mini-van, both PHEV-40s with series powertrains, and an all-electric Dodge
sports car, and said that one of the three vehicles would go in to production.[58][59][60][61]
The Chevrolet Volt concept car at North American International Auto Show 2007.
On October 3, the U.S. enacted the Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008. The
legislation provided tax credits for the purchase of plug-in electric vehicles of battery
capacity over 4 kilowatt-hours.[62][63] The federal tax credits were extended and modified
by the American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009, but now the battery capacity
must be over 5 Kwh and the credit phases out after the automaker has sold at least
200,000 vehicles in the U.S.[64]
On December 15, 2008 BYD Auto began selling its F3DM PHEV-60 in China, becoming
the first production plug-in hybrid sold in the world, though initially was available only
for corporate and government customers.[9][10][11] Sales to the general public began in
Shenzhen in March 2010,[12][13] but because the F3DM nearly doubles the price of cars
that run on conventional fuel, BYD expects subsidies from the local government to make
the plug-in affordable to personal buyers.[12]
A global demonstration program involving 600 Toyota Prius Plug-in pre-production test
cars began in late 2009 in Japan and by mid 2010 field testing had began in France,
Germany, the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States.[65][66][67][68][69][70]
Volvo Cars, in a joint venture with Vattenfall, a Swedish energy company, began a
demonstration project with two Volvo V70 Plug-in Hybrids in Göteborg, Sweden since
December 2009. As reported by the test drivers, the V70 Plug-in Hybrid demonstrators
have an all-electric range between 20 kilometres (12 mi) to 30 kilometres (19 mi). The
test plug-in hybrids were built with a button to allow test drivers to manually choose
between electricity or diesel engine power at any time.[71][72] Volvo announced series
production of plug-in diesel-electric hybrids as early as 2012. Volvo claimed that its
plug-in hybrid could achieve 125 miles per US gallon (1.88 L/100 km; 150 mpg-imp),
based on the European test cycle.[72][73]
On October 2010 Lotus Engineering unveiled the Lotus CityCar at the 2010 Paris Motor
Show, a plug-in series hybrid concept car designed for flex-fuel operation on ethanol, or
methanol as well as regular gasoline.[74][75] The lithium battery pack provides an all-
electric range of 60 kilometres (37 mi), and the 1.2-liter flex-fuel engine kicks in to allow
to extend the range to more than 500 kilometres (310 mi).[74][75] GM officially launched
the Chevrolet Volt PHEV-35 (PHEV-100 km) in the U.S. on November 30, 2010.[14][15]
[edit] Technology
[edit] Powertrains
Further information: Hybrid vehicle drivetrains
Toyota Prius plug-in hybrid demonstration program vehicle at the 2010 Washington Auto
Show.
The Toyota Prius converted plug-in hybrid is a series-parallel hybrid.
PHEVs are based on the same three basic powertrain architectures as conventional
electric hybrids:[76]
Series hybrids use an internal combustion engine (ICE) to turn a generator, which in turn
supplies current to an electric motor, which then rotates the vehicle’s drive wheels. A
battery or supercapacitor pack, or a combination of the two, can be used to store excess
charge. Examples of series hybrids include the Renault Kangoo Elect'Road, Toyota's
Japan-only Coaster light-duty passenger bus, Daimler AG's hybrid Orion bus, the
Chevrolet Volt production car, the Opel Flextreme concept car, and many diesel-electric
locomotives. With an appropriate balance of components this type can operate over a
substantial distance with its full range of power without engaging the ICE. As is the case
for other architectures, series hybrids can operate without recharging as long as there is
liquid fuel in the tank.[77]
Parallel hybrids, such as Honda's Insight, Civic, and Accord hybrids, can
simultaneously transmit power to their drive wheels from two distinct sources—for
example, an internal combustion engine and a battery-powered electric drive. Although
most parallel hybrids incorporate an electric motor between the vehicle's engine and
transmission, a parallel hybrid can also use its engine to drive one of the vehicle's axles,
while its electric motor drives the other axle and/or a generator used for recharging the
batteries. (This type is called a road-coupled hybrid). The Audi Duo plug-in hybrid
concept car is an example of this type of parallel hybrid architecture. Parallel hybrids can
be programmed to use the electric motor to substitute for the ICE at lower power
demands as well as to substantially increase the power available to a smaller ICE, both of
which substantially increase fuel economy compared to a simple ICE vehicle.[78]
Series-parallel hybrids have the flexibility to operate in either series or parallel mode.
Hybrid powertrains currently used by Ford, Lexus, Nissan, and Toyota, which some refer
to as “series-parallel with power-split,” can operate in both series and parallel mode at the
same time. As of 2007, most plug-in hybrid conversions of conventional hybrids utilize
this architecture.[79]
[edit] Charging systems
Batteries are DC devices while grid power is AC. In order to charge the batteries, a DC
charger must be utilized. The charger can be located in several locations:
On-board chargers are mounted inside the vehicle. Since the charger takes up space and
adds weight, its power capacity is generally limited by practical considerations, avoiding
carrying a more powerful charger that can only be fully utilized at certain locations.
However, carrying the charger along with the vehicle ensures that power will be available
anywhere a power connection can be found.
Off-board chargers can be as large as needed and mounted at fixed locations, like the
garage or dedicated charging stations. Built with dedicated wiring, these charger can
handle much more power and charge the batteries more quickly. However, as the output
of these chargers is DC, each battery system requires the output to be changed for that
car. Modern charging stations have a system for identifying the voltage of the battery
pack and adjusting accordingly.
Using electric motor's inverter allows the motor windings to act as the transformer
coils, and the existing high-power inverter as the AC-to-DC charger. As these
components are already required on the car, and are designed to handle any practical
power capability, they can be used to form a very powerful form of on-board charger
with zero additional weight or size. AC Propulsion uses this charging method, which they
refer to as "reductive charging".[80]
[edit] Modes of operation
Regardless of its architecture, a plug-in hybrid may be capable of charge-depleting and

charge-sustaining modes. Combinations of these two modes are termed blended mode or
mixed-mode. These vehicles can be designed to drive for an extended range in all-electric
mode, either at low speeds only or at all speeds. These modes manage the vehicle's
battery discharge strategy, and their use has a direct effect on the size and type of battery
required:[81]
Charge-depleting mode allows a fully charged PHEV to operate exclusively (or

depending on the vehicle, almost exclusively, except during hard acceleration) on electric
power until its battery state of charge is depleted to a predetermined level, at which time
the vehicle's internal combustion engine or fuel cell will be engaged. This period is the
vehicle's all-electric range. This is the only mode that a battery electric vehicle can
operate in, hence their limited range.[82]
The redesigned Renault Kangoo Elect'road operates in blended mode, using engine and
battery power simultaneously.
Blended mode is a kind of charge-depleting mode. It is normally employed by
vehicles which do not have enough electric power to sustain high speeds without
the help of the internal combustion portion of the powertrain. A blended control
strategy typically increases the distance from stored grid electricity compared to a
charge-depleting strategy.[83] The Renault Kangoo and some Toyota Prius
conversions are examples of vehicles that use this mode of operation. The
Electri'cité and Elect'road versions of the Kangoo were charge-depleting battery
electric vehicles: the Elect'road had a modest internal combustion engine which
extended its range somewhat. Conversions of 2004 and later model Toyota Prius
can only run without using the ICE at speeds of less than about 42 mph (68 km/h)
due to the limits dictated by the vehicle's powertrain control software. However,
at faster speeds electric power can still be used to displace gasoline, thus
improving the fuel economy in blended mode and generally doubling the fuel
efficiency.
Charge-sustaining mode is used by production hybrid vehicles (HEVs) today, and

combines the operation of the vehicle's two power sources in such a manner that the
vehicle is operating as efficiently as possible without allowing the battery state of charge
to move outside a predetermined narrow band. Over the course of a trip in a HEV the
state of charge may fluctuate but will have no net change.[84] The battery in a HEV can
thus be thought of as an energy accumulator rather than a fuel storage device. Once a
plug-in hybrid has exhausted its all-electric range in charge-depleting mode, it can switch
into charge-sustaining mode automatically.
Mixed mode describes a trip in which a combination of the above modes are utilized.[85]
For example, a PHEV-20 Prius conversion may begin a trip with 5 miles (8 km) of low
speed charge-depleting, then get onto a freeway and operate in blended mode for
20 miles (32 km), using 10 miles (16 km) worth of all-electric range at twice the fuel
economy. Finally the driver might exit the freeway and drive for another 5 miles (8 km)
without the internal combustion engine until the full 20 miles (32 km) of all-electric
range are exhausted. At this point the vehicle can revert back to a charge sustaining-mode
for another 10 miles (16 km) until the final destination is reached. Such a trip would be
considered a mixed mode, as multiple modes are employed in one trip. This contrasts
with a charge-depleting trip which would be driven within the limits of a PHEV's all-
electric range. Conversely, the portion of a trip which extends beyond the all-electric
range of a PHEV would be driven primarily in charge-sustaining mode, as used by a
conventional hybrid.
[edit] Electric power storage
Further information: Electric vehicle battery, Charging station
PHEVs typically require deeper battery charging and discharging cycles than
conventional hybrids. Because the number of full cycles influences battery life, this may
be less than in traditional HEVs which do not deplete their batteries as fully. However,
some authors argue that PHEVs will soon become standard in the automobile industry.[86]
Design issues and trade-offs against battery life, capacity, heat dissipation, weight, costs,
and safety need to be solved.[87] Advanced battery technology is under development,
promising greater energy densities by both mass and volume,[88] and battery life
expectancy is expected to increase.[89]
The cathodes of some early 2007 lithium-ion batteries are made from lithium-cobalt
metal oxide. This material is expensive, and cells made with it can release oxygen if
overcharged. If the cobalt is replaced with iron phosphates, the cells will not burn or
release oxygen under any charge. The price premium for early 2007 conventional hybrids
is about US$5000, some US$3000 of which is for their NiMH battery packs. At early
2007 gasoline and electricity prices, that would mean a break-even point after six to ten
years of operation. The conventional hybrid premium could fall to US$2000 in five years,
with US$1200 or more of that being cost of lithium-ion batteries, providing for a three-
year payback. The payback period may be longer for plug-in hybrids, because of their
larger, more expensive batteries.[90]
Nickel-metal hydride and lithium-ion batteries can be recycled; Toyota, for example, has
a recycling program in place under which dealers are paid a US$200 credit for each
battery returned.[91] However, plug-in hybrids typically use larger battery packs than
comparable conventional hybrids, and thus require more resources. Pacific Gas and
Electric Company (PG&E) has suggested that utilities could purchase used batteries for
backup and load leveling purposes. They state that while these used batteries may be no
longer usable in vehicles, their residual capacity still has significant value.[92] More
recently, General Motors (GM) has said it has been "approached by utilities interested in
using recycled Volt batteries as a power storage system, a secondary market that could
bring down the cost of the Volt and other plug-in vehicles for consumers."[93]
Lithium iron phosphate (LiMPO4) is a class of cathode materials used in lithium iron
phosphate batteries that is getting attention from the auto industry. Valence Technologies
produce a lithium iron manganese phosphate (LiFeMgPO4) battery with LG Chem selling
lithium iron phospate (LiFePO4) batteries for the Chevy Volt and A123 produces a
lithium nano-phosphate battery. The most important merit of this battery type is safety
and high-power. Lithium iron phosphate batteries are one of three major types in LFP
family, the other two being nano-phosphate and nano-cocrystalline-olivine.
In France, Électricité de France (EDF) and Toyota are installing charging stations for
PHEVs on roads, streets and parking lots.[94] EDF is also partnering with Elektromotive,
Ltd.[95] to install 250 new charging points over six months from October 2007 in London
and elsewhere in the UK.[96] Recharging points also can be installed for specific uses, as
in taxicab stands. Project Better Place began in October 2007 and is working with
Renault on development of exchangeable batteries (battery swapping).[97]
Ultracapacitors (or "supercapacitors") are used in some plug-in hybrids, such as AFS
Trinity's concept prototype, to store rapidly available energy with their high power
density, in order to keep batteries within safe resistive heating limits and extend battery
life.[98][99] The UltraBattery combines a supercapacitor and a battery in a single unit,
creating a hybrid car battery that lasts longer, costs less and is more powerful than current
technologies used in plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs).[100]
The optimum battery size varies depending on whether the aim is to reduce oil
consumption, running costs, or emissions, but a recent study[101] concluded that "The best
choice of PHEV battery capacity depends critically on the distance that the vehicle will
be driven between charges. Our results suggest that for urban driving conditions and
frequent charges every 10 miles or less, a low-capacity PHEV sized with an AER (all
electric range) of about 7 miles would be a robust choice for minimizing gasoline
consumption, cost, and greenhouse gas emissions. For less frequent charging, every 20–
100 miles, PHEVs release fewer GHGs, but HEVs are more cost effective. "
[edit] Conversions of production vehicles
Further information: Electric vehicle conversion
[edit] Conversion of fossil-fuel vehicles
See also: CalCars
Retrofit electrification requires only one-fifth the energy required to build a new vehicle.
This is called ACEV-to-PHEV conversion.[102] There are several companies that are
converting fossil fuel non-hybrid vehicles (also called all-combustion engine vehicles) to
plug-in hybrids:[103][104]
Colorado is going to offer $6,000 credit for PHEV conversions (in addition to a federal
10% credit up to $4,000 for qualifying vehicles).[105]
This section requires expansion.
[edit] Conversions of gas-only hybrids
15 lead-acid batteries, PFC charger, and regulators installed into WhiteBird, a PHEV-10
conversion of a Toyota Prius
Main article: Prius+
Aftermarket conversion of an existing production hybrid (a charge-maintaining hybrid) to
a plug-in hybrid (called CHEV-to-PHEV conversion[102]) typically involves increasing the
capacity of the vehicle's battery pack and adding an on-board AC-to-DC charger. Ideally,
the vehicle's powertrain software would be reprogrammed to make full use of the battery
pack's additional energy storage capacity and power output.
Many early plug-in hybrid electric vehicle conversions have been based on the 2004 or
later model Toyota Prius.[106] Some of the systems have involved replacement of the
vehicle's original NiMH battery pack and its electronic control unit. Others, such as A123
Hymotion, the CalCars Prius+, and the PiPrius, piggyback an additional battery back onto
the original battery pack, this is also referred to as Battery Range Extender Modules
(BREMs).[107] Within the electric vehicle conversion community this has been referred to
as a "hybrid battery pack configuration".[108] Early lead-acid battery conversions by
CalCars demonstrated 10 miles (15 km) of EV-only and 20 miles (30 km) of double
mileage blended mode range.[27]
EDrive Systems use Valence Technology Li-ion batteries and have a claimed 40 to 50
miles (64 to 80 km) of electric range.[109] Other companies offering plug-in conversions or
kits for the Toyota Prius (some of them also for Ford Escape Hybrid) include Hymotion,
Hybrids Plus Manzanita Micro and OEMtek BREEZ (PHEV-30).[110] AFS Trinity's XH-
150 claims that it has created a functioning plug-in hybrid with a 40 miles (64 km) all-
electric range and that it has solved the overheating problem that rapid acceleration can
cause in PHEVs and extend battery life.[98][99]
The EAA-PHEV project was conceived by CalCars and the Electric Auto Association in
October 2005 to accelerate efforts to document existing HEVs and their potential for
conversion into PHEVs.[111] It includes a "conversion interest" page.[112] The Electric Auto
Association-PHEV "Do-It-Yourself" Open Source community's primary focus is to
provide conversion instructions to help guide experienced converters through the process,
and to provide a common design that could demonstrate multiple battery technologies.
Many members of organizations such as CalCars and the EAA as well as companies like
Hybrids Plus, Hybrid Interfaces of Canada, and Manzanita Micro participate in the
development of the project.
Plug-In Supply, Inc. of Petaluma, California offers components and assemblies to build
the Prius+, the plug-in conversion invented by CalCars.[113] Their lead-acid battery box
assembly forms a complete install package, providing access to the spare tire and
containing twenty 12 volt lead-acid batteries and all high voltage components and control
electronics. The "PbA Battery Box Assembly" is also available without batteries. It
provides about 10 miles (16 km) of EV mode range.[114] Conversion time was reduced by
plug-in supply to one day.
Oemtek offers a Valence powered lithium iron phosphate conversion that should provide
50 miles (80 km) of all-electric range. The Motor Industry Research Association has
announced a retrofit hybrid conversion kit that provides removable battery packs that
plug into a wall outlet for charging.[115] Poulsen Hybrid is developing a conversion kit that
will add through-the-road plug-in hybrid capability to conventional vehicles by externally
mounting electric motors onto two of the wheels.[116]
Enginer, Inc. of Troy, Michigan offers universal plugin conversion kits with components
and assemblies to build two stage hybrid battery system invented by Enginer Inc. Their
lithium-ion battery box assembly forms a complete install package, providing access to
the spare tire and containing 16/32 lithium phosphate battery cells, a DC/DC converter, a
BMS and a charger. It provides about 10 miles (16 km) of EV mode range for under
$2000 (2 kW·h model). Longer range 4 kW·h model is also available for $1000 more.
Conversion time was reduced to two/three hours.
[edit] Advantages
[edit] Energy resilience and petroleum displacement
Each kilowatt hour of battery capacity in use will displace up to 50 US gallons (190 l;
42 imp gal) of petroleum fuels per year (gasoline or diesel fuels).[117] Also, electricity is
multi-sourced and, as a result, it gives the greatest degree of energy resilience.[118]
[edit] Fuel efficiency
Main articles: Energy conversion efficiency and Well-to-wheel
Claimed fuel economy for PHEVs depends on the amount of driving between recharges.
If no gasoline is used the MPG equivalent depends only on the efficiency of the electric
system. A 120 km (70 mi) range PHEV-70 may annually require only about 25% as
much gasoline as a similarly designed PHEV-0, depending on how it will be driven and
the trips for which it will be used.[7] The furthest all-electric range in a PHEV planned for
mass production is the PHEV-60 BYD F6e.
A further advantage of PHEVs is that they have potential to be even more efficient than
conventional hybrids because a more limited use of the PHEV's internal combustion
engine may allow the engine to be used at closer to its maximum efficiency. While a
Prius is likely to convert fuel to motive energy on average at about 30% efficiency (well
below the engine's 38% peak efficiency) the engine of a PHEV-70 would be likely to
operate far more often near its peak efficiency because the batteries can serve the modest
power needs at times when the combustion engine would be forced to run well below its
peak efficiency.[82] The actual efficiency achieved depends on losses from electricity
generation, inversion, battery charging/discharging, the motor controller and motor itself,
the way a vehicle is used (its duty cycle), and the opportunities to recharge by connecting
to the electrical grid.
The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) developed their recommended practice in

1999 for testing and reporting the fuel economy of hybrid vehicles and included language
to address PHEVs. An SAE committee is currently working to review procedures for
testing and reporting the fuel economy of PHEVs.[119] The Toronto Atmospheric Fund
tested ten retrofitted plug-in hybrid vehicles that achieved an average of 5.8 litres per 100
kilometre or 40.6 miles per gallon over six months in 2008, which was considered below
the technology's potential.[120]
In "real world" testing using normal drivers, some Prius PHEV conversions may not
achieve much better fuel economy than HEVs. For example, a plug-in Prius fleet, each
with a 30 miles (48 km) all-electric range, averaged only 51 mpg-U.S. (4.6 L/100 km;
61 mpg-imp) in a 17,000-mile (27,000 km) test in Seattle,[121] and similar results with the
same kind of conversion battery models at Google.org. Moreover, the additional battery
pack costs $10,000–11,000.[122][123]
[edit] Operating costs
Former President George W. Bush is shown the PHEV Mercedes-Benz Sprinter van in
the US Postal Service
A 2006 research estimate in California found that the operating costs of plug-ins charged
at night was equivalent to 75¢ US per US gallon (20¢/L) of gasoline.[1] The cost of
electricity for a Prius PHEV is about US$0.03 per mile (US$0.019 per km), based on
0.26 kilowatt-hours per mile (0.16 kW·h/km; 0.58 MJ/km) and a cost of electricity of
US$0.10 per kilowatt hour.[124][125] During 2008, government and industry researchers
tried to determine the optimum all-electric range.[126]
[edit] Range anxiety elimination
One of the main barriers for the general adoption of all-electric cars is the range anxiety
factor, the driver's fear of being stranded by a depleted battery before reaching the final
destination.[127][128] Plug-in hybrids, as opposed to pure plug-ins, eliminate the range
anxiety concerns because the gasoline engine serves as a back-up to recharge the battery,
to provide electric power to the electric motor, or to provide propulsion directly. In the
case of the Volt, access to a regular fuel station guarantees similar driving ranges as
conventional gasoline-powered automobile.[127][129]
One of the advantages of the PEV design is that the generator can be completely
decoupled from the traction. Unlike a conventional engine, which operates over a wide
variety of power settings and operational conditions, the range extender can be operated
under optimum conditions at all times. High-efficiency power sources that are not
suitable for normal automotive use may be perfectly suitable for PEV use. These include
advanced close-cycle steam engines, stirling engines, Wankel engines, and microturbines
due primarily to their light weight and small size.
[edit] Smog
The Ontario Medical Association announced that smog is responsible for an estimated
9,500 premature deaths in its province every year.[130] Plug-in hybrids in emission-free
electric mode may contribute to the reduction of smog.[120]
[edit] Vehicle-to-grid electricity
Main article: Vehicle-to-grid
PHEVs and fully electric cars may allow for more efficient use of existing electric
production capacity, much of which sits idle as operating reserve most of the time. This
assumes that vehicles are charged primarily during off peak periods (i.e., at night), or
equipped with technology to shut off charging during periods of peak demand. Another
advantage of a plug-in vehicle is their potential ability to load balance or help the grid
during peak loads. This is accomplished with vehicle-to-grid technology. By using excess
battery capacity to send power back into the grid and then recharge during off peak times
using cheaper power, such vehicles are actually advantageous to utilities as well as their
owners. Even if such vehicles just led to an increase in the use of night time electricity
they would even out electricity demand which is typically higher in the day time, and
provide a greater return on capital for electricity infrastructure.[17]
In the UK, VTG would need to comply with generation connection standard "G59/2",
which means that it would need an earth rod at the premises, and would be unable to
export more than 17 kW without the network firm's permission (which feeding onto one
phase, i.e. for a normal house, would not be given - to maintain a balance of load across
the three phases).
In October 2005, five Toyota engineers and one Asian AW engineer published an IEEE
technical paper detailing a Toyota-approved project to add vehicle-to-grid capability to a
Toyota Prius.[131] Although the technical paper described "a method for generating voltage
between respective lines of neutral points in the generator and motor of the THS-II
(Toyota Hybrid System) to add a function for generating electricity", it did not state
whether or not the experimental vehicle could be charged through the circuit, as well.
However, the vehicle was featured in a Toyota Dream House, and a brochure for the
exhibit stated that "the house can supply electricity to the battery packs of the vehicles via
the stand in the middle of the garage", indicating that the vehicle may have been a plug-in
hybrid.[132]
U.S. President Barack Obama examines hybrid vehicles in the Edison Electric Vehicle
Technical Center in Pomona, California.
In November 2005, more than 50 leaders from public power utility companies across the
United States met at the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power headquarters to
discuss plug-in hybrid and vehicle-to-grid technology. The event, which was sponsored
by the American Public Power Association, also provided an opportunity for association
members to plan strategies that public power utility companies could use to promote
plug-in hybrid technology. Greg Hanssen and Peter Nortman of EnergyCS and EDrive
attended the two-day session, and during a break in the proceedings, made an impromptu
display in the LADWP parking lot of their converted Prius plug-in hybrid.[133]
In September 2006, the California Air Resources Board held a Zero Emission Vehicle
symposium that included several presentations on V2G technology.[134] In April 2007,
Pacific Gas and Electric Company showcased a PHEV at the Silicon Valley Leadership
Alternative Energy Solutions Summit with vehicle-to-grid capability, and demonstrated
that it could be used as a source of emergency home power in the event of an electrical
power failure.[135] Regulations intended to protect electricians against power other than
from grid sources would need to be changed, or regulations requiring consumers to
disconnect from the grid when connected to non-grid sources will be required before such
backup power solutions would be feasible.[136]
Federal Energy Regulatory Commissioner Jon Wellinghoff coined the term "Cash-Back
Hybrids" to describe payments to car owners for putting their batteries on the power grid.
Batteries could also be offered in low-cost leasing or renting or by donation (including
maintenance) to the car owners by the public utilities, in a vehicle-to-grid agreement.[137]
[edit] Disadvantages
[edit] Cost of batteries
Main article: Electric vehicle battery
Disadvantages of plug-in hybrids include the additional cost, weight, and size of a larger
battery pack. According to a 2010 study by the National Research Council, the cost of a
lithium-ion battery pack is about USD 1,700/kW·h of usable energy, and considering that
a PHEV-10 requires about 2.0 kW·h and a PHEV-40 about 8 kW·h, the manufacturer cost
of the battery pack for a PHEV-10 is around USD 3,000 and it goes up to USD 14,000 for
a PHEV-40.[138][139] According to the same study, even though costs are expected to
decline by 35% by 2020, market penetration is expected to be slow and therefore PHEVs
are not expected to significantly impact oil consumption or carbon emissions before
2030, unless a fundamental breakthrough in battery technologies occur.[138][139][140]
Cost comparison between a PHEV-10 and a PHEV-40[138][140]

(prices for 2010)
Manufacturer Annual
Cost of Expected
Plug-in additional cost gasoline
Similar Cost of electric gasoline
type by Type of compared to savings
production battery system savings
EV drivetrain conventional compared
model pack upgrade compared
range non-hybrid to a
at home to a HEV
mid-size HEV(2)
More
PHEV- Prius Plug- USD
Parallel USD 6,300 than USD 20% 70 gallons
10 in(1) 3,300
1,000
More
PHEV- USD 200
Chevy Volt Series USD 18,100 than USD 55%
40 14,000 gallons
1,000
Notes: (1) Considers the HEV technology used in the Toyota Prius with a larger battery pack. The Prius
Plug-in estimated all-electric range is 14.5 mi (23 km)[141]
(2) Assuming 15,000 miles per year.
According to the 2010 NCR study, despite the fact that a mile driven on electricity is
cheaper than one driven on gasoline, lifetime fuel savings are not enough to offset plug-
ins high upfront costs, and it will take decades before the break even point is achieved.[140]
Furthermore, hundreds of billions of dollars in government subsidies and incentives are
likely to be required to achieve a rapid plug-in market penetration in the U.S.[139][140]
Lithium iron phosphate batteries from Valence Technologies[142] were used in the first
plug-in hybrids from CalCars[143] are providing a conversion for the Toyota Prius priced at
$12,000. Hymotion also offers a conversion for $10,000 US but their conversion is only
5 kW where Oemtek's is 9 kW.[144]
[edit] Recharging outside home garages

RechargeIT converted plug-in hybrids at Google's Mountain View campus. The garage
has recharging facilities powered by solar panels.
Three plug-in converted Toyota Prius recharging at San Francisco City Hall public
charging station.
On-street electric charging unit located at the Hillsboro Civic Center in Hillsboro,
Oregon.
Many authors have assumed that plug-in recharging will take place overnight at home.
However, residents of cities, apartments, dormitories, and townhouses do not have
garages or driveways with available power outlets, and they might be less likely to buy
plug-ins unless recharging infrastructure is developed.[145][146] Electrical outlets or
charging stations near their places of residence, or in commercial or public parking lots or
streets or workplaces are required for these potential users to gain the full advantage of
PHEVs.[146][147] Even house dwellers might need to charge at the office or to take
advantage of opportunity charging at shopping centers.[148] However, this infrastructure is
not in place today and it will require investments by both the private and public sectors.
[147]
Several cities in California and Oregon, and particularly San Francisco and other cities in
the San Francisco Bay Area and Silicon Valley, as well as some local private firms such
as Google and Adobe Systems, already have deployed charging stations and have
expansion plans to attend both plug-ins and all-electric cars.[147] In Google's case, its
Mountain View campus has 100 available charging stations for its share-use fleet of
converted plug-ins available to its employees.[147][149] Solar panels are used to generate the
electricity, and this pilot program is being monitored on a daily basis and performance
results are published in RechargeIT website.[149]
[edit] Emissions shifted to electric plants in some countries
Increased pollution is expected to occur in some areas with the adoption of PHEVs, but
most areas will experience a decrease.[150] A study by the ACEEE predicts that
widespread PHEV use in heavily coal-dependent areas would result in an increase in
local net sulfur dioxide and mercury emissions, given emissions levels from most coal
plants currently supplying power to the grid.[151] Although clean coal technologies could
create power plants which supply grid power from coal without emitting significant
amounts of such pollutants, the higher cost of the application of these technologies may
increase the price of coal-generated electricity. The net effect on pollution is dependent
on the fuel source of the electrical grid (fossil or renewable, for example) and the
pollution profile of the power plants themselves. Identifying, regulating and upgrading
single point pollution source such as a power plant—or replacing a plant altogether—may
also be more practical. From a human health perspective, shifting pollution away from
large urban areas may be considered a significant advantage.[152]
According to a 2009 study by The National Academy of Science, "Electric vehicles and
grid-dependent (plug-in) hybrid vehicles showed somewhat higher nonclimate damages
than many other technologies."[153] Efficiency of plug-in hybrids is also impacted by the
overall efficiency of electric power transmission. Transmission and distribution losses in
the USA were estimated at 7.2% in 1995[154] and 6.5% in 2007.[155] By life cycle analysis
of air pollution emissions, natural gas vehicles are currently the lowest emitter[citation needed].
[edit] Tiered rate structure for electric bills
Electric utility companies generally do not utilize flat rate pricing. For example, Pacific
Gas and Electric (PG&E) normally charges $0.10 per kilowatt hour (kW·h) for the base
tier, but additional tiers are priced as high as $0.30 per kW·h to customers without
electric vehicles.[156][157] Some utilities offer electric vehicle users a rate tariff that provides
discounts for off-peak usage, such as overnight recharging. PG&E offers a special,
discounted rate for plug-in and other electric vehicle customers, the "Experimental Time-
of-Use Low Emission Vehicle rate."[158] That tariff gives people much cheaper rates if
they charge at night, especially during the summer months.
The additional electrical utilization required to recharge the plug-in vehicles could push
many households in areas that do not have off-peak tariffs into the higher priced tier and
negate financial benefits.[159] Without an off-peak charging tariff, one study of a certain
PHEV-20 model having an all-electric range of 20 miles, gasoline-fueled efficiency of
52.7 mi/gal U.S., and all-electric efficiency of 4 mi/kW·h, found that household
electricity customers who consumed 131%–200% of baseline electricity at $0.220/(kW·h)
would see benefits if gasoline was priced above US$2.89/US gal; those that consumed
201%–300% of baseline electricity at $0.303/(kW·h) would only see benefits if gas was
priced above $3.98; and households consuming over 300% of baseline electricity at
$0.346/(kW·h) would only see benefits if gasoline was priced above $4.55 (USD/gal).[160]
Off-peak tariff rates can lower the break-even point. The PG&E tariff would change
those break-even gasoline prices to USD $1.96, $3.17 and $3.80 per gallon, respectively,
for the given PHEV and usage pattern in question.
Customers under such tariffs could see significant savings by being careful about when
the vehicle was charged, for example, by using a timer to restrict charging to off-peak
hours. Thus, an accurate comparison of the benefit requires each household to evaluate its
current electrical usage tier and tariffs weighed against the cost of gasoline and the actual
observed operational cost of electric mode vehicle operation.
The Salar de Uyuni in Bolivia is one of the largest known lithium reserves in the world.
[161][162]
[edit] Lithium availability and supply security
Current technology for plug-ins is based on the lithium-ion battery and an electric motor,
and the demand for lithium, heavy metals and other rare elements (such as neodymium,
boron and cobalt) required for the batteries and powertrain is expected to grow
significantly due to the incoming market entrance of plug-ins and electric vehicles in the
mid and long term. Some of the largest world reserves of lithium and other rare metals
are located in countries with strong resource nationalism, unstable governments or hostile
to U.S. interests, raising concerns about the risk of replacing dependence on foreign oil
with a new dependence on hostile countries to supply strategic materials.[162][163][164][165]
Currently, the main deposits of lithium are found in China and South America throughout
the Andes mountain chain. In 2008 Chile was the leading lithium metal producer,
followed by Australia, China, and Argentina.[164][166] In the United States lithium is
recovered from brine pools in Nevada.[166][167] Nearly half the world's known reserves are
located in Bolivia,[162][164] and according to the US Geological Survey, Bolivia's Salar de
Uyuni desert has 5.4 million tons of lithium, which can be used to make lithium batteries
for hybrid and electric vehicles.[162][166] Other important reserves are located in Chile,
China, and Brazil.[164][166] Regarding rare earth elements, most reserves are located in
China, which controls the world market for these elements.[165]
[edit] Greenhouse gas emissions

Main article: Greenhouse gas
The effect of PHEVs on greenhouse emissions is complex. Plug-in hybrid vehicles

operating on all-electric mode do not emit harmful tailpipe pollutants from the onboard
source of power. The clean air benefit is usually local because depending on the source of
the electricity used to recharge the batteries, air pollutant emissions are shifted to the
location of the generation plants.[168] In the same way, PHEVs do not emit greenhouse
gases from the onboard source of power, but from the point of view of a well-to-wheel
assessment, the extent of the benefit also depends on the fuel and technology used for
electricity generation. From the perspective of a full life cycle analysis, the electricity
used to recharge the batteries must be generated from renewable or clean sources such as
wind, solar, hydroelectric , or nuclear power for PEVs to have almost none or zero well-
to-wheel emissions.[168][169] On the other hand, when PEVs are recharged from coal-fired
plants, they usually produce slightly more greenhouse gas emissions than internal
combustion engine vehicles.[168] In the case of plug-in hybrid electric vehicle when
operating in hybrid mode with assistance of the internal combustion engine, tailpipe and
greenhouse emissions are lower in comparison to conventional cars because of their
higher fuel economy.[169]
There has been much debate over the potential GHG emissions reductions that can be
achieved with PHEV. A study by the Electric Power Research Institute reports that a 338
TW·h or 5.8% increase in power generation needed as a result of PHEV.[170] In the same
report the EPRI also states that CO2 emissions could increase by 430 million metric tons.
[170]
The article concludes:
"In summary, the addition of PHEVs as a significant transportation option adds

approximately 6% to the total national electricity demand in 2030 compared to
the base case with no PHEVs. Due to the charging profile that results in most of
this additional demand occurring during off-peak hours (late night/early
morning) there is an increase in the need for baseload generation. The addition
of coal-fired generation to meet this need for more baseload generation does not
result in any significant differences in annual emissions of SO2, NOx and Hg
because of the caps on those pollutants. Therefore, any reductions in emissions of
SO2, NOx or Hg from non-electric generating sources would result in a net
national decline in these emissions. However, it does result in an appreciable
increase in CO2 and PM emissions as this analysis has not assumed any limits on
CO2 or PM emissions."
A study by the American Council for an Energy Efficient Economy (ACEEE) predicts
that, on average, a typical American driver is expected to achieve about a 15% reduction
in net CO2 emissions compared to the driver of a regular hybrid, based on the 2005
distribution of power sources feeding the US electrical grid.[171] The ACEEE study also
predicts that in areas where more than 80% of grid-power comes from coal-burning
power plants, local net CO2 emissions will increase,[171] while for PHEVs recharged in
areas where the grid is fed by power sources with lower CO2 emissions than the current
average, net CO2 emissions associated with PHEVs will decrease correspondingly.
A 2007 joint study by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) and the Natural
Resources Defense Council (NRDC) similarly found that the introduction of PHEVs into
America’s consumer vehicle fleet could achieve significant greenhouse gas emission
reductions.[2] The EPRI-NRDC report estimates that, between 2010 and 2050, a shift
toward PHEV use could reduce GHG emissions by 3.4 to 10.4 billion metric tons. The
magnitude of these reductions would ultimately depend on the level of PHEV market
penetration and the carbon intensity of the US electricity sector. In general, PHEVs can
be viewed as an element in the "Pacala and Socolow wedges" approach which shows a
way to stabilize CO2 emissions using a portfolio of existing techniques, including
efficient vehicles.
A 2008 study at Duke University suggests that for PHEV's to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions more than hybrids a carbon pricing signal that encourages the development of
low carbon power is needed.[172] RAND also in 2008 studied the questions of a carbon
tax, carbon cap and trade systems, increasing gasoline tax, and providing renewable
energy subsidies under various economic conditions and vehicle type availabilities.
RAND found that subsidies were able to provide a smoother transition to new energy
sources, especially in the face of energy source price volatility, because subsidies can be
structured according to relative costs between renewables and fossil fuel, while taxes and
carbon trading schemes alone do not take relative prices of energy into account.[173]
The Minnesota Pollution Control Agency found that if Minnesota's fleet of vehicles
making lengthy trips were replaced by plug-in hybrids, CO2 emissions per vehicle would
likely decrease. However, unless more than 40% of the electricity used to charge the
vehicles were to come from non-polluting sources, replacing the vehicles with non plug-
in hybrids would engender a larger decrease in CO2 emissions.[174] Plug-in hybrids use
less fuel in all cases, and produce much less carbon dioxide in short commuter trips,
which is how most vehicles are used. The difference is such that overall carbon emissions
would decrease if all internal combustion vehicles were converted to plug-ins.[150]
In 2009 researchers at Argonne National Laboratory adapted their GREET model to

conduct a full well-to-wheels (WTW) analysis of energy use and greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles for several scenarios, considering different
on-board fuels and different sources of electricity generation for recharging the vehicle
batteries. Three US regions were selected for the analysis, California, New York, and
Illinois, as these regions include major metropolitan areas with significant variations in
their energy generation mixes. The full cycle analysis results were also reported for the
US generation mix and renewable electricity to examine cases of average and clean
mixes, respectively[3] This 2009 study showed a wide spread of petroleum use and GHG
emissions among the different fuel production technologies and grid generation mixes.
The following table summarizes the main results:[3]
PHEV well-to-wheels Petroleum energy use and greenhouse gas emissions

for an all-electric range between 10 and 40 miles (16 and 64 km) with different on-
board fuels.(1)
(as a % relative to an internal combustion engine vehicle that uses fossil fuel
gasoline)
Reformulated gasoline E85 fuel from

Fuel cell
Analysis and Ultra-low sulfur corn and
hydrogen
diesel switchgrass
Petroleum energy use more than

40–60% 70–90%
reduction 90%
GHG emissions
30–60% 40–80% 10–100%
reduction(2)
Source: Center for Transportation Research, Argonne National Laboratory (2009). See Table 1.[3] Notes: (1)
Simulations for year 2020
with PHEV model year 2015. (2) No direct or indirect land use changes included in the WTW analysis for
bio-mass fuel feedstocks.[175][176]
The Argonne study found that PHEVs offered reductions in petroleum energy use as
compared with regular hybrid electric vehicles. More petroleum energy savings and also
more GHG emissions reductions were realized as the all-electric range increased, except
when electricity used to recharged was dominated by coal or oil-fired power generation.
As expected, electricity from renewable sources realized the largest reductions in
petroleum energy use and GHG emissions for all PHEVs as the all-electric range
increased. The study also concluded that plug-in vehicles that employ biomass-based
fuels (biomass-E85 and -hydrogen) may not realize GHG emissions benefits over regular
hybrids if power generation is dominated by fossil sources.[3]
A 2008 study by researchers at Oak Ridge National Laboratory analyzed oil use and
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of plug-in hybrids relative to hybrid electric vehicles
under several scenarios for years 2020 and 2030. Each type of vehicle was assumed to
run 20 miles (32 km) per day and the HEV was assumed to have a fuel economy of
40 miles per US gallon (5.9 L/100 km; 48 mpg-imp).[177] The study considered the mix of
power sources for 13 U.S. regions, generally a combination of coal, natural gas and
nuclear energy, and to a lesser extend renewable energy.[177][178] A 2010 study conducted
at Argonne National Laboratory reached similar findings, concluding that PHEVs will
reduce oil consumption but could produce very different greenhouse gas emissions for
each region depending on the energy mix used to generate the electricity to recharge the
plug-in hybrids.[179][180] The following table summarizes the main results of the Oak Ridge
National Laboratory study for the 2020 scenario:
Comparison of carbon emissions and oil consumption by plug-in hybrids relative to

hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)
by U.S. regional power generation sources on 2020[181]
Carbon Oil
emissions consumption
Share relative to HEVs relative to HEVs
Main States
total
Region(1) electricity included in the
generation
sources All- All- region(2)
2020 Plug-in Plug-in
electric electric
hybrid hybrid
mode mode
Includes ID,
Natural gas 84.3% MT, NV, OR,
Northwest -20.0% -37.2% -47.0% -99.6%
Nuclear 15.7% UT, SD, WA,
and WY.
Natural gas 99.0%

California -15.3% -26.5% -47.0% -99.6%
Renewable 1.0%
Texas Natural gas 100% -15.0% -25.7% -47.0% -99.6%
Natural gas 96.1%

Florida -14.8% -25.3% -45.6% -96.4%
Oil 2.4%
Includes CT,
New Natural gas 70.3%
-11.4% -17.4% -44.3% -93.5% MA, ME, NH,
England Coal 15.5%
RI, and VT.
Lower Natural gas 88.6% -11.0% -16.4% -46.9% -99.4% Includes AR,
Midwest Coal 11.4% KS, LA, NM,
OK, and TX.
Includes AZ,
Natural gas 83.6%
Southwest -9.40% -12.8% -46.9% -99.4% CO, NM, NV,
Coal 16.1%
and TX.
Includes DC,
Mid- Natural gas 60.6%
-1.2% +6.1 -45.4% -95.9% DE, MD, ME,
Atlantic Coal 37.0%
NJ, and PE.
Includes IA,
Upper Natural gas 47.6% MN, MT, ND,
-0.8% +7.2% -46.7% -99.0%
Midwest Coal 46.0% NE, SD, and
WI.
Includes AL,
Coal 51.9% GA, LA, MS,
Southeast +2.4% +14.4% -46.7% -98.9%
Natural gas 44.9% NC, SC, and
TN.
Oil 67.2%
New York +4.3% +19.0% -8.6% -10.9%
Natural gas 29.4%
Includes IN,
Greater Coal 65.7%
+7.8% +27.0% -46.6% -98.7% KY, MI, OH,
Ohio Natural gas 32.8%
VA, and WV.
Includes IA,
Greater Coal 75.4%
+11.7% +36.0% -46.5% -98.6% IL, MI, MO,
Illinois Natural gas 24.6%
and WI.
Notes: (1) Regions as defined by the North American Electric Reliability Corporation. (2) Some states
appear in more than one region because parts of them belong to different regions.
[edit] Production and commercialization

Further information: Automotive market
Launched in December 2008, the BYD F3DM became the world's first mass produced
plug-in hybrid automobile.
The number of US survey respondents willing to pay US$4,000 more for a plug-in hybrid
car increased from 17% in 2005 to 26% in 2006.
The Bright IDEA plug-in hybrid delivery truck is available for fleet customers in the U.S.
A survey from Pike Research shows 22% of 1,041 consumers extremely and 26% very
interested in buying a PHEV-40-(like the Volt), with 17% willing to pay 20–50% more
than a standard vehicle and half willing to pay 5-10% more. Another 34% have some
interest for a total of 82%. Pike projects 1.7 million PHEVs on the world's roads by 2015
and half a million annual sales.[182]
[edit] Current production models
The BYD F3DM became the world's first mass produced plug-in hybrid compact sedan
as it went on sale in China to government agencies and corporations on December 15,
2008.[9][10][11] Sales to the general public began in Shenzhen in March 2010[12][13] but
because the F3DM nearly doubles the price of cars that run on conventional fuel, BYD
Auto is counting on subsidies from the local government to make the plug-in attractive to
personal buyers.[12] The F3DM is sold for 149,800 yuan (about USD 21,900),[11] and
during its first year in the market the F3DM only sold 48 vehicles.[183][184] The F3DM has
a all-electric range of 100 kilometers (60 mi),[185] and is slated to go on sale in Europe and
the U.S. in 2011.[183]
General Motors introduced the first Chevrolet Volt off the assembly line on November
30, 2010. Sales and deliveries are expected to begin in December 2010.[14][15] The Volt
will be sold initially only in California, Washington Metropolitan Area, Michigan, Texas,
New York, New Jersey and Connecticut.[186] The first cars will be available in
Washington D.C., the New York City metropolitan region, California, and Austin, Texas.
During the first quarter of 2011 the market will expand to Michigan, the rest of Texas and
to all of New York, New Jersey and Connecticut.[187] The restricted roll-out is due to
limited production, as GM planned production for 2011 is only 10,000 units.[186][187]
Nationwide availability in the U.S. and Canada is scheduled to begin in late 2011 until
mid 2012.[188][186][187]
In the United States, the Toyota Prius can now be commercially converted (using
aftermarket kits and tax incentives) to a plug-in hybrid by CalCars and a number of third-
party companies.[189] On a smaller scale, PHEVs have been sold as commercial passenger
vans,[190] utility trucks,[191][192] general and school buses,[193][194] motorcycles, scooters,[195]
and military vehicles.[196] Hybrid Electric Vehicle Technologies, Inc converts diesel buses
to plug-in hybrids, under contract for the Chicago Transit Authority. Fisher Coachworks
is developing a plug-in hybrid, the Fisher GTB-40, which is expected to get about twice
the mileage of a regular hybrid electric bus.[197]
[edit] Future production
Further information: List of modern production plug-in electric vehicles
At least fourteen car companies of all sizes are exploring or planning to offer a plug-in,
[198]
including a modular kit car model (XR-3 Hybrid).[199] Conversion kits and services are
available to convert production model hybrid vehicles to plug-ins.[98][200] Other plug-in
vehicles ongoing demonstration trials or slated to the market for 2011 and 2012 are the
Fisker Karma, Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid, Ford Escape Plug-in Hybrid, Volvo V70
Plug-in Hybrid, Suzuki Swift Plug-in and the Ford C-Max Energi. A startup in California
named Aptera Motors is creating a series drivetrain PHEV version of its concept electric
car, the Aptera 2h.
[edit] Government support and public deployment
See also: Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles
[edit] United States
Plug-in hybrids were mentioned as an area of research in President George W. Bush's

advanced energy initiative and mentioned in his 2007 State of the Union Address.
Incentives for the development of PHEVs are included in the Energy Independence and
Security Act of 2007.[201] The Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008, signed
into law on October 3, 2008, grants a tax break of $2,500 to $7,500 per car for
manufacturers of up to 250,000 plug-in hybrid vehicles. President Barack Obama's New
Energy for America calls for deployment of 1 million plug-in hybrid vehicles by 2015,[202]
and on March 19, 2009, he announced programs directing $2.4 billion to electric vehicle
development.[203]
The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009[204] modifies the tax credits,
including a new one for plug-in electric drive conversion kits and for 2 or 3 wheel
vehicles.[205] The ultimate total included in the Act that is going to PHEVs is over $6
billion.[206] However the production phase-out trigger is decreased from 250,000 to
200,000 units (but instead of one 250,000 units pot of money shared by all carmakers,
200,000 units sizable funds are created for every carmaker), credits for vehicles over
14,000 pounds (6,400 kg) GVWR are eliminated (by redefining PHEVs to be less than
this GVWR), and the maximum credit for vehicles between 10,000 and 14,000 pounds
(4,500 and 6,400 kg). GVWR is reduced from $10,000 to $7,500. The battery capacity
window of 4–16 kW·h is maintained, but vehicles between 4–5 kW·h battery capacity
only receive the minimum credit of $2,500.[207] The battery capacity shift may be an
attempt to include the Chevy Volt while limiting the credit available to low all-electric
range plug-in models of the Toyota Prius.
In March 2009, as part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, the US
Department of Energy announced the release of two competitive solicitations for up to $2
billion in federal funding for competitively awarded cost-shared agreements for
manufacturing of advanced batteries and related drive components as well as up to $400
million for transportation electrification demonstration and deployment projects. This
announcement will also help meet the President Barack Obama's goal of putting one
million plug-in hybrid vehicles on the road by 2015.[208]
The United States House of Representatives passed H.R. 3246, the Advanced Vehicle
Technology Act of 2009,[209] $2.85 billion from 2010–2014, 39% for medium- and heavy-
duty commercial vehicles for retrofitting advanced vehicle technologies to existing
vehicles and to existing truck fleets.[182]
On October 5, 2009, President Barack Obama signed Executive Order 13514 on Federal
Leadership in Environmental, Energy, and Economic Performance to accelerate Federal
agencies' efforts.[210] For the government's 600,00 vehicle fleet, it requires a 30%
reduction in petroleum use by 2020, and for agencies with 20 or more vehicles to reduce
petroleum use by 2% annually through 2020.[211]
Public deployments also include:
• USDOE's FreedomCAR. US Department of Energy announced it would dole out

$30 million in funding to three companies over three years to further the
development of plug-in hybrids[212]
• USDOE announced the selection of Navistar Corporation for a cost-shared award
of up to $10 million to develop, test, and deploy plug-in hybrid electric (PHEV)
school buses.[213]
• DOE and Sweden have a MOU to advance market integration of plug-in hybrid
vehicles[214]
• PHEV Research Center
• San Francisco Mayor Gavin Newsom, San Jose Mayor Chuck Reed and Oakland,
California Mayor Ron Dellums announced a nine-step policy plan for
transforming the Bay Area into the "Electric Vehicle (EV) Capital of the U.S."[215]
and of the world[216] There are partnerships with Coulomb, Better Place and others
are also advancing. The first charging stations went up in San Jose[216] (more
information in Plug-in hybrids in California).
• Washington State PHEV Pilot Project[217]
• Texas Governor Rick Perry's proposal for a state $5,000 tax credit for PHEVs in
"non-attainment" communities
• Seattle, that includes City's public fleet converted vehicles, the Port of Seattle,
King County and the Puget Sound Clean Air Agency[218]
GM's roadmap for plug-in ready communities includes: consumer incentives to make this
early technology more affordable; public and workplace charging infrastructure;
consumer-friendly electricity rates and renewable electricity options; government and
corporate vehicle purchases; supportive permitting and codes for vehicle charging; and
other incentives such as high-occupancy-vehicle (HOV) lanes access[219]
[edit] Canada
The City of Toronto is supporting public deployment of PHEVs.[220] The Province of

Ontario has announced plans to provide rebates of between $4,000 to $10,000 CAD for
plug-in hybrids and battery electric vehicles, starting on July 1, 2010 to the first 10,000
purchases only.[221]
[edit] European Union
Electrification of transport (electromobility) is a priority in the European Union Research

Programme. It also figures prominently in the European Economic Recovery Plan
presented November 2008, in the frame of the Green Car Initiative. DG TREN will
support a large European "electromobility" n project on electric vehicles and related
infrastructure with a total budget of around € 50million as part of the Green Car
Initiative.[222]
[edit] France
The French government kicked in $550M and sponsors partnership by Électricité de

France with Renault-Nissan and with PSA Peugeot Citroën.[223]
[edit] Germany
In 2011, the City of Hamburg's hydrogen fuel cell bus trial will be superseded with the
current 6 buses to be grounded and replaced by 10 plug-in hybrid buses, to be powered
with a combination of electricity and hydrogen.[224]
[edit] Spain
The MOVELE Plan gives funds to acquire plug-in vehicles.[225]
[edit] United Kingdom
In November 2007 the then Prime minister Gordon Brown said that renewables will
supply 15 per cent of the UK's energy mix by 2020 and emphasised the role that electric
and plug-in hybrid cars will play as part of the government's carbon reduction strategy.
[226]
Transport for London is planning to include plug-in hybrids in the exemption to the
London congestion charge previously available only to fully electric vehicles.[227]
On 21 June 2010, Toyota launched a three-year Prius Plug-in Hybrid Vehicle lease
demonstration programme in the UK.[228] The programme was partly funded by the UK
Government through the Office for Low Emission Vehicles (OLEV), and provided 20
Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid Vehicles to public organisations and business fleet users in
the UK.
[edit] Supportive organizations
Organizations that support plug-in hybrids include the World Wide Fund for Nature, its
International Director General James Leape remarked, "the cars of the future ... should,
increasingly, be powered by electricity."[229]
Also National Wildlife Federation has done a strong endorsement of PHEVs.[230]
CalCars (with their PHEV news service and "What car makers are saying about PHEVs")
is dedicated only to the PHEV and has proposed a Prepayment Plan, where buyers would
pay $1,000 to reserve a plug-in car and the federal government would match each
payment with $9,000, all of which would go to carmakers.[231] CalCars is also promoting
public funds for conversion of internal combustion engines to plug-in vehicles.[232]
Other supportive organizations are Plug In America, the Alliance for Climate Protection,
Friends of the Earth, the Rainforest Action Network, Rocky Mountain Institute (Project
Get Ready),[233] the San Francisco Bay Area Council,[215] the Apollo Alliance, the Set
America Free Coalition,[234] the Silicon Valley Leadership Group, and the Plug-in Hybrid
Electric School Bus Project,[235]
FPL and Duke Energy has said that by 2020 all new purchases of fleet vehicles will be
plug-in hybrid or all-electric.[236]
[edit] NiMH battery patent encumbrance
Main article: Patent encumbrance of large automotive NiMH batteries
Some battery formats and chemistries (nickel-metal hydride batteries) suitable for use in
PHEVs are tightly patented and have not been licensed for use by PHEV manufacturers,
thereby slowing the development of electric cars and PHEVs, particularly before the
2008 Oil Crisis.[5][237][238][239]
[edit] See also

• Advanced Technology Vehicles Sustainable development portal
Manufacturing Loan Program
• Alternative fuel vehicle Energy portal
• Automotive industry crisis of 2008– • Hybrid tax credit
2009 • Hymotion
• CalCars • Hypercar
• Car Allowance Rebate System • Inductive charging
• Clean Energy Bank • List of modern production plug-in
• Cleanova (a Kangoo derivative) electric vehicles
• Development mule • Low-carbon economy
• Electric transportation technology • Low-carbon fuel standard
• Electric TM4 • Low-energy vehicle
• FreedomCAR • Mitigation of global warming
• Fuel economy-maximizing • Paul Werbos
behaviors • PHEV Research Center
• Funding Opportunity • Plug In America
Announcement • Plug-in Conference
• Genset trailer • Plug-in electric vehicle (PEV)
• Glossary of automotive design • Plug-in garage
• Government incentives for plug-in • United States Council for
electric vehicles Automotive Research
[edit] References
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California, Davis) Retrieved August 7, 2007; earlier version
2. ^ a b Knipping, E. and Duvall, M. (June 2007) "Environmental Assessment of
Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles Volume 1: Nationwide Greenhouse Gas
Emissions" Electric Power Research Institute and Natural Resources Defense
Council. Retrieved July 21, 2007.
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(February 2009). "Well-to-Wheels Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions
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4. ^ Archer, David (2005). "Fate of fossil fuel CO2 in geologic time" (PDF). Journal
of Geophysical Research 110 (C9): C09S05.1–C09S05.6.
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571-4.
6. ^ Thomas Friedman (2008). Hot, Flat, and Crowded. Farrar, Strauss and Giroux,
New York. ISBN [[Special:BookSources/978-0-374-16685-4. See reviewed by
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Bestseller Hot, Flat & Crowded Touts Plug-Ins"|978-0-374-16685-4. See
reviewed by CalCars founder Felix Kramer (September 9, 2008) "T. Friedman's
New Bestseller Hot, Flat & Crowded Touts Plug-Ins"]].
7. ^ a b Simpson, A. (2006) Cost-Benefit Analysis of Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle
Technology National Renewable Energy Laboratory conference report CP-540-
40485 accessed January 7, 2009
8. ^ Eberle, Ulrich; von Helmolt, Rittmar (2010-05-14). "Sustainable transportation
based on electric vehicle concepts: a brief overview". Royal Society of Chemistry.
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Chinese Market, But Rollout Delayed For U.S. & Europe" CNBC. Retrieved
December 2008.
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[edit] External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Plug-in electric hybrid-powered
vehicles
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Plug-in hybrid
• How Plug-In Hybrid Cars Work at HowStuffWorks

• US Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
o Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle Value Proposition Study Final Report,
July 2010.
o Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles.
o Alternative Fuels and Advanced Vehicles Data Center (AFDC), including
list of books and publications.
o DoE Grant for Plug In Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV) Technology
Acceleration And Deployment Activity.
• "Plugging into the Grid" by Joseph J. Romm and Peter Fox-Penner in the
Progressive Policy Institute's March 2007 newsletter, explaining how PHEVs can
help "break America's oil addiction and slow global warming"
• Energy Storage and Transportation - Idaho National Laboratory
• Plugin.com - Plugin cars, hybrids and electric vehicles
• Plug-In.com - Plug-in and Hybrid News, Comparisons, Discussion.
• List of Plug-in Vehicles (Plug In America).
[edit] Past conferences and events
• The Brita Climate Ride 2009 September 26–30 (charity bike ride from New York
City to Washington, DC)
• The Business of Plugging In 2009: October 19–21, 2009, Motor City, Detroit,
Michigan
• PHEV '09 September 28–30, 2009 (Montreal, Quebec, Canada).
• Beyond Oil: Transforming Transportation, October 23–24 (Redmond, WA) .The
sixth annual Cascadia Center for Regional Development TransTech Conference,
to be held at Microsoft's Redmond campus.
• Plug-In Electric Vehicles 2008 by the Brookings Institution and Google.org.
• Hybridfest.com: July 19–20, 2008, Madison, WI
• Plug-in 2008: July 22–24, 2008, San Jose, California
• Beyond oil, Transforming Transportation: September 4–5, 2008, in Redmond,
Washington. Fifth Annual Cascadia-Microsoft Conference on Transportation
Technology, co-sponsored by Microsoft, the US Department of Transportation,
the Idaho National Laboratory, PEMCO, Washington DOT and the Puget Sound
Clean Air Agency.
• TechKnowForum.org: Plug-In Hybrids & the Smart Grid: October 23, 2008, Ann
Arbor, Michigan
• Hybridfest Green Drive Expo: July 18–19, 2009, Madison, Wisconsin
• Plug-in 2009: August 10–13, 2009, Long Beach, California
[edit] News
• "High-tech vehicles growing more common in region: Plug-in cars give owners a
real jolt of satisfaction" (Seattle Post-Intelligencer, September 9, 2008)
• "The Plug-in Revolution :A grand plan for America’s energy woes" (Washington
Monthly, October 2008)
[edit] Video
• Boschert, S. (March 12, 2007) "Plug-In Hybrids" Corte Madera, California:

fora.tv
• Ford Escape plug-in hybrid electric sport utility vehicle (Ford Environmental,
January 5, 2008)
• New Chevy Volt exterior wind tunnel testing (April 2008)
• The Race For The Electric Car (60 Minutes, CBS News, October 6, 2008)
• Daimler VideoCast: The new Sprinter Plug-In-Hybrid commercial van (19
February 2009)
[edit] Books
• David B. Sandalow, editor (2009). Plug-In Electric Vehicles: What Role for
Washington? (1st. ed.). The Brookings Institution. ISBN 978-0-8157-0305-1.
http://www.brookings.edu/press/Books/2009/pluginelectricvehicles.aspx.
• Cefo, Nevres (2009). Two Cents per Mile: Will President Obama Make it Happen
With the Stroke of a Pen?. Nevlin LLC,. ISBN 978-0615293912.
http://www.amazon.com/Two-Cents-per-Mile-
President/dp/0615293913/ref=sr_1_1?
ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1248664558&sr=8-1.
• Boschert, Sherry (2007). Plug-in Hybrids: The Cars that will Recharge America
(1st ed.). New Society Publishers. ISBN 0865715718.
http://www.sherryboschert.com/plugin_and_more.html.
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Electric motor electric vehicle · Motorized bicycle · Neighborhood Electric Vehicle ·
Plug-in electric vehicle · Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle · Solar vehicle ·
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See also Zero-emissions vehicle

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plug-in_hybrid"
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

An installation of solar panels in rural Mongolia

A solar panel, or photovoltaic module, is composed of individual PV cells. This

A PV module on the ISS.

A solar panel (photovoltaic module or photovoltaic panel) is a packaged

• 1 Theory and construction

[edit] Theory and construction

PV cells connected together in a solar panel.

In order to use the cells in practical applications, they must be:

• connected electrically to one another and to the rest of the system

Depending on construction, photovoltaic panels can produce electricity from a range of

[edit] Crystalline silicon modules

[edit] Thin-film modules

[edit] Rigid thin-film modules

[edit] Flexible thin-film modules

If the substrate is an insulator (e.g. polyester or polyimide film) then monolithic

If it is a conductor then another technique for electrical connection must be used.

So-called inverted metamorphic (IMM) multijunction solar cells made on compound-

[edit] Module embedded electronics

[edit] Module performance and lifetime

[edit] Top ten

Top ten suppliers (by power) in 2009 were:[6]

[edit] Mounting Systems

Solar Trackers increase the amount of energy produced per panel.

[edit] Fixed Racks

[edit] Devices with photovoltaic modules

Electric devices that includes solar panels:

This section requires expansion.

[edit] See also

• Building-integrated photovoltaic (BIPV).

[edit] External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Photovoltaics

• The Next Solar Frontier: Distributed Inverter Architecture

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_panel"

• Log in / create account

• What links here

• This page was last modified on 22 February 2011 at 01:33.

• 1 Types of battery chargers

[edit] Types of battery chargers

A simple charger works by supplying a constant or DC pulsed DC power source to a

Main article: Trickle charging

This section does not cite any references or sources.

A typical intelligent charger fast-charges a battery up to about 85% of its maximum

Main article: Inductive charging

Inductive battery chargers use electromagnetic induction to charge batteries. A charging

[edit] Solar chargers

Further information: Solar charger and energy harvesting

[edit] Charge rate

[edit] Mobile phone charger

Micro USB mobile phone charger

Users of publicly accessible charging kiosks must be able to cross-reference connectors

Further information: Charging station

There are two main types of charges for vehicles:

• To recharge a fuel vehicle's starter battery, where a modular charger is used.

[edit] Battery electric vehicle

These vehicles include a battery pack, so generally use series charger.

There is a list of public EV charging stations in the U.S.A. and worldwide[18]

[edit] Use in experiments

[edit] Prolonging battery life

[edit] See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Battery charger