PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES

Production Operator’s Handbook

P R O D U C T I O N
T E C H N O L O G I E S
 About this handbook Why use chemicals?
Chemicals are one of the tools that can be
used on an oil-production or oil-treating To avoid harm to, or loss of:
installation to solve a problem, increase
the production, create better water quality • Personnel
or enhance the quality of the oil or gas. • Environment
Chemicals have uses in many process • Process equipment
systems, including: • Production
• Water injection
• Oil and gas production
• Gas separating and dehydrating
Examples:
• Utilities • Foaming can result in reduced production
• Corrosion can cause problems in process equipment,
unnecessary expense, and injury to personnel and to
There is almost always a large stock of the environment
various chemicals on these installations, • Scale precipitation will cause reduced production
each dedicated to a particular purpose. • Emulsions can result
Therefore specialized knowledge is in bad water quality,
necessary to ensure that they are used: danger to the
• Optimally environment and
high water content
• Safely in the produced oil
• Economically • Wax can cause reduced
oil production
• Bacteria can cause
This handbook describes the chemical corrosion and the
treatment of all types of process systems production of toxic
and gives a short description of the gases such as H2S
typical properties for each chemical.

2 3
 Why are chemicals needed in the Where do problems occur
production of oil, gas and water? in oil production?
The oil can contain wax, asphaltenes and other solids.

Water can produce corrosion in process equipment and Water injection

pipelines, precipitation of salts, and emulsion with oil. Scale, corrosion, foam,
bacteria growth

Gas can cause foaming as well as corrosion due to CO2 or H2S.

These problems can be solved with the correct design of process

equipment, active management and optimization of the process,
Topside process
and the use of chemicals.
Emulsions, Utility
foam, Scale,
scale, corrosion,
corrosion, foam,
asphaltenes dirt and grime

Oil and gas

export
Wax,
corrosion,
Perforated water
zone and
production tubing
Scale,
wax,
corrosion, Water to sea and
asphaltenes produced water
Scale, corrosion,
oil content,
chemicals

4 5
 Well and flowline

Well and flowline Scale inhibitors for scale squeeze

Chemical Purpose/application Normally, two types of scale-inhibitor chemistry are used:
phosphonates and/or polymers. These products are water-
Scale inhibitor Scale squeeze of wells
soluble, and have a pH in the range of 2 to 7. The “scale squeeze”
Scale dissolver Removing scale
is an operation where long-term protection against mineral-
Methanol, glycols and LDI Hydrate inhibiting
scale precipitation from the perforations is provided through
Solvents Removing wax and/or asphaltenes
the topside process. Due to injection-water breakthrough or a
Wax inhibitor Wax inhibition
high content of calcium and bicarbonate in the formation water,
Asphaltene dispersant Asphaltene control
increased scale formation may be experienced at some point in
Corrosion inhibitor Batch or continuous application
the operation of a field.
Scale is normally a buildup of salts of calcium, barium or In the scale squeeze, a calculated volume of scale inhibitor is
strontium as calcium carbonate, barium sulfate and strontium displaced directly into the formation. The scale inhibitor adsorbs
sulfate. Carbonate scale is caused by the presence of calcium to the formation surface and then de-adsorbs as it returns, dis-
and bicarbonate ions in the formation water. When pressures solved in the produced water. This will protect the perforating
are decreased or temperatures are increased, the bicarbonate zone, the production tubing and the topside against scale precip-
will begin to decompose, resulting in pH increases and calcium- itation. The lifetime for a scale squeeze is normally 180 days,
carbonate precipitation in the form of scale. but it depends on the water production rate.
Barium and strontium sulfates form in wells that produce
waters naturally saturated with barium or strontium sulfates,
Starting at the metal surface, scale
or when produced water containing barium or strontium is forms in various layers, depending
contaminated with a sulfate-bearing water. When seawater on the chemical composition of
injection is employed, the seawater contains sulfate, and the the water, pressure, temperature
and total dissolved solids. In
formation water may contain barium and/or strontium which wellbores, layers are typically
will then form barium and/or strontium sulfate when the two Metal
mixtures of barium and strontium
surface
waters commingle. sulfates and then calcium sulfate.
Following pressure drops, such as
those that occur at wellheads and
The solubility of barium sulfate is very chokes, calcium carbonate forms.
low, which means that it will precipi-
tate even at very low concentrations.

Scale in production equipment can have Pipe metal surface

dramatic, negative consequences.

6 7
 Well and flowline Well and flowline

Scale dissolvers Hydrate inhibition

In production tubing/flowlines, acids are normally used to In most cases, methanol is used to avoid hydrates in pipelines, or
remove calcium carbonate. For barium sulfate, sequestrants when starting or closing a well. Methanol is toxic and flammable
(scale dissolvers) must be used. and must be handled with care. Read the safety data sheet and
use suitable protective equipment. Methanol is soluble in water,
and can cause emulsion problems in the separators and treating
Acids vessels. Low-Dose Hydrate Inhibitors (LDHI), both kinetic and
anti-agglomerate, are now replacing methanol in subsea lines
Depending on the steel characteristics, choose the acid that and pipelines.
effectively removes the calcium carbonate while exhibiting
acceptable corrosivity against the steel. The reaction is exothermic
and releases CO2. Examples are: hydrochloric acid, phosphoric
acid, nitric acid and citric acid. These are corrosive products
Removing wax and/or asphaltenes
and safety information sheets must be read carefully before In production tubing and topside equipment, wax and
any acid is used. asphaltenes can precipitate. Wax normally precipitates
due to reduced temperature, while asphaltenes precipitate
due to decreased solubility at
Sequestrants gas breakthrough. The most
effective chemicals for removing
Sequestrants are normally used to remove/dissolve sulfate scale. asphaltenes contain dispersants
The chemicals are often based on EDTA or its homologs. They formulated with xylene or other
do not release gas or give a noticeable exothermic reaction. aromatic solvents. The same
The chemicals have a types of formulations are also
high pH of 10 to 12. effective for removing wax
Safety data sheets deposits. Xylene is flammable
must be read carefully and is harmful to health. Read
before use. the safety data sheet carefully.

8 9
 Well and flowline

Corrosion control Topside process: Gas

There are several methods used to apply a corrosion inhibitor Natural gas is described as a “clean” fuel, and its production nor-
downhole to control either sweet or sour corrosion. These meth- mally gives few chemical problems. Whether produced from gas
ods fall into two categories, named for the mode of application: fields or associated with oil production, the gas will normally be
batch or continuous. processed in the following way:

1. It is separated from liquids at the separator.

Batch methods 2. NGL and water are removed using the combined effects of
compression and cooling.
• Regular tubing “fill and soak” 3. Residual water is removed in a glycol contractor tower.
• Corrosion inhibitor squeeze Triethylene glycol is normally used, due to its good adsorption
• Periodic “brush” application on well tubing and regeneration qualities.
• Encapsulated for slow release from the rathole Water connected with gas production may contain salt from the
• Weighted reservoir or it may be condensed water from the cooling and
expansion processes.
Batch treatments lay down a relatively thick protective film on
the metal surface which is slowly eroded by the shear and flow
Topside Process Train First-stage Second-stage
in the system until the next treatment cycle is due. compressors compressor

Continuous methods Liquids-knockout

vessels
Liquids-knockout
vessel

• Injection through the annulus either as a liquid or with the lift Main
gas via a mandrel valve Produced Heat exchanger oil-line
fluids pumps
• Injection via a macaroni string
• Injection with the power fluid in a hydraulic lift pump Export
crude
Continuous treatments lay down, and then continuously Three- Three-phase, oil
Degasser
maintain, a thin but complete film of inhibitor molecules phase, second-stage
first-stage production
which covers and protects the metal surface. production separator Flotation
separator cell
Hydrocyclones

10 11
 Topside process: Gas
Wet gas
Wet gas is produced or transported in subsea flowlines,
pipelines, between fields or in export pipelines and can cause
several problems:
• Emulsion
• Hydrates
• Corrosion — When gases come in contact with water, there is
always a risk of corrosion. The gas can simultaneously contain
CO2 and H2S, both of which will reduce the pH in the associated
water and create the potential for corrosion.
The corrosion rate is dependent on:
• Salt content of the formation water
• Presence and concentration of acidic gases
• Pressure
• Temperature
• Flow velocity
The corrosion can be controlled by:
• Pressure
• Construction materials
• Dehydration of the gas
• Chemical neutralization
Corrosion inhibitors. Continuous injection of corrosion
inhibitors will effectively protect the system, but corrosion
inhibitors can also cause problems such as emulsions, foaming
and poor quality of the disposal water.
12
Topside process: Gas
Sour gas
One definition of sour conditions is when the partial pressure
of H2S is over 0.3 kPa/0.05 psi or more typically 500 ppm H2S @
100 psi (6.9 bar). On the other hand, most pipelines in the North
Sea have a limit of 2 to 3 ppm H2S in the gas. H2S is normally
removed by adsorption in an amine process, or by the use of non-
regenerated H2S scavengers. Examples are glyoxal and triazines.
Gas hydrates
Hydrates are snow-like crystals that are composed of methane
and water. This “hydrocarbon ice” can plug pipelines and destroy
process equipment. Hydrates start forming even at moderate
pressure and at temperatures below 50° F (10° C). They are also
very concentrated and therefore very
dangerous; one m3 of hydrate contains
150 m3 of methane. Hydrates can be
avoided by the injection of methanol
or glycol, and the same chemicals can
be used to dissolve hydrate plugs. LDHI
are also used to control hydrates.
Generally:
• Methanol is very toxic and flammable, with a flash point of
3.2° F (–16° C), so safe handling procedures must be impressed
upon the customer
• Amines and alkanolamines are often irritating to the skin and
have a sharp smell
13
 Topside process: Gas

Associated gas Topside process: Oil and produced water

Associated gas in oil production is a valuable resource, but can This section describes the chemicals that are frequently used on
cause problems when produced together with the oil. These an installation in the following process systems:
problems can be listed as: • Flowlines and pipelines
• Foaming • Topside process, oil/water
• Enhanced corrosion
All products that are used in these systems are solutions, which
can be divided into two groups:
Foaming • Water-base chemicals. These are products which use water as
the primary solvent.
Foaming occurs when gas is separated from oil or condensate • Solvent-base chemicals. These products are oil-soluble, and the
through pressure release. In most cases, foaming will increase solvents are hydrocarbon-base, e.g. aromatics and aliphatic
as the Gas/Oil Ratio (GOR) increases. hydrocarbons, alcohols and esters.
Gas Foaming can be eliminated by the
use of defoamer/antifoam. They are
Oil
usually made of silicones or fluoro-
Gas silicones, and they work by reducing
the surface tension on the gas bub-
bles and therefore allowing easy sep-
Gas aration. They normally work at very
Oil low dosage rates. The injection point
Gas
should be as close to the problem
as possible.
Defoamers/
antifoam

Broken

14 15
 Topside process: Oil and produced water Topside process: Oil and produced water

Production chemicals are used when the process equipment is Crude oil is a complex substance formed under high pressure
not functioning properly or when there are problems such as and temperature from vegetable and/or animal organic materi-
scale, corrosion, foaming or emulsions. als. A broad spectrum of organic chemical components exist in
light, paraffinic and heavy oils. These include wax up to C60,
Again, these chemicals are divided into water-soluble and oil- esters, organic acids, asphaltenes and napthalenes. Depending
soluble, depending upon the phase in which they are to be used. on the makeup of these components, the crude oil will have its
own characteristics, including specific gravity, wax content, pour
All chemicals that are supplied and used shall have approved point, color, etc.
safety data sheets and complete environmental documentation.
Crude oil can cause a series of problems:
Typically, topside process chemicals may include:
• Wax deposition
• Defoamers/antifoams
• Viscous gels at low temperatures (from heavy oils)
• Emulsion breakers/demulsifiers
• Deposition of asphaltenes
• Reverse emulsion breakers/deoilers
• Scale inhibitors
• Corrosion inhibitors
• Wax inhibitors
• Asphaltene dispersants
• Pour-point depressants
• Microbiocides

North Sea oil Texas oil Utah oil

16 17
 Topside process: Oil and produced water Topside process: Oil and produced water

Wax Wax inhibitors

Wax is present in most crude oils, usually in quantities of less Wax inhibitors modify the structure on the growing wax crystal,
than 5%, but even this much can still cause problems. Wax can be either by co-crystallization or by absorption to the surface of the
detected by normal analytical methods (IP) and usually represents crystal. Further growth will then be stopped.
that fraction of the oil with a carbon number higher than 18.
Wax is formed when the oil is cooled as a result of being produced
from the well.
• Subsea pipelines Depositions
• Heat exchange
• Joule effect
• Gas lift (change in solubility) H3C–(CH2)N–CH3

The wax crystals are formed at a specific temperature (wax Higher alkanes (n, iso, cyklo-) deposit
and form thick, firm layers of wax
appearance point), and then they become so big that they at specific conditions.
deposit on the surface and block the pipes or process equipment.

Methods for avoiding

wax precipitation: Number of Melting point Modifying of
wax crystals
• Heat carbon atoms °F (°C)
• Solvents (e.g. xylene) 16 64 (18) Inhibits further
17 72 (22) Wax crystal Treatment with 3D growth
• Blending of wax inhibitors
hydrocarbon streams 18 82 (28)
19 95 (35)
• Wax inhibitors 20 99 (37)
and dispersants 23 122 (50)
• Mechanical equipment 25 129 (54)
Treatment
with dispersants
or surfactants
Keeps the wax
Wax particles particles dispersed
in the oil phase

18 19
 Topside process: Oil and produced water
Wax inhibitors
Mode of operation
Typical injection point(s)
Typical dosage rate
Typical physical properties
Compatibility
20
Topside process: Oil and produced water
Asphaltenes
Change the crystal structure in such Asphaltenes are present in most oil, and they are mainly respon-
a way that further growth is not sible for its black color. Chemically, asphaltenes can be described
possible. Some of the wax inhibitors as very complex hydrocarbons with a ring structure. They are
are defined as dispersant-type charged molecules, and therefore they can agglomerate due to
chemicals that keep the wax electrochemical binding mechanisms. Asphaltenes are defined
crystals in solution and prevent as the hydrocarbons that are not soluble in pentane (C5); hexane
them from depositing. and heptane can also be used in such tests.
For well and production tubing:
Asphaltene depositions can exist already in the reservoir and
downhole injection
migrate out with the oil during production. Asphaltenes can also
For topside process:
deposit during production after the following process changes:
production manifold
For export lines: • Physical effects as pressure drop
upstream of the oil coolers • Gas stripping loss of light ends
It depends on the wax content of • Mixing of oil from several wells/formations
the oil, but normally 20 to 200 ppm • Gas lift
Flash point: <145° F (<63° C)
(depends on the solvent)
Viscosity: 20 to 100 cP
Health: Irritating, depending
on the solvent (see MSDS)
Depends upon the solvent in
the product, but in general not
compatible with water or other
water-soluble chemicals. Use
white spirit or naphtha for
dilution. Compatible with
most types of steel.
Typical molecule
structure of an
asphaltene molecule.
21
 Topside process: Oil and produced water Topside process: Oil and produced water

Emulsions Emulsions
Emulsions are defined as one phase dispersed in another. They There are several factors that influence the breaking of a water-
are dynamic, and they change with changing conditions. The in-oil emulsion:
key is always to try to force the emulsion into instability, so • Stability. Generally very stable emulsions form if there are
that it separates quickly. In oil production there are two types emulsifiers in the oil or if the system has high levels of shear.
of emulsions: • Temperature. Emulsions are dissolved faster at high temper-
• Water-In-Oil (WIO) emulsions atures, slower at low temperatures. This is often the reason
• Oil-In-Water (OIW) emulsions, or reverse emulsions subsea wells have emulsion problems.
• Time. You need time to completely break an emulsion,
Oil will easily emulsify with water, when the following condi- sometimes hours. This is often the main limitation for oil
tions are present: production.
• Energy — normally pressure drop over the choke or valve and • Fluid dynamics. Turbulent flow will produce a higher risk for
mixing in a high-shear pump emulsification or re-emulsification than laminar flow.
• Emulsifier — normally a chemical component in the oil, or
other substances such as wax, solids, etc. When the process does not
manage to break the emulsion,
Separators are designed for separation of oil, gas and water, but emulsion breakers are necessary.
if an emulsion is formed, then the separators will have problems Most systems require chemical
to separate the phases. To help the separation process, we can injection because the oil pro-
use the following physical or chemical tools: duction is often over the design
• Heat capacity, has a high water cut, or
• Electrical field has oil that contains asphaltenes,
• Increased flow rate in the separator wax or particles of clay/sand.
Emulsion breakers are developed
• Chemicals (emulsion breakers) by trained personnel and are
Typical test kit for
emulsion-breaker testing.
• Chemicals (flocculants/deoilers) formulated specifically for
the oil and/or system. Emulsion
breakers are developed with the help of bottle tests on
Typical example actual field emulsion samples, followed by a field test.
of the breaking
of an emulsion.

22 23
 Topside process: Oil and produced water Topside process: Oil and produced water

Emulsion breakers Emulsion breaker/demulsifier

These chemicals are used when the natural separation of Mode of operation An emulsion breaker/demulsifier
oil/water is not satisfactory. reduces the surface tension on the
water micro-droplets that are sus-
pended in the oil. These will then
coagulate to form larger water
droplets and fall out of the oil. The
Demulsifier result of this separation is a sharp,
clear interface.
Typical injection point(s) Normally they are injected into the
system as early as possible, other-
Treatment wise an increased dosage rate may
have to compensate for injection
later in the process.
Water-in-oil Surface-active Separation of Typical dosage rate Normal dosage rate for emulsion
emulsion polymer oil and water
breakers is in the area of 5 to
25 ppm, based on the total flow
rate of oil + water. Some heavy
Emulsion breakers are specially formulated for each process, crudes require much higher doses.
but because the process changes from time to time (caused by Typical physical properties Flash point: >145° F (>63° C)
new wells, increased water cut, etc.), the emulsion-breaker for- Viscosity: 20 to 100 cP, depending
mulation must be reassessed from time to time. Breakers usually on the temperature and solvent
consist of three to four active components, such as polymers, Health: Irritating, depending
esters, polyols, block polymers and other surface-active polymers, on the solvent (see MSDS)
suspended in a solvent system such as white spirit (solvent),
naphtha and higher alcohols. Compatibility The solvent in the product deter-
mines compatibility, but in general
these are not compatible with
water or other water-soluble
chemicals. Use white spirit or
naphtha for dilution. Compatible
with most types of steel.

24 25
 Topside process: Oil and produced water Topside process: Oil and produced water

Water clarifiers Water clarifiers

Oil-in-water emulsions are also known as “oily water” or some- The water clarifiers work by reducing or neutralizing the charge on
times “reverse emulsions” and are a daily problem for most the oil droplets in such a way that the droplets begin to agglomer-
installations because there is usually a statutory limitation ate into larger drops, and will separate from the water due to the
on the amount of oil allowed in the waste water. Oil in water difference in specific gravity.
is caused by the same mechanisms as for oil emulsions, the
main ones being:
• Bad separation
• Mixing effect over valves and pumps - Treatment
-
- -
• Treatment with surface-active chemicals such as corrosion -
- + + + + + + -
-

inhibitors, surfactants, etc. - + +

- + +
+ +
+ +
+ +
- - - -
-
• The wrong emulsion breaker or dosage rate -

Oil droplets are Positively charged Flocculation

There are several mechanical ways to remove the oil from negatively charged polymer (cationic)
the produced water, the most important being:
• Flotation tanks — Induced Gas Flotation (IGF), Dissolved
Air Flotation (DAF), etc.
• Skimtanks — plate-type or API Treatment + +
+ + +
+
• Centrifugal equipment — Hydrocyclones, centrifuges, etc. - + - + +
+
+ + - - +
-
+ + + +
+
- - + -
+ +
- +

In most cases, this equipment is not enough to solve the problem + + - - - - + +

+ ++ - - - - + +
-
on its own because: + - +
+
- +
+ - + +
++
+ + + -
• The stabilizing components are too strong + +
+ +
+

• The droplet size is too small (generally <20 μm)

Positively charged ion Negatively charged Flocculation
(e.g., calcium) can polymer (anionic)
This requires the use of chemicals. change the charge
on the oil droplet

26 27
 Topside process: Oil and produced water Topside process: Oil and produced water

Defoamers/antifoams Defoamers/antifoams
These chemicals, usually comprised of silicon-base molecules, Mode of operation Reduces the surface tension on the
work by reducing the surface tension on the gas bubbles, gas bubbles so they can burst and
causing the bubbles to burst. release the gas from the oil.
Typical injection point(s) Normally they are injected into the
There are two principles for this depending on the system and system as early as possible, other-
type of defoamer/antifoam. wise an increased dosage rate may
have to compensate for injection
later in the process.
Situation 1: Foam on the surface Typical dosage rate Normal dosage rate for defoamers/
antifoams are 1 to 3 ppm based on
the total flow rate of oil + water for
Foam Defoamer/ Foam collapse
antifoam fluorosilicones and 4 to 10 ppm for
injection Polydimethylsiloxanes (PDMS).
Release of
gas and oil
Typical physical properties Flash point: >145° F (>63° C)
Viscosity: 20 to 100 cP,
depending on solvent
and active content
Oil phase
Health: Irritating, depending
on the solvent (see MSDS)
Compatibility This depends upon the solvent
Situation 2: Gas bubbles in the oil
in the product, but generally the
following will apply:
Defoamer/ Other chemicals: Not compatible
antifoam
injection with water or water-soluble
chemicals
Release of
Gas bubbles gas and oil Dilution: White spirit or diesel
coagulate can be used
Steel: Normally compatible
Gas bubbles with all types
Seals and hoses: Normally
compatible with all types

28 29
 Water injection Water injection: Filtration
Water injection gives pressure support in the reservoir in con- There are many types of filter systems, but they all have some-
nection with oil and gas production. The water is pumped into thing in common. They need chemicals to achieve the required
the reservoir. Normally seawater is used offshore, but in later effect. Some common filter types are:
years, produced water, or water from separate water zones can • Sand filter
also be used. • Cartridge filter — normally polypropylene-fiber
Before the water is pumped down into the formation, the • Multibed filter — normally anthracite and sand in layers
following processes are normally carried out: • Precoat filter — uses a precoat of diatomaceous earth
• Remove foreign particles through filtration
Seawater contains approx. 0.5 to 2 mg/L dry particles with sizes
• Add biocides to avoid microbiological growth ranging from 1 to 20 microns.
• Remove O2, CO2 or H2S
• Reduce the potential for precipitation of salts
• Increase the injectivity
Heat
exchanger
Lift Coarse
pumps filter Fine filters

Biocide
Scale inhibitor Polyelectrolyte Defoamer/
antifoam
Chlorination
Deaeration/
Oxygen
degassing
scavenger
Injection
pumps
Injection
wells

Pressure-booster
Scale inhibitor
pumps

Typical water-injection system with normal chemical types and injection points.

30 31
 Water injection: Solids
Polyelectrolyte
Mode of operation These are polymers with either a
cationic (+) or anionic (–) charge.
They bond with the fine particles
to form larger aggregates which
are easily removed in the filter.
Typical injection point(s) Upstream of the filter units.
Typical dosage rate 0.2 to 2 ppm as product.
Can be diluted with freshwater.
Typical physical properties Flash point: Not exhibited
Viscosity: Low
Freeze point: +41° to –14° F
(+5° to –10° C)
Health: See MSDS
Compatibility Normally compatible with other
chemicals. They will react with
particles in water. Polyelectrolytes
are normally compatible with stain-
less steel and plastic but can be
corrosive to carbon steel and brass.
Treatment
-
-
- -
-
- + + + + + +
- +
- + +
+ +
+ +
+ +
- -
-
-
Water injection: Bacteria
Water is an excellent medium for microbiological growth, so it is
necessary to treat injection water to reduce the microbiological
growth. The problem is often connected with the growth of
General Aerobe Bacteria (GAB) and anaerobic Sulfate-Reducing
Bacteria (SRB). GAB growth can result in slime and can be the
first step to the growth of SRB. Sulfate-reducing bacteria produce
H2S which is both toxic and corrosive.
To avoid these problems, biocides are added to the water, often
through an injection of hypochlorite, either as liquid product or
by producing it with an electrochlorinator.
Primary treatment involves hypochlorite being injected
downstream of the seawater intake pumps, at a dosage rate
of 0.5 ppm residual chlorine in the seawater. The hypochlorite
will remove 99% of the bacteria, but will be removed later in
the system through the deaeration process and by the oxygen
scavengers (see next page). A secondary batch treatment with
biocides is therefore necessary.
Caution: Hypochlorite is Shapes of bacteria
extremely corrosive.
Coccus (sphere)
Secondary treatment is normally a
batch treatment with aldehyde- or Bacillus (rod)
amine-base biocide formulations,
Curve
usually at a dosage rate of 200 to
1,000 ppm for 1 to 4 hrs, 1 to 2 Spiral
-
-
times per week.
+
- -
Stalked bacterium

Particles in water are Positively charged Particles agglomerate and

charged negatively polymer (cationic) are collected by the filter

32 33
 Water injection: Oxygen removal Water injection
Seawater contains 6 to 8 ppm (6,000 to 8,000 lb/billion) of oxy-
gen, is highly corrosive to carbon steel and must be removed. The
bulk of the dissolved oxygen is normally removed by mechanical
Oxygen scavenger
means such as vacuum or gas stripping. Scavenging chemicals Mode of operation Chemical reaction with
are used to remove the residual dissolved oxygen. The main type oxygen in seawater.
of chemicals normally used have a bisulfite base: either sodium Typical injection point(s) Between back-flow and pressure-
bisulfite or ammonium bisulfite. These oxygen scavengers can increase pumps.
be catalyzed to increase the efficiency and rate of reaction.
Typical dosage rate Normally 10 to 15 ppm.
The reaction with oxygen is complex, but several factors can Note: 6.5 ppm of scavenger
be controlled: is required to remove 1 ppm
• Increase the temperature of oxygen.
• Change the pH Typical physical properties Flash point: Not exhibited
Viscosity: Low
• Use a catalyst such as cobalt or iron
Freeze point: +41° to –14° F
• Increase the dosage rate (+5° to –10° C)
Health: See MSDS
Reaction mechanism for removal of oxygen:
Compatibility Oxygen scavengers are not com-
2NaHSO3 + O2 ➞ Na2SO4 + H2SO4 patible with acids due to release
of SO2 which is toxic. They are cor-
rosive to steel but are compatible
with most gasket materials.

34 35
 Questions? Call the M-I SWACO office nearest you.

P.O. Box 42842

Houston, Texas 77242-2842
www.miswaco.com
E-mail: mipc@miswaco.com
Technology Centers:
HOUSTON, TEXAS
Tel: 281·561·1300 · Fax: 281·561·1441
STAVANGER, NORWAY
Tel: 47·51·577300 · Fax: 47·51·576503
Technical Service Centers:
NISKU, ALBERTA, CANADA
Tel: 780·955·3388 · Fax: 780·955·2064
ABERDEEN, SCOTLAND
Tel: 44·1224·285500 · Fax: 44·1224·890904
BERGEN, NORWAY
Tel: 47·55·173850 · Fax: 47·55·173851
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