Cultural Profile of Pakistan

1. Siwaliks are low hills that are scattered at the feet of Himalayas in Pakistan and
India. These are composed of wind blown loess and water eroded silt, which were
composed from late Miocene (Cenozoic Era) to middle Pleistocene (Quaternary Era) from
10 to 1 million years before present. The average width of these Siwaliks is 6 to 90
kilometers while its length is 2000km and its average thickness (height) is 200 feet.

2. Soan Valley Or Potohar Region proved to be 500,000 years old. Soan Valley is
extended from Himalayas to the Salt Range and from River Jhelum to the River Indus.
Remains of Ramapithecus (Punjabicus) is found with heavy stone tools and Morghanian
hand axes. British Archaeological Mission, Italian Mission, American team, Yale-
Cambridge Expedition and indigenous scholars have carried out research in this regard.
Goitto discovered Kashmir Climatic Zone in the names of Karewa and Moraine. Swillerton
discovered the geological formation of the six beds of River Soan.

3. Pre-Historic Culture (stone-age) of Pakistan goes back to 2.5 million years and
ends during 4,000 B.C. On the basis of stone tools it is divided into three cultures as;
Paleolithic or old stone-age (2.5 m.y.b.p – 10,000 B.C), Mesolithic or middle stone-age
(10,000 – 8,000 B.C) and Neolithic or new stone-age (8,000 – 4,000 B.C). Paleolithic is
further divided into three cultures; lower Paleolithic (2.5 m.y.b.p—100,000 B.C), middle
Paleolithic (100,000—40,000 B.C) and upper Paleolithic (40,000—10,000 B.C).

Paleolithic sites of Pakistan are Upper Siwaliks, Soan Valley, Adiala Locality, Khasala,
Chauntra, Bhalwal Locality, Gola, Dina, Gujar Khan, Mehrano, Gila Kalan and Sanghao
Cave. Mesolithic sites of Pakistan are Jamal Garhi caves, Thar Desert, Kot Kashmir
(Tochi) and Lorallai Caves. Neolithic sites of Pakistan are Meher Garh, Kili-Gul
Muhammad, Gumla, Jandi Babur (largest Neolithic site of Pakistan), Sherin Khan
Tarakai (Bannu), Golgai-Kot-1 (Tank), Sarai Khola, Jalilpur (Harrapa), Takot (Alai) and
Lasbela Caves.

4. Baluch Village Culture flourished in Baluchistan that is from 8,000 – 3,000 B.C.
Mehr-Garh (1st village of South-Asia that has evidences from A-ceramic to advanced
Bronze-age), K. G. Mohd & Dampt Sadaat are the sites that belong to Baluch Village
Culture. Northern Baluchistan has Zhob culture that is earlier and southern Baluchistan has
later cultures as Quetta, Nal, Amri & Kulli.

5. Kot-Diji proved to be the transitional phase between Baluch Village Culture &
Indus Valley Culture, dated between 2,600 and 2,500 B.C. This site is existed north of Kot-
Diji fort. A complete citadel and lower city has been found that are enclosed in defensive
wall. On the southern side outside the lower city a thick deposit of clean sand is observed
that means a stream was flowing here. A thick deposit of charred material (ashy layer)
spreads over the entire city, above which Harappa-Mohenjodaro culture exists.

Zafar Hayat Khan

PhD Research Scholar
Department of Archeology
University of Peshawar
6. Indus Valley Civilization or Harappan Culture flourished in 3rd Millennium B.C
and ended in the middle of 2nd Millennium B.C. Its important sites are Mohenjodaro (Sind),
Harappa (Punjab) and Chanhudaro & Sutkanjendor (Baluchistan). The important features
of I.V.C are their town planning, brick buildings, paved floors, bath-rooms, cess pits,
straight streets, drainage system, water supply, agriculture, ornaments, hunting, dancing,
seals & sealing and pictographic script.

7. Aryans, probably in 1,500 B.C, invaded Indus Valley Civilization and emerged in
the name of Rigvedic Civilization. They came from Central Asia and went through the
whole valley. They established Vedic religion and Sutra literature.

8. Gandhara Grave Culture covers the period between the end of Indus Valley
Civilization and the invasions of Achaemenians (Historic Period) that is 1,500 – 600 B.C.
These are graves that are scattered in northern Gandhara and needs thorough research.

9. During 6th c. B.C Buddha emerged in Northern India whose religious movement
was against Brahmanical religion. He was born in 563 B.C and died in 483 B.C.
Suddhodana and Mahamaya of Sakya clan gave him birth at Lumbini garden. He was
married to a noble girl, named as Yasodhara and gave birth to a child, named as Rahula.
When he got enlightenment at Buddha Gaya he practiced Ahimsa (non-injury) and believed
in Karma (transmigration of soul). Later on Asoka (practiced Mahayana) and Kanishka
(practiced Hinayana) served Buddhism under their Royal patronage.

10. During 6th c. B.C Cyrus of Persia invaded the region between the River Kabul and
River Indus. Darius-1 of Persia organized this region as his 20th satrapy and was succeeded
by Xerxes. Persians introduced Kharoshthi alphabets and Persian customs in this region.

11. Alexander was the son of Philip, the king of Macedonia. He wanted to found a
worldwide empire. Due to this fact he marched up to River Beas during 327 B.C and
invaded different kinds of small states.

12. Chandragupta Maurya belonged to the Kshatriya clan of Moriyas who incurred
the displeasure of Nanda ruler of Magada and was forced to go into exile. He met
Alexander to invade Nanda ruler but escaped when Alexander ordered to kill him. He then
came to Chanakya at Taxila and invaded Nanda king with the help of Brahmin Chanakya.
During the 2nd quarter of 4th c. B.C Chandragupta found a new dynasty in the name of
Mauryans. Seleukos, the ablest commander of Alexander tried to invade the regions lying
beyond River Indus but was defeated at the hands of Chandragupta in 305 B.C. While
placing friendly relations with Chandragupta, Seleukos gave him Aria (Herat), Arachosia
(Qandhar), Gedrosia (Baluchistan) and Paropanisadai (Kabul). Seleukos also sent an
ambassador, named as Magasthenes, to the court of Chandragupta.

Chanragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara but after a reign of 5 years he died and
was succeeded by his son Asoka. He was the viceroy of Taxila at first but he got the

Zafar Hayat Khan

PhD Research Scholar
Department of Archeology
University of Peshawar
 throne by killing his 99 brothers. 8 years after his coronation Asoka came into conflict
with Kalinga state where he killed 100,000 men and 150,000 were carried away captives.
Due to a deep sorrow and grief Asoka embraced Buddhism and served his life as a saint.

13. On the death of Alexander, during 4th c. B.C, his empire was divided among his
generals where Bactria (between Oxus & Hindu-Kush) fell to the share of Seleukos who
nominated his grandson, Antiochus, as the ruler of Bactria. In the middle of 3rd c. B.C
Bactrians revolted against Seleucid ruler and nominated Diodotos, the governor of
Seleucid, as their ruler. Diodotos-2 made an alliance with the Parthians and served well.
Then comes Enthymemus who came in direct conflict with Antiochus but made a peace
treaty. Demetrios, the fourth king of Bactria, is responsible for carrying the arms of
Bactrian-Greeks to Indo-Pakistan during 2nd c. B.C. Chandragupta Maurya and Asoka
invaded them on the eastern skirts of Indus River but till the invasions of Sakas they were
ruling parts of Gandhara.

14. Scythians or Śakas were living near River Jaxartes in west China before 2nd c. B.C
but a wandering tribe, named as Yuch-Chi (later on became Kushans), threw them out of
their homeland. Śakas went to Oxus Valley (near ancient Bactria, Parthia & Sogdiana) in
Central Asia and then marched towards Sistan (border of Iran near Afghanistan). Azez-1
was their founder but Maues invaded Indo-Greeks in the middle of 1st c. B.C.

15. Parthians came from Parthia (Central Asia) whose famous ruler was Gondophares.
Later on, in Taxila, Gondophares accepted Christian faith at the hands of St. Thomas. They
invaded Scythians during 1st c. B.C and ruled Taxila and parts of Gandhara.

16. Gandhara Art flourished during 1st c. A.D and reached its climax during 5th c.
A.D. It is the product of Buddhist-Greco-Roman Art. This art served the royal patronage of
Asoka & Kanishka. Asoka believed in Mahayana form of Buddhism that is why we find
any traces of sculptures of Asoka period. Kushans (Kanishka), who practiced Hinayana, are
responsible for representing Buddha in statues at Gandhara.

17. Kushans were a branch of Yuch-Chi tribe who were nomads from northwestern
China. In the middle of 2nd c. B.C they were driven out by Hiung-Nu (later on became
Huns). This wandering tribe of Yuch-Chi came in conflict with Wu-Sun in the basin of
River Ili. Then they encountered Sakas but Wu-Sun attacked them and threw them out of
River Jaxartes. Then they marched towards Bactria and Sogdiana where at last they settled.
Here Yuch-Chi tribe was divided into 5 parts, in which Kushans were powerful and got the
leadership of Kadphises-1. They invaded Parthia, Kabul and Gandhara during 1st c. A.D.
Kanishka was the mostly known ruler of this dynasty who served as royal patron to
Hinayana Buddhism. Again they defeated Scythians (Sakas) but this time in Gandhara,
which they once threw out from China during 2nd c. B.C.

18. Guptas came during 4th c. A.D but history is silent about their early life. Indo-
Pakistan was passing through disturbance and confusion at this time and many a small

Zafar Hayat Khan

PhD Research Scholar
Department of Archeology
University of Peshawar
states were governed in the present day India. There were many Guptas among the officials
of Satavahana (also called as Andhras and Dravidians) kings of Ganges. Sri Gupta was the
founder of Gupta dynasty. Their important rulers are Chandragupta-1, Samudragupta,
Chandragupta-2 and Skandagupta (came in direct conflict with Huns). They ruled parts of
Gandhara with the exception of other areas of present day Pakistan.

19. White-Huns are also known as Ephthalites and Ayatila. They were nomads from
China who were known as Hiung-Nu. Once they threw out Yuch-Chi tribe (Kushans) from
China during 2nd c. B.C. After Christian era they divided into two parts, one settled in
Volga Valley near Europe and the second part came to Oxus Valley (Central Asia). During
4th c. A.D they invaded Sassanians who occupied Bactria. At the end of 5th c. A.D they
crossed Hindu-Kush under the leadership of Tormana and defeated Kushans and Guptas.
Once again Hiung-Nu (Huns) defeated Yuch-Chi (Kushans) but this time in the Gandhara
valley. Sassanians with the help of allied Turk-Shahis defeated White-Huns.

20. Hindu-Shahis started ruling Gandhara from 7th c. A.D. They established their
capital at Hund, vanished Buddhism and gave rebirth to Hinduism after a millennium.

21. Before the advent of Islam Arabs paid visits to Indo-Pakistan for trade and
commerce. Early Khalifahs sent expeditions to Indo-Pakistan but failed to succeed. During
the reign of Khalifah Uthman Seistan was conquered. Muhallab-bin-Abu Sufra was the
first Muslim who attacked Gomal plain from Seistan-Afghan during 7th c. A.D.
Muhammad-bin-Qasim with the order of Hajjaj-bin-Yousaf attacked Sind in 711 A.D
under Ummayad Khilafah Al-Walid.

22. Alaptigin (slave of Samanid Abdul Malik, from Abbasids), the governor of
Khurasan captured Ghazna and started Gaznavid occupation. Ghaznavids under
Subuktigin and Sultan Mahmud attacked Hindu-Shahis and rooted out Hindu rulers.
Ghaznavids ruled parts of Indo-Pakistan from 976 to 1148 A.D.

23. The struggle between Ghaznavids and Suljuqs gave way to the chief of Ghur. Their
famous rulers were Alauddin, Saifuddin and Muhammad-bin-Sam. The Ghaurids ruled
Indo-Pakistan from 1148 to 1206 A.D.

24. The Turkish Slaves became independent when Mohd-bin-Sam Ghuri died in 1206
A.D. Slaves ruled from the throne of Delhi up to 1266 A.D. Their famous rulers were
Qutb-ud-Din Aibak, Iltutmish, Razia Sultana and Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud.

25. Balbans, under Ghiyas Uddin Balban, ruled for sometime but in 1290 A.D Jalal-ud-
Din Khalji got the throne of Delhi. Jalal-ud-Din was the man who defended Indo-Pakistan
against Mongol invasions. Alauddin Khalji was a famous ruler of this race. Ghazi Malik
(Ghiyas-ud-Din), the governor of Punjab, revolted against his master Khusru Khan.

Zafar Hayat Khan

PhD Research Scholar
Department of Archeology
University of Peshawar
26. In 1320 A.D Ghayas-ud-Din Tughlaq ascended the throne by killing his master.
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq and Feroz Shah Tughlaq were the famous rulers. Tughlaqs ruled
up to 1398 A.D.

27. Taimur of Samarkand invaded Indo-Pak during 1398-99 A.D.

28. Sayyids and Lodhis ruled Indo-Pakistan from 1414 to 1526 A.D.

29. Mughals ruled Indo-Pakistan from 1526 to 1858 A.D. Due to unpleasant political
atmosphere Daulat Khan Lodhi, the governor of Punjab, invited Babur from Afghanistan to
invade the sub-continent. Babur was a descendent of Taimur from father side and Mongol
from mother side. Babur ruled from 1526 to 30 and Humayun ruled from 1530 to 40 and
1555 to 56.

The gap between 1540 and 1555 was filled by Suri dynasty, founded by Farid Khan Sher
Shah Suri. He served Babur in attacking Bihar and later on became the independent ruler
of Bihar. During 1540 Sher Shah Suri defeated Humayun and got control if Indo-
Pakistan. Humayun organized his army and got the throne in 1555 but died in 1556.
Akbar ascended the throne when he was 13 years old and ruled from 1556 to 1605.
Jehangir (Salim) ruled from 1605 to 28, Shah-Jehan from 1628 to 58 and Aurangzeb
from 1658 to 1707.

30. Guru Nanak was the founder of Sikhism who born at Nankana in 1459 and died in
1538. The sixth Guru found it necessary to train Sikhs in fighting and organized an army in
1606 but was kept prisoner by Jahangir. After this act they started wars with Mughals.
They established Khalsa organization and went to Himalayas where they became strong.
During 1760s, when anarchy arose against Mughals, they attacked Punjab. Sikhs ruled
different parts of Indo-Pakistan during the 19th century.

31. Queen Elizabeth granted permission to the traders to trade their goods to Indo-
Pakistan. Jahangir allowed British merchants to trade in Indo-Pakistan and they reached
Surat with their goods during 1608. They established a permanent factory at Surat and sent
Thomas Roe as ambassador to the Mughal court. They established factories at different
parts of the sub-continent. In 1686 at Hugli, British company built fortification for their
security but was criticized by Mughals that took a serious turn and a naval force reached
from London during 1688. During eighteenth century British started organizing Indo-
Pakistan into their hands. Indo-Pakistan remained under the control of British up to 1947.

Zafar Hayat Khan

PhD Research Scholar
Department of Archeology
University of Peshawar