Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Archaeology
Sections 13-24
W
Publisher: United Church of God, an International Association
Managing editor: Scott Ashley Writer-researchers: Jerold Aust,
illiam Ramsay didn’t set out to prove the Bible’s accuracy. In Roger Foster, Melvin Rhodes, Tom Robinson, John Ross Schroeder
fact, the young Oxford graduate and budding scholar set sail in Copy editor: Dixon Cartwright Art director: Shaun Venish
Editorial reviewers: John Bald, Bruce Gore, Paul Kieffer, Graemme
1879 from England for Asia Minor convinced that, based on his Marshall, Richard Thompson, David Treybig, Lyle Welty, Dean Wilson
university studies, the New Testament—and the book of Acts in particular— United Church of God Council of Elders: Gary Antion, Aaron Dean,
was largely a hoax. After all, his professors had taught him that the Bible had Robert Dick, Roy Holladay (chairman), John Jewell, Clyde Kilough,
Victor Kubik, Les McCullough (church president), Mario Seiglie,
been written much later than it claimed to be, so its stories had been fabri- Richard Thompson, Leon Walker, Donald Ward
cated long after the fact and weren’t to be taken seriously. Free subscription: Call (513) 576-9796, visit our Web site at www.
The focus of his work was ancient Roman culture. But the more he dug gnmagazine.org, or write to The Good News, United Church of God,
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into it, literally and figuratively, the more he came to see that the myriad of from the list below. The Good News is sent free to all who request it. Your
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gradually convinced that, to use his own words, “in various details the narra-
Personal contact: The United Church of God has congregations and
tive showed marvelous truth.” ministers throughout the United States and many other countries. To
Contrary to all his earlier education, he was forced to conclude that Luke, contact a minister or to find locations and times of services, contact our
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the author of Acts, was “a historian of the first rank” and that “not merely are Scriptural references in The Good News are from the New King James
his statements of fact trustworthy; he is possessed of the true historic sense Version (© 1988 Thomas Nelson, Inc., publishers) unless otherwise noted.
. . . This author should be placed along with the very greatest of historians.” International addresses:
In an outstanding academic career Ramsay was honored with doctorates Australia: United Church of God–Australia
from nine universities and eventually knighted for his contributions to mod- GPO Box 535, Brisbane, Qld. 4001, Australia
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and that’s the focus of this series of articles. We offer you a sampling of the B.P. 51254, 45002 Orléans Cedex 1, France
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evidence that’s available—documentation showing that details of the people, Postfach 30 15 09, D-53195 Bonn, Germany
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The Downfall of Judah:
Exile to Babylon
by Mario Seiglie
Prisoners from Judah play their lyres while guarded by a soldier. This scene from an After Assyria fell, Babylon ascended to
Assyrian palace is reminiscent of the words of Psalm 137:1-3 describing Judah’s cap- rule the region. With the rise of King Neb-
tivity in Babylon : “By the rivers of Babylon we sat and wept when we remembered uchadnezzar (605-562 B.C), the days of the
Zion.There on the poplars we hung our harps, for there our captors . . . said, ‘Sing us kingdom of Judah were numbered. Never-
one of the songs of Zion!’” (New International Version). theless, God sent faithful messengers to
warn the nation’s leaders to return to worship
Manasseh and his people, but they would Nile, and whose head was Nineveh. At that of the one true God before it was too late.
not listen. Therefore the LORD brought upon time, Nineveh was considered one of the Nehemiah said later, “Yet for many years
them the captains of the army of the king of most beautiful cities in the world. Recently, You had patience with them, and testified
Assyria, who took Manasseh with hooks, three of its kings had adorned the city with against them by Your Spirit in Your prophets.
bound him with bronze fetters, and carried the wealth of their conquests and had built Yet they would not listen; therefore You gave
him off to Babylon” (verses 9-11). fabulous palaces. These were made of brick, them into the hand of the peoples of the
Two Assyrian records corroborate and on the walls of the palaces were exquis- lands” (Nehemiah 9:30).
Manasseh’s submission to the Assyrians. itely crafted bas-reliefs which depicted their One of those prophets was Jeremiah,
Photos: from left, Scott Ashley; courtesy Trustees of the British Museum; Z. Radovan, Jerusalem
“The name, ‘Manasseh, king of Judah’ great victories. The great walls which sur- who lived while the Babylonians were
appears on the Prism of Esarhaddon . . . and rounded the city measured twelve miles threatening Jerusalem. His faithful scribe,
on the Prism of Ashurbanipal” as among 22 in circumference” (Archaeology and the Baruch, wrote down some
rulers who paid tribute to Assyria (The New Scriptures, 1965, pp. 182-183). of Jeremiah’s
Bible Dictionary, 1996, p. 724). In spite of Nineveh’s greatness, Nahum prophecies.
The biblical narrative describing King foretold not only the city’s destruction but “Then
Manasseh as being carried off “with hooks” predicted that it would never be rebuilt. Jeremiah
(verse 11) refers to nose rings used to lead “‘Behold, I am against you,’says the LORD called
prisoners by ropes. It was a painful, humili- of hosts; ‘I will lift your skirts over your face, Baruch
ating and degrading punishment for those I will show the nations your nakedness, and the son
who would defy the mighty Assyrian kings. the kingdoms your shame. I will cast abom- of Neriah;
inable filth upon you, make you vile, and and Baruch
Mighty capital of a mighty empire make you a spectacle. It shall come to pass wrote on a
The Assyrian Empire, with Nineveh as that all who look upon you will flee from scroll of a
its capital, appeared invincible at the time. you, and say, “Nineveh is laid waste! . . .”’” book, at the This
James Muir graphically describes this (Nahum 3:5-7). instruction impression from the seal of
Baruch, Jeremiah’s scribe, is
empire at the time of the prophet Nahum After its destruction, in 612 B.C, this of Jeremiah, dramatic proof of the exis-
(668 B.C): mighty metropolis of the ancient world van- all the words tence of this biblical charac-
“Assyria’s expansion across western Asia ished from view. “Nineveh disappeared so of the LORD ter. A fingerprint, possibly
could be likened to an octopus whose tenta- quickly from sight,” according to one author, which He that of Baruch himself,
cles stretched from the Persian Gulf to the “that when the Greek general Xenophon and had spoken appears on the left side.
January/February 1999 19
to him” (Jeremiah 36:4). up early and sending them, because He were taken to Babylon.
Archaeologists recently found a clay had compassion on His people and on His The situation seemed hopeless. Judah
impression from Jeremiah’s time bearing not dwelling place. But they mocked the mes- was devastated, and the Babylonians
only Baruch’s name, but apparently even his sengers of God, despised His words, and forcibly removed most of its citizens. Yet,
fingerprint! scoffed at His prophets, until the wrath of the in spite of their situation, God through His
Tsvi Schneider, who in 1991 served as LORD arose against His people, till there was prophets encouraged the people not to give
assistant librarian at Hebrew University’s no remedy. Therefore He brought against up hope that they would one day return to
Institute of Archaeology, writes about a seal them the king of the Chaldeans [Babyloni- their homeland. He not only sent prophets to
with Baruch’s name on it: “The first and ans] . . .” (2 Chronicles 36:15-17). Judah but to Babylon as well. Men such as
best-known biblical name to be identified on “Then they burned the house of God Daniel and Ezekiel, who both lived in Baby-
a bulla [a lump of clay bearing a seal impres- [the temple], broke down the wall of Jeru- lon, spoke of a coming restoration of Judah.
sion] is Baruch son of Neriah. Baruch was salem, burned all its palaces with fire, and Speaking through Jeremiah, God held
the scribe, loyal friend and political ally destroyed all its precious possessions. And out hope for His people: “Thus says the
of the prophet Jeremiah. The inscription those who escaped from the sword he car- LORD of hosts, the God of Israel, to all who
is in three lines and reads: ‘Belonging to ried away to Babylon, where they became were carried away captive, whom I have
Berekhyahu/son of Neriyahu/the scribe.’The servants to him and his sons until the rule caused to be carried away from Jerusalem
bulla refers to Baruch by his full given name of the kingdom of Persia, to fulfill the word to Babylon: Build houses and dwell in
. . . Baruch son of Neriah, the seal impres- of the LORD by the mouth of Jeremiah . . .” them; plant gardens and eat their fruit. Take
sion tells us, was a scribe. Four episodes in (2 Chronicles 36:19-21). wives and beget sons and daughters . . . that
the Book of Jeremiah mention Baruch, son Jerusalem was actually conquered you may be increased there, and not dimin-
of Neriah the scribe” (Biblical Archaeologi- twice. The city was first captured but not ished. And seek the peace of the city where
cal Review, July-August 1991, p. 27). destroyed. Later it fell a second time, in I have caused you to be carried away cap-
The librarian explains that the names 587 B.C., when it was destroyed as the tive, and pray to the LORD for it; for in its
of three other people from Jeremiah’s day, Bible describes. The city was put to the peace you will have peace . . . After seventy
including Baruch’s brother, appear in other torch, its palaces and temple burned and years are completed at Babylon, I will visit
clay impressions and seals. “It is interesting its walls demolished. The Bible faithfully you and perform My good word toward
that chapter 36 of the Book of Jeremiah also describes both defeats but does not specify you, and cause you to return to this place”
contains the names of two other people when the city was conquered the first time. (Jeremiah 29:4-10).
whose seals have been impressed in surviv- In 1887 several Babylonian tablets, which After these encouraging words, the exiles
ing bullae: ‘Yerahme’el son of the king’and archaeologists call The Babylon Chronicles, flourished as a community in Babylon. They
‘Gemariah son of Shaphan.’” were deciphered. They provided dates of the were so successful that after the 70 prophe-
The seal of Seriah, Baruch’s brother, has reigns of many Babylonian kings. More sied years of their exile the majority decided
been found as well. Seriah’s name appears tablets, deciphered in 1956, give the dates to stay. These circumstances nurtured the
several times in Jeremiah 51 (verses 59-64). of Nebuchadnezzar’s reign and activities. growth of two large Jewish enclaves in that
“The seal reads, in two lines, ‘Belonging to Regrettably, one tablet is missing that could part of the world, one in Babylon and the
Seriahu/Neriyahu’. . . Seriah was the account for the years 594-557 B.C. Other other in Jerusalem.
brother of Baruch, Jeremiah’s scribe; both than this gap, the tablets document his reign. Archaeological evidence demonstrates
Seriah and Baruch were the sons of Neriah The Archaeological Commentary on the the kind of favorable conditions that God
and grandsons of Mahseiah (Jeremiah Bible explains the significance of the 1956 promised Judah’s inhabitants in Babylon.
32:12, 51:59)” (Biblical Archaeological find: “Until 1956, the date of the first con- “In 1933, E.F. Weidner, the Assyriologist,
Review, p. 30). quest of Jerusalem by the Babylonians was took in hand to look through the tablets and
These remarkable finds confirm even not known. But in that year, several sherds in the basement rooms of the Kaiser-
some of the tiniest details of the Bible— cuneiform tablets were deciphered which Friedrich Museum . . . Among this dull
that four people mentioned in the book of gave an exact date for the first conquest— administrative rubbish Weidner suddenly
Jeremiah were real people who lived in in 597 B.C.” (1979, pp. 143-144). found some priceless relics of red tape in the
Jerusalem at the time. ancient world. On four different receipts for
Exile to Babylon stores issued, among them best quality
The fall of Jerusalem Like the Assyrians, the Babylonians sesame oil, he came upon a familiar biblical
The Bible’s account of the conquest of deported vanquished peoples to maintain name: ‘Ja’-u-kinu’—Jehoiachin! There was
Jerusalem is also confirmed by Babylonian tighter control over conquered territories. no possibility of his name being mistaken,
records. First, let’s notice the biblical record: As their cousins in the northern kingdom of because Jehoiachin was given his full title:
“And the LORD God of their fathers sent Israel fell into captivity by Assyria more than ‘King of the [land of] Judah’. . . Jehoiachin,
warnings to them by His messengers, rising a century earlier, Judah’s inhabitants now Continued on page 28
In the forefront there is the constant building (Daniel 5:28-31). relative freedom to the peoples previously
activity of Nebuchadnezzar. Hundreds of About 100 years later the Greek histo- conquered by the Babylonians.
thousands of bricks bear his name, and the rian Herodotus (484-420 B.C.) confirmed About a century ago, a clay cylinder
plans of many of the buildings have been Daniel’s account of the fall of Babylon: inscribed with a decree from King Cyrus
preserved. Babylon in fact surpassed all the “The Persians, drawing off the river was found in the ruins of Babylon. Called
cities of the ancient orient: it was greater [Euphrates] by a canal into the lake, which the Cyrus Cylinder, it is on display in the
March/April 1999 19
British Museum. Its language is similar to him of his prophecies; for this prophet said must be regarded as thoroughly trustwor-
the decree given by Cyrus in the Bible. The that God had spoken thus to him in a secret thy to hold this position . . . His confiden-
main difference is Cyrus’s use of Babylon- vision: ‘My will is, that Cyrus, whom I have tial relations with the king often endeared
ian wording for God. He declares that he appointed to be king over many and great him to his sovereign and also gave him a
was liberating the peoples because a partic- nations, send back my people to their own position of great influence” (1979, Vol. I,
ular “God” had pronounced his name and land, and build my temple.’ p. 837, “Cupbearer”).
chosen him in a miraculous way. “This was foretold by Isaiah one hundred Archaeologists have discovered a list
Writing from a Babylonian perspective, and forty years before the temple was of salaries paid to the highest Assyrian
Cyrus said: “Marduk [the Babylonian name demolished. Accordingly, when Cyrus read officials. This record reflects the general
for the chief god] scanned and looked this, and admired the divine power, an values of similar posts in the Persian
through all the countries, searching for a earnest desire and ambition seized upon him administration. After the commanding
righteous ruler willing to lead him. He to fulfil what was so written; so he called for general, the prime minister and the palace
pronounced the name of Cyrus, king of the most eminent Jews that were in Baby- authority came the cupbearer, who earned
Anshan, and declared him to be the ruler lon, and said to them, that he gave them the fourth-largest salary in the kingdom.
of the world . . . and ordered him to march leave to go back to their own country, and to Nehemiah had enough wealth accumu-
against his city Babylon . . . Without any rebuild their city Jerusalem, and the temple lated when he arrived as Jerusalem’s new
battle, he made him enter his town Babylon, of God . . .” (Antiquities of the Jews, Book governor that he had no need to tax the local
sparing Babylon and calamity . . . I gathered XI, Chapter I, Section 2). populace. Indeed he apparently took it on
all their inhabitants and returned them to Thus the history of the descendants of himself to personally provide for a large
their habitations. Furthermore, I resettled . . . the kingdom of Judah, the Jews, continued number of his Jewish countrymen. “And at
all the gods . . . in their former chapels” to be recorded in what would become the my table,” he writes, “were one hundred and
J. B. Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts, Bible. However, their brethren of the other fifty Jews and rulers, besides those who
1969, p. 316). Israelitish tribes, taken into captivity earlier came to us from the nations around us. Now
by the Assyrians, had by now largely lost that which was prepared daily was one ox
Return from exile their identity in the former Assyrian Empire, and six choice sheep. Also fowl were pre-
The biblical version of the decree, just as foretold in prophecy (1 Kings 17). pared for me, and once every ten days an
recorded in Ezra 1, reveals the prophecy’s abundance of all kinds of wine. Yet in spite
fulfillment: “Now in the first year of Cyrus Persian period: of this I did not demand the governor’s pro-
king of Persia, that the word of the LORD by Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther
visions, because the bondage was heavy on
the mouth of Jeremiah might be fulfilled, The Old Testament period ends during this people” (Nehemiah 5:17-18).
the LORD stirred up the spirit of Cyrus king the era of Persian rule. Several Bible books
of Persia, so that he made a proclamation accurately describe the Persian customs Queen Esther saves the Jews
throughout all his kingdom, and also put it of the time. While the books of Ezra and Even though thousands of Jews success-
in writing, saying, Thus says Cyrus king of Nehemiah relate the return of the Jews to fully resettled the territory of the former
Persia: All the kingdoms of the earth the the land of Judah, the book of Esther kingdom of Judah, many remained dis-
LORD God of heaven has given me. And He recounts the story of a young Jewish girl persed throughout the chief cities of the Per-
has commanded me to build Him a house at named Esther who became the queen of sian Empire. The book of Esther gives us a
Jerusalem which is in Judah. King Xerxes I. glimpse of the influence the Jewish commu-
“Who is among you of all His people? Nehemiah’s story begins with his service nity had in the empire between 500 and 450
May his God be with him, and let him go to the Persian king. “And it came to pass in B.C., as well as the problems that influence
up to Jerusalem which is in Judah, and build the month of Nisan, in the twentieth year sometimes engendered.
the house of the LORD God of Israel (He is of King Artaxerxes, when wine was before One of the Persian officials, Haman, com-
God), which is in Jerusalem. And whoever him, that I took the wine and gave it to the plained to the king about the Jews: “There
is left in any place where he dwells, let the king . . .” (Nehemiah 2:1). While the title of is a certain people scattered and dispersed
men of his place help him with silver and cupbearer doesn’t sound important today, it among the people in all the provinces of
gold, with goods and livestock, besides the was one of the highest government posts of your kingdom; their laws are different from
freewill offerings for the house of God that time. all other people’s, and they do not keep the
which is in Jerusalem” (Ezra 1:1-4). The International Standard Bible Ency- king’s laws. Therefore it is not fitting for the
Josephus, the first-century Jewish histo- clopedia explains: “[The cupbearer was] king to let them remain” (Esther 3:8). “And
rian, records the reactions of the Jews when an officer of high rank at ancient oriental the king said to Haman, ‘The money and the
Cyrus entered Babylon: courts, whose duty it was to serve the wine people are given to you, to do with them as
“This [prophecy] was known to Cyrus by at the king’s table. On account of the con- seems good to you’” (verse 11).
his reading the book which Isaiah left behind stant fear of plots and intrigues, a person Continued on page 31
and toward the Glorious Land [Judea] . . . the 25th of each month to celebrate Anti-
Antiochus IV Epiphanes and the He even exalted himself as high as the ochus Epiphanes’ birthday. Antiochus
abomination of desolation promised apostate Jews great reward if
Prince of the host; and by him the daily
Thus began the Greek reign over Judea, sacrifices were taken away, and the place they would set aside the God of Israel and
which would last 150 years. In chapter 11, of His sanctuary [the temple at Jerusalem] worship Zeus, the god of Greece. Many in
Daniel prophesied the changes in fortune was cast down . . . Then I heard a holy Israel were persuaded by his promises and
the Jews would know under the Greeks. one speaking . . . ‘How long will the worshiped the false god. However, a small
After Alexander died Judea became part vision be, concerning the daily sacrifices remnant remained faithful to God, refusing
of the realm of General Ptolemy, who gov- and the transgression of desolation . . .?’” to engage in those abominable practices.
erned from Egypt. By and large the period (verses 9-13). Antiochus IV died insane in Persia in 163
was peaceful for the Jews. The International Standard Bible Ency- BC” (Logos Library System, 1997).
However, the intermittent wars between clopedia says of Antiochus Epiphanes: The precision of Daniel’s description
the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucids “His career with respect to Palestine is of events of this period (given more than
of Syria for complete control of the Greek recorded in 1 and 2 Maccabees, and 300 years earlier) have led many Bible
Empire came to a head in 198 B.C. In that remarkably predicted in [Daniel] 11:21- critics to redate the book of Daniel to after
year the Ptolemies saw defeat. Judea then 35” (Vol. I, p. 145, “Antiochus IV Epi- these events took place. They would not
came under the dominion of the Seleucids. phanes”). The books of 1 and 2 Maccabees Continued on page 31
May/June 1999 19
Archaeology
Continued from page 27
admit that the events had been prophesied.
However, thanks to the discovery in 1948
of the Dead Sea Scrolls, which include
parts of every Old Testament book except
Esther, the traditional date of Daniel has
gained additional support.
Explains Gleason Archer, professor of
Old Testament and Semitic studies at Trin-
ity Evangelical Divinity School: “In order
to avoid the impact of the decisive evi-
dence of supernatural inspiration with
which Daniel so notably abounds, it was
necessary for rationalistic scholarship to
find some later period in Jewish history
when all the ‘predictions’ had already been
fulfilled, such as the reign of Antiochus
Epiphanes (175-164 BC) . . . With the
wealth of new data from the manuscripts
of the Dead Sea caves, it is possible to set-
tle this question once and for all” (Encyclo-
pedia of Bible Difficulties, 1982, p. 282).
Thanks to this new linguistic evidence,
Dr. Archer proceeds to show the accuracy
of the traditional dating of Daniel (around
530 B.C.).
Jews lose their independence
to Rome
In 164 B.C., with the heroic leadership
of the Maccabean family, the Jews over-
threw their Syrian oppressors. For a
century they enjoyed their Jewish indepen-
dence under the rule of the Maccabean
descendants. However, in 63 B.C. the
Roman general Pompey conquered Judea,
making it Roman territory.
Several decades later the Jews would
suffer greatly when the Romans chose
Herod the Great as king of Judea. He
reigned from 37 to 4 B.C. His last years
bring the Intertestamental period to a close
and usher in the New Testament era.
Continue reading The Good News for
other articles in this series examining how
archaeological evidence confirms the
authenticity of God’s Word.
If you would like to learn more about
Bible prophecy, including the many
prophecies of Daniel that remain to be ful-
filled, be sure to request your free copies
of the booklets Is the Bible True? and
You Can Understand Bible Prophecy.
Both are free for the asking when you
contact our office in your country (or the
country nearest you) listed on page 2. GN
20 The Good News
Jesus Christ:
The Early Years
by Mario Seiglie
of Julius Caesar and Cleopatra’s last lover] this monument to] King Herod, devout and quarters of the Romans; and (6) Samaria,
. . . In 30 B.C. Octavian (Caesar Augustus) lover of Caesar, because of his virtue and the capital of the former kingdom of Israel,
affirmed Herod’s rule over Judea, Samaria, beneficence” (ibid., p. 92). which he rebuilt and renamed Sebaste.
and Galilee . . . Herod remained in power Josephus, a first-century Jewish histo- Of the six, all except Herodium and
until his death in 4 B.C.; thus Christ was rian, confirms Herod’s great construction Masada are mentioned in Scripture.
born in Bethlehem prior to that date” projects outside Israel: “And when he had From studying the remains of Herod’s
(Archaeology and the New Testament, built so much, he shewed the greatness of vast building programs, archaeologists and
1997, p. 91). his soul to no small number of foreign architects have nothing but praise for the
One of the main reasons Herod is cities . . . And are not the Athenians . . . full beauty, massiveness, ingenuity and practi-
referred to as Herod the Great has to do of donations that Herod presented them cality of his projects. For instance, at the
with his extensive and exquisite building withal!” (Wars of the Jews, Book I, Chapter base of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem
projects. F.F. Bruce, former professor of XXI, Section 11). archaeologists discovered, among other
biblical criticism and exegesis at the Uni- Of his notable building achievements massive foundation stones, one block that
versity of Manchester in England, says, inside Israel, six are generally acclaimed as weighed 415 tons. In comparison, the
“Had Herod done nothing else, he would the most notable: (1) his renovation of the largest blocks in the Great Pyramid of
have made a secure niche in history for temple and expansion of the temple plat- Cheops in Egypt weigh only 15 tons, and
himself as a great builder” (New Testament form in Jerusalem; (2) Herodium, his the megaliths in Stonehenge, England,
History, 1972, p. 20). palace-fortress near Bethlehem, encased in weigh only up to 40 tons.
He is known to have initiated construc- a manmade mountain; (3) his magnificent
tion projects in at least 20 cities or towns palace at Jericho, equipped with a swim- Herod the cruel king
in Israel and more than 10 in foreign cities. ming pool more than 100 feet long; (4) Herod was known not just for his great
Two inscriptions pertaining to Herod have Masada, a mountain fortress where he built building, political and military skills but for
been found in Athens. One reads: “The two palaces (the site was later immortalized his great cruelty. The Bible gives us an indi-
people [erect this monument to] King as the last holdout of the Jews in defense of cation of his utter disregard for human life
Scott Ashley
Herod, lover of the Romans, because of his their country against the Romans); (5) Cae- in its record of his reaction to hearing of the
beneficence and good will [shown] by sarea, a manmade port city built under his birth of Jesus.
him.” The other said: “The people [erect supervision that became the official head- Having heard that a “King of the Jews”
September/October 1999 19
had been born, Herod was greatly disturbed So all went to be registered, everyone to his brought Jesus back to Israel and returned
by this potential threat to his power and own city” (Luke 2:1-3). to their home in Nazareth. Joseph was a
throne (Matthew 2:1-3). When his scheme Caesar Augustus, or Octavian, was skilled craftsman who worked not only
to identify the newborn Messiah failed Julius Caesar’s adopted son. He ruled the with wood but with stone masonry.
(verses 7-8, 12), Herod lashed out violently. Roman Empire for 57 years (43 B.C. to “The Greek word tekton, translated
“Then Herod, when he saw that he was A.D. 14) and established an era of peace ‘carpenter’ in Mark 6:3, has the root
deceived by the wise men, was exceedingly and stability that would facilitate the meaning of ‘artisan,’ that is, a skilled
angry; and he sent forth and put to death all growth of Christianity. worker who works on some hard material
the male children who were in Bethlehem Archaeologists have made great such as wood or stone or even horn or
and in all its districts, from two years old progress in discovering how and when a ivory . . . In Jesus’ day construction work-
and under [the approximate age of Jesus], Roman census was taken. Ancient papyrus ers were not as highly specialized as in
according to the time which he had deter- census decrees have been found for the today’s work force. For example, the tasks
mined from the wise men” (verse 16). years 20, 34, 48, 62 and 104. These show performed by carpenters and masons
The massacre in Bethlehem was not they normally took place every 14 years, could easily overlap” (Richard A. Batey,
out of character for Herod. A.T. Robertson, although local counts at times were taken Jesus & the Forgotten City: New Light
chairman of New Testament interpretation more frequently. on Sepphoris and the Urban World of
at Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, A papyrus in the British Museum Jesus, 1991, p. 76).
shows us Herod’s savagery. Dr. Robertson describes a census similar to Luke’s Jesus learned the trade from Joseph
describes Herod’s cruelty even toward account, taken in 104, in which people and lived in the area of Nazareth most of
those in his own family: were ordered to return to their birthplaces. His life. Although Nazareth was a small
“Those familiar with the story of Herod It reads: “Gaius Vibius Mazimus, Prefect Galilean village of no more than a few hun-
the Great in Josephus can well understand of Egypt: Seeing that the time has come for dred inhabitants, Joseph and Jesus likely
the meaning of these words. Herod in his the house to house census, it is necessary to found steady work in the city of Sepphoris
rage over his family rivalries and jealousies compel all those who for any cause whatso- four miles away.
put to death the two sons of Mariamne [his ever are residing out of their provinces to About the time of Jesus’ birth, Herod
wife] (Aristobulus and Alexander), Mari- return to their own homes, that they may Antipas—son of Herod the Great and ruler
amne herself, and Antipater, another son both carry out the regular order of the cen- over Galilee who would later order the exe-
and once his heir, besides the brother and sus and may also attend diligently to the cution of John the Baptist—chose Seppho-
mother of Mariamne (Aristobulus, Alexan- cultivation of their allotments” (Frederick ris as his capital. “For more than three
dra) and her grandfather John Hyrcanus. G. Kenyon, Greek Papyri in the British decades while Jesus grows up in nearby
He had made will after will and was now in Museum, 1907, plate 30). Nazareth a huge construction project con-
a fatal illness and fury over the question of For many years some scholars had tinues, as Sepphoris rapidly becomes the
the Magi. He showed his excitement and doubted the Bible’s accuracy since they largest and most influential city in the
the whole city was upset because the peo- thought Luke had erroneously referred to region . . . Joseph and Jesus knew of the
ple knew only too well what he could do another Quirinius who ruled a decade after construction of the new capital and would
when in a rage over the disturbance of his Christ’s birth. But now the biblical account have been acquainted with artisans and
plans” (Word Pictures in the New Testa- has been confirmed by further evidence. other workers employed on the site”
ment, Bible Explorer Software, 1997). Researcher Randall Price writes: “Some (Batey, p. 70).
The New Testament description of recent archaeological evidence has provided Recent archaeological excavations in
Herod the Great is thus confirmed by what new insights into the time and place of the Sepphoris show it to have been a bustling,
historians and archaeologists have found birth of Jesus. The Gospel of Luke gives the prosperous city during the years Jesus
concerning his rulership, building projects, time of birth with a specific reference to a grew up in nearby Nazareth. This historical
political strength and uncontrollable wrath census decreed by Quirinius, the governor record helps us better understand the back-
toward anyone threatening his kingship. of Syria (Luke 2:2). While inscriptional evi- ground of Christ’s teachings, which
dence reveals that there was more than one included illustrations drawn not just from
Caesar Augustus’s census ruler with this name, a Quirinius within the farming and animal husbandry, but also
Luke, the meticulous historian, intro- time frame of Jesus’birth has been found on construction, rulers and nobility, the theater,
duces other famous personages in his a coin placing him as proconsul of Syria and government, finance and other aspects of
account of the birth of Christ. “And it came Cilicia from 11 B.C. until after 4 B.C.” (The city life.
to pass in those days that a decree went out Stones Cry Out, 1997, p. 299). In the next article in this series we will
from Caesar Augustus that all the world continue with important background infor-
should be registered. This census first took Joseph’s occupation in Nazareth mation that helps us better understand the
place while Quirinius was governing Syria. Once Herod died, Joseph and Mary life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. GN
with various diseases brought them to Him; basalt structure to the first century A.D. or lamps were found after this point. Thus the
and He laid His hands on every one of them earlier. Since the site of a synagogue rarely use of the room must have changed from
and healed them” (Luke 4:31, 38, 40). changed in antiquity, this basalt building, normal residential living. More than one
November/December 1999 19
hundred fifty inscriptions were scratched lake. Why did dangerous storms sometimes than half an hour the placid sunshine
on its walls in Greek, Syriac, Hebrew, Ara- arise on what normally should have been a had become a raging storm. This is what
maic, and Latin from this time until the large, placid inland lake? happened to Jesus and His disciples on
fourth century . . . “We do not realize,” explains biblical certain occasions” (Daily Bible Study
“Sometime after the first century two geographer George Adam Smith, “that the Commentary, Bible Explorer Software).
pillars were erected to raise the roof of the greater part of our Lord’s ministry was
large central room, creating an impressively accomplished at what may be truly called Discovery of a fishing boat
high ceiling. The fifth-century octagonal the bottom of a trench, 680 feet below sea of Jesus’s time
chapel was built with the center of its con- level . . . The cold currents, as they pass A few years ago archaeologists exca-
centric walls directly over this room. Evi- from the west, are sucked down in vortices vated a fishing boat dating to around the
dence now available suggests that this of air, or by the narrow gorges that break time of Christ.
chapel was built over a first-century house upon the Lake. Hence sudden storms arise “An example of the sort of boat Jesus
which was set apart in the middle of that [for] which the region is notorious” (The and the disciples used was found buried
century as a public area. It was made into a Historical Geography of the Holy Land, in mud on the northern shore of the Sea of
church and at some point came to be vener- 1931, p. 286). Galilee in January 1986,” notes archaeolo-
ated as the house of Peter. It would not be Some who have doubted the biblical gist John McRay. “It is the first work boat
found on an inland lake in the entire
Mediterranean area. The boat, dating
between the first century B.C. and the end
of the first century A.D., was excavated that
February and found to measure 26.5 feet
long, 7.5 feet wide and 4.5 feet high. It
would have accommodated about fifteen
average-size men of Jesus’ Galilee . . .
Originally it had a mast for sailing and two
oars on each side. Jesus and his disciples
could easily fit into such a boat and their
use is mentioned or inferred often in the
Gospels” (McRay, p. 170).
Many details in the Gospels, such as
fishing methods and the use of different
nets, reflect an accurate description of
Jesus Christ spent much of the time of His ministry in Galilee. This view, Jesus’ time. When Christ said, “The king-
from the traditional site of the Mount of the Beatitudes near Capernaum, dom of heaven is like a dragnet that was
looks south over the Sea of Galilee. cast into the sea” (Matthew 13:47), He
was referring to the most common method
prudent to apply the data beyond that” accounts of sudden storms on the lake of commercial fishing in His day—using
(McRay, pp. 165-166). have been caught by surprise. William a seine.
Barclay notes: “Dr. W.M. Christie, who Historian and Jewish fisherman Mendel
Around the Sea of Galilee spent many years in Galilee, mentioned a Nun, who in 1993 had lived near the Sea of
The Gospels record even such detail as company of visitors who were standing on Galilee for 50 years, writes: “The seine, or
meteorological conditions around the Sea the shore of Lake Galilee, and, noting the dragnet, is the oldest type of net. Until
of Galilee. “Now when they had left the glassy surface of the water and the small- recently, it was the most important fishing
multitude, [the disciples] took [Jesus] along ness of the lake, expressed doubts as to method on the lake . . . [The parable of the
in the boat as He was. And other little boats the possibility of such storms as those dragnet] exactly fits the function of the
were also with Him. And a great windstorm described in the gospels. Almost immedi- seine. It is spread into the sea, then dragged
arose, and the waves beat into the boat, so ately the wind sprang up. In twenty min- to the shore; in the process all kinds of fish
that it was already filling” (Mark 4:36-37). utes the sea was white with foam-crested are caught, which the fishermen sitting on
Since most of Christ’s disciples lived waves. Great billows broke over the tow- the shore sort out. The ‘bad’ ones refer to
around the Sea of Galilee, it is not surpris- ers at the corners of the city walls, and the the scaleless catfish, forbidden by Jewish
ing many of them were fishermen. The visitors were compelled to seek shelter law and not even offered for sale” (Biblical
Gospels faithfully describe the life, work from the blinding spray, though now two Archaeology Review, November-December
and occasional dangers of fishing in the hundred yards from the lakeside. In less 1993, p. 52).
feet in diameter, with lead sinkers attached ered immune from impurity, and their pop- itan woman from Jacob’s well, as it is
to the edge. ularity during this short period provides today” (Supplement Volume, 1976, p. 361).
“Like the seine,” comments Mendel strong evidence of heightened interest in So the scene from John 4 of Jesus and
Nun, “the cast net is an ancient device. ritual purity among all Jews . . . the Samaritan woman, with Jacob’s well
Complete cast nets have been found in “Large vessels—sometimes made and the temple of Gerizim as the backdrop,
Egyptian tombs dating to the second mil- from stone blocks weighing almost 800 also reflects a historical setting.
lennium B.C. Two kinds were used in the pounds—were manufactured on massive Through these archaeological finds
Sea of Galilee, one for large fish and the heavy-duty lathes. Some of these vessels we have covered some areas of Jesus’
other for sardines” (ibid., p. 53). . . . may have been used to store ritually early ministry. In the next installment
No wonder this Jewish fishing expert clean water for washing hands, as illus- we will continue our study of His life
concludes about the Gospel accounts, trated in the New Testament story of Jesus’ and times. GN
November/December 1999 21
Jesus Christ’s
Later Ministry
by Mario Seiglie
A pool with five porches? For years critics of the Bible thought a central colonnaded causeway dividing the two parts, as
the apostle John’s description of the Bethesda Pool to be a shown on a model of the pool, right, based on the ruins uncov-
fabrication—until the area was excavated a century ago. There ered there. After almost 2,000 years, John’s description of a pool
excavators found the remains of a large double pool, left, with “having five porches” was proven to be accurate.
Siloam’ (which is translated, Sent). So he of their fingers. But all their works they do tion that helps us understand burial prac-
went and washed, and came back seeing” to be seen by men” (Matthew 23:4-5). tices of the time: “Here again is a picture
(John 9:1, 6-7). Christ denounced the Pharisees’ hypoc- which any Jew would understand. One of
This pool, too, has been discovered, and risy of enacting many religious laws that the commonest places for tombs was by the
March/April 2000 19
wayside. We have already seen that anyone a man may find to his profit in this ossuary
who touched a dead body became unclean [is] an offering (corban) to God from him
(Numbers 19:16). Therefore, anyone who who is within it” (McRay, p. 194).
came into contact with a tomb automati- The vow was inscribed in the hope that
cally became unclean. At one time in par- it would dissuade any potential thief from
ticular the roads of Palestine were crowded taking any valuable contents, such as jew-
with pilgrims—at the time of the Passover elry, by declaring all had been consecrated
Feast. For a man to become unclean on his to God and that the robber would be com-
way to the Passover Feast would be a disas- mitting sacrilege to take it and use it for any
ter, for that meant he would be debarred other purpose.
from sharing in it. It was then Jewish prac- But why would Jesus condemn this kind
tice in the month of Adar to whitewash all of vow? The passage in Mark points out the
wayside tombs, so that no pilgrims might kinds of problems that arose. Jesus was
accidentally come into contact with one condemning a man-made vow that could
of them and be rendered unclean. break God’s commandments. In the exam-
“So, as a man journeyed the roads of ple He used, some, He said, were declaring
Palestine on a spring day, these tombs part or all of their possessions “corban,” or
would glint white, and almost lovely, in the dedicated to God. In such circumstances
sunshine; but within they were full of bones a needy father or mother could not inherit
and bodies whose touch would defile. That, a deceased son’s goods because they had
said Jesus, was a precise picture of what the been declared “corban” and thus were
Pharisees were. Their outward actions were consecrated to God.
the actions of intensely religious men; their This vow was based on a nonbiblical
inward hearts were foul and putrid with belief that a person would receive extra
sin” (Daily Bible Study Commentary, Bible favor from God for such a vow. As time
Explorer Software). went along, this kind of vow was also used
Christ used this commonly seen feature as an excuse to avoid helping a parent in
of the Israelite countryside to drive home need. As Jesus pointed out, such practices
a spiritual point. broke the Fifth Commandment, which tells
us to honor our parents.
The Corban vow
The Bible Knowledge Commentary
Another conflict Jesus had with the explains: “Jesus showed how these reli-
Pharisees was over their laws and regula- gious leaders had in effect nullified this
tions that at times directly negated the Ten commandment. They could simply affirm
Commandments. One such example was that a particular item had been a gift
the Corban vow. devoted to God. Then the item could
In a stinging rebuke, Jesus told the Phar- not be used by an individual but was kept
isees: “‘All too well you reject the com- separate. This was simply a clever way of
mandment of God, that you may keep your keeping things from passing to one’s par-
tradition. For Moses said, “Honor your ents. The person would of course continue
father and your mother”; and, “He who to keep those things in his own home
curses father or mother, let him be put to where they had been supposedly set aside
death.” But you say, “If a man says to his for God.
father or mother, ‘Whatever profit you “Such action was condemned by Jesus
might have received from me is Corban’— as being hypocritical, for while it appeared
(that is, a gift to God), then you no longer to be spiritual, it actually was done to keep
let him do anything for his father or his one’s possessions for himself. Thus this
mother, making the word of God of no failure to help one’s parents deliberately
effect through your tradition which you violated the fifth commandment . . . Such
have handed down. And many such things action had been described by Isaiah cen-
you do’” (Mark 7:9-13). turies before (Isaiah 29:13). Their [the
In the 20th century archaeologists have Pharisees’] religion had become a matter
found dramatic confirmation of this kind of action and man-made rules. Their hearts
of vow. In the 1950s they discovered a stone were far from God and consequently their
coffin inside a Jewish tomb in the Kidron worship was in vain” (Logos Software).
Valley southeast of Jerusalem. The lid bore We will continue this series with the cli-
an inscription stating the contents were mactic events surrounding Jesus Christ’s
“corban.” The inscription reads, “All that arrest, trial, crucifixion and resurrection. GN
historian] gives his proper name as well: Works of Philo, translated by C.D. Yonge, The Stones Cry Out, 1997, pp. 307-308).
Joseph Caiaphas, or elsewhere, ‘Joseph who “On the Embassy to Gaius,” pp. 301-302).
was called Caiaphas of the high priesthood.’ Years after Christ’s crucifixion Pilate was Gruesome evidence of crucifixion
In short, we are explicitly told by Josephus sent to Rome to undergo a humiliating trial Until recently some scholars considered
that Caiaphas was indeed a nickname” after ordering the massacre of some Samari- the description of Christ’s crucifixion to be
(“Caiaphas Name Inscribed on Bone tan pilgrims. Eusebius, the fourth-century false. They thought it was impossible for a
Boxes,” Biblical Archaeological Review, historian, notes that Pilate was found guilty human body to be held up by nails driven
September-October 1992, p. 41). and exiled. In his shame he later committed into the hands and feet since the flesh would
Archaeologists have thus confirmed the suicide. Such was the end of this proud and eventually tear away. Instead they thought
existence of this important New Testament corrupt governor. the victims must have been bound by ropes.
figure. They have also proven the existence For centuries Pilate was known only from Yet, in 1968, the body of a crucified
of another leading character instrumental scant historical records and the Gospels. No man dating to the first century was found in
in the events surrounding Jesus’arrest, trial direct physical evidence had been found. Jerusalem. Here the true method of crucifix-
and execution. Then, in 1961, a stone plaque engraved with ion was discovered: His ankles, not his feet,
Pilate’s name and title was discovered in had been nailed and could easily support
The Pilate inscription Caesarea, the Roman port and capital of his weight.
Once Jesus was arrested, on Caiaphas’s Judea in Christ’s day. “The two-foot by Archaeologist Randall Price explains:
orders, He was tried before Caiaphas and three-foot slab, now known as the Pilate “This rare find has proved to be one of the
later sent to the Roman governor Pontius Inscription, was . . . apparently written to most important archaeological witnesses to
Pilate. The New Testament portrayal of Pilate commemorate Pilate’s erection and dedica- Jesus’crucifixion as recorded in the Gospels.
agrees with other historical accounts. “Philo tion of a Tiberium, a temple for the worship First, it reveals afresh the horrors of the
and Josephus unite in attributing dire and evil of Tiberias Caesar, the Roman emperor Roman punishment . . . This method of exe-
practices to Pilate, so that a dark character is during Pilate’s term over Judea. cution forced the weight of the body to be
ascribed to him” (The Interpreter’s Dictio- “The Latin inscription of four lines placed on the nails, causing terribly painful
nary of the Bible, 1989,Vol. 3, p. 813). gives his title as ‘Pontius Pilate, Prefect of muscle spasms and eventually death by the
Philo, the Alexandrian Jewish philosopher Judea,’a title very similar to that used of excruciating process of asphyxiation . . .
(20 B.C.–A.D. 50), described Pilate as “a him in the Gospels (see Luke 3:1). This Second, it was once claimed that the
man of a very inflexible disposition, and very was the first archaeological find to mention Gospel’s description of the method of cruci-
merciless as well as very obstinate.” He says Pilate, and again testified to the accuracy fixion was historically inaccurate . . . The
Z. Radovan, Jerusalem
Pilate’s rule was characterized by “corrup- of the Gospel writers. Their understanding discovery of the nail-pierced ankle bone
tion, . . . insolence, . . . cruelty, . . . continual of such official terms indicates they lived refutes those who say nails could not have
murders of people untried and uncon- during the time of their use and not a cen- been used” (Price, pp. 309-310).
demned, and his never ending, and gratu- tury or two thereafter, when such terms The Roman law of the time prescribed
itous, and most grievous inhumanity” (The would have been forgotten” (Randall Price, crucifixion as punishment for the most
May/June 2000 19
serious offenses, such as rebellion, treason a tree’ . . .).” (1985, “Cross, Crucify”). Yet, when Jesus was resurrected and an
and robbery. A famous example of mass cru- angel opened the tomb, the Bible records
cifixions took place in 71 B.C. when Sparta- The empty tomb that the guards “shook for fear of [the angel]
cus led a slave rebellion against Rome. He The Gospel writers give many details of and became like dead men” (Matthew 28:4).
ultimately failed, and the 6,000 captured Jesus’burial and tomb. “Now when evening When the guards revived and saw the empty
slaves were crucified. had come, there came a rich man from Ari- tomb, they immediately sought help from
The Jews knew of crucifixions even mathea, named Joseph, who himself had also the chief priests, for they knew they faced
before Roman rule, for around 87 B.C. the become a disciple of Jesus. This man went the death penalty.
Jewish king Alexander Janneus had 800 to Pilate and asked for the body of Jesus. “Now while they were going, behold,
rebellious Pharisees crucified. Josephus, Then Pilate commanded the body to be given some of the guard came into the city and
who witnessed the crucifixion of his fellow to him. When Joseph had taken the body, he reported to the chief priests all the things that
Jews during the siege of Jerusalem (A.D. wrapped it in a clean linen cloth, and laid it had happened. When they had assembled
66-70), called it “the most wretched of in his new tomb which he had hewn out of with the elders and consulted together, they
deaths.” It continued to be the punishment the rock; and he rolled a large stone against gave a large sum of money to the soldiers,
for high crimes until the time of Emperor the door of the tomb, and departed . . . saying, ‘Tell them [the Roman authorities],
Constantine, when it was finally abolished. “On the next day, which followed the “His disciples came at night and stole Him
Day of Preparation, the chief priests and away while we slept.” And if this comes to
Was Jesus crucified on a cross? Pharisees gathered together to Pilate, saying, the governor’s ears, we will appease him and
The exact shape of the stake or cross ‘Sir, we remember, while He was still alive, make you secure.’So they took the money
used to crucify Jesus is not known, since the how that deceiver said, “After three days I and did as they were instructed; and this say-
Romans used several styles. will rise.” Therefore command that the tomb ing is commonly reported among the Jews
The Greek word translated “cross” is be made secure until the third day’. . . So until this day” (verses 11-15).
stauros. Vine’s Expository Dictionary of Old they went and made the tomb secure, sealing True to the historical description of Pilate,
and New Testament Words gives background the stone and setting the guard” (Matthew we see that even the chief priests understood
information on the word. “Stauros . . . 27:57-66). that the Roman governor was corrupt and
denotes, primarily, ‘an upright pale or stake.’ How do the Gospel accounts match up subject to being bribed.
On such malefactors were nailed for execu- with archaeologists’discoveries about first-
tion. Both the noun and the verb staroo, ‘to century burial practices? Several tombs have Conclusion on the Gospels
fasten to a stake or pale,’are originally to be been found around Jerusalem that perfectly Through archaeology many details of the
distinguished from the ecclesiastical form of fit the description given by the Gospel writ- descriptions of Jesus’trial, crucifixion and
a two beamed ‘cross.’The shape of the latter ers. “In Roman times the entrance was often burial have been confirmed. Archaeologist
had its origin in ancient Chaldea [Babylo- closed with a large circular stone, set up on Price considers the all-important implica-
nia], and was used as the symbol of the god edge and rolled in its groove to the mouth of tions: “. . . Archaeology has shown us that
Tammuz (being in the shape of the mystic the tomb so as to close it securely. This stone the facts that support faith [in the resurrec-
Tau, the initial of his name) in that country could then be further secured by a strap, or by tion of Jesus] are accurate—an identifiable
and in adjacent lands, including Egypt. sealing. Pilate thus directed that the tomb of tomb attesting to literal events—faith in the
“By the middle of the 3rd cent. A.D. the Joseph of Arimathea, in which the body of Christ of history does depend upon a his-
churches had either departed from, or had Jesus was laid, should be carefully sealed and torically empty tomb for its reality. While
travestied, certain doctrines of the Christian made as inviolable as possible (Mt. 27:66)” archaeology can only reveal the tomb, the
faith. In order to increase the prestige of the (The International Standard Bible Encyclo- persons and events attending to its historic
apostate ecclesiastical system pagans were pedia, 1979,Vol. 1, p. 559, “Burial”). purpose (Herod, Pilate, Caiaphas, crucifix-
received into the churches apart from regen- When the Romans wanted to secure a ion, and so on), the resurrection is interwo-
eration by faith, and were permitted largely tomb, they attached a cord across the circu- ven with these facts so as to command the
to retain their pagan signs and symbols. lar stone. They secured this strap with wax same consideration” (Price, pp. 315, 318).
Hence the Tau or T, in its most frequent and stamped it with the seal of imperial We can summarize the purpose of this
form, with the cross-piece lowered, was Rome. To tamper with the seal was to defy series on the Gospels with an appropriate
adopted to stand for the ‘cross’of Christ. Roman authority and risk the death penalty. quote: “Five gospels record the life of Jesus.
“As for the Chi, or X, which Constan- Guards were then placed around the tomb Four you will find in books and one you will
tine declared he had seen in a vision with orders to defend it at all costs; if any find in the Land they call holy. Read the fifth
leading him to champion the Christian fell asleep they would pay with their lives. gospel and the world of the four will open
faith, that letter was the initial of the With all these safeguards in place, a tomb to you” (Bargil Pixner, With Jesus Through
word ‘Christ’ and had nothing to do with was considered to be completely secured Galilee According to the Fifth Gospel, 1992,
‘the Cross’ (for xulon, ‘a timber beam, and untouchable. back cover). GN
Herod the Great had broken into David’s “In 1913 to 1914 a Frenchman named for if this plan or this work is of men, it
tomb at night to plunder its riches, only Raymond Weill excavated this area and will come to nothing; but if it is of God,
to discover a previous king had already found several tombs that he numbered T1 you cannot overthrow it—lest you even
looted it (Antiquities of the Jews, Book to T8 . . . The most magnificent of these be found to fight against God.’And they
XVI, Chapter VII, Section 1). David’s tombs is T1. It is a kind of long tunnel or agreed with him, and when they had called
September/October 2000 19
for the apostles and beaten them, they However, about a century after Simon’s confirmed in literature of the second and
commanded that they should not speak death, writings appear that describe his third centuries.
in the name of Jesus, and let them go” activities after the apostles rejected him.
(Acts 5:34-40). Writing to the Romans, Justin Martyr Paul in Damascus
This Gamaliel, who opposed the apos- comments: “There was a Samaritan, After the gospel went to Samaria, it
tles’ execution, was a teacher of Paul (Acts Simon, a native of the village called Gitto, spread northward to Damascus, where a
22:3). He was the grandson of Hillel, who in the reign of Claudius Caesar [A.D. dramatic conversion took place—that of
the founder of a dominant school of the 41-54], and in your royal city of Rome, did Saul, who became the apostle Paul. After
Pharisees, a major branch of Judaism. mighty acts of magic, by virtue of the art of his conversion God told him, “Arise and go
Gamaliel’s family name has been con- the devil’s operating in him. He was con- into the city, and you will be told what you
firmed by archaeological findings. In a sidered a god, and as a god was honored by must do” (Acts 9:6).
tomb in the catacombs of Beth-Shearim, you with a statue, which statue was erected After Paul arrived in Damascus, Jesus
near the Sea of Galilee, in a section called on the river Tiber, between two bridges, spoke in a vision to Ananias, one of the
the Tomb of the Patriarchs, one of the and bore this inscription, in the language of Christians living there: “So the Lord said
graves has an inscription in Hebrew and Rome: ‘Simoni Deo Sancto’ [To Simon the to him, ‘Arise and go to the street called
Greek: “This [tomb] is of the Rabbi holy God]. And almost all the Samaritans, Straight, and inquire at the house of Judas
Gamaliel.” The Gamaliel of Bible fame and a few even of other nations, worship for one called Saul of Tarsus, for behold,
was the first of an illustrious rabbinic him . . .” (The Ante-Nicene Fathers, “The he is praying” (Acts 9:11).
family bearing his name. This tomb was First Apology of Justin,” p. 171). The street called Straight was one of the
that of one of his descendants. In 1574 excavators found a fragment of main avenues in Damascus. The Exposi-
The historian Josephus and some marble on an island in the Tiber River with tor’s Bible Commentary explains: “The
Talmudic works also mention Gamaliel, the inscription “Semoni Sanco Deu Fidio.” street called Straight was an east-west
describing him as a benevolent and bril- Some interpret this as referring to a Sabine street that is still one of the main thorough-
liant man. William Barclay adds: “He was deity, Semo Sancus, but most likely it was fares of Damascus, the Derb el-Mustaqim.
a kindly man with a far wider tolerance part of the statue Justin Martyr described It had colonnaded halls on either side and
than his fellows. He was, for instance, as having been dedicated to Simon Magus. imposing gates at each end . . . and pre-
one of the very few Pharisees who did not The editors of The Ante-Nicene Fathers sumably was as well known in antiquity
regard Greek culture as sinful. He was one make this point: “It is very generally sup- as Regent Street in London or Michigan
of the very few to whom the title ‘Rabban’ posed that Justin was mistaken in under- Avenue in Chicago today. The directions
had been given. Men called him ‘The standing this to have been a statue erected included not only the name of the street but
Beauty of the Law.’When he died it was to Simon Magus. This supposition rests also the house where Saul could be found”
said, ‘Since Rabban Gamaliel died there on the fact that in the year 1574 there was (Longenecker, p. 373).
has been no more reverence for the Law; dug up in the island of the Tiber a fragment When the Jews persecuted Paul in
and purity and abstinence died out at the of marble, with the inscription ‘Semoni Damascus, his friends lowered him from
same time’” (The Daily Study Bible Com- Sanco Deo,’ etc., being probably the base the city’s walls in a basket (Acts 9:25).
mentary, Bible Explorer software). So we of a statue erected to the Sabine deity Archaeologists have discovered sections of
see another biblical figure mentioned in the Semo Sancus. This inscription Justin is this ancient wall, which the Romans built.
Scriptures confirmed by sources outside supposed to have mistaken for the one he John McRay writes: “Part of the Roman
the Bible. gives above. wall has been found about 1000 feet south
“This has always seemed to us very of the East Gate (Bab Sharqi) beneath
History confirms still another slight evidence on which to reject so precise Saint Paul’s Chapel and Window. Under
biblical character a statement as Justin here makes; a state- the present Ottoman gateway, this small
As the gospel spread to the outlying ment which he would scarcely have haz- chapel was built by Greek Catholics over
areas of Israel, Peter arrived in Samaria arded in an apology addressed to Rome, a gate from the Roman period. Tradition
to preach the Word of God. There he met where every person had the means of ascer- associates the spot with Paul’s escape by a
a magician named Simon, who was bap- taining its accuracy. If, as is supposed, he basket that was lowered from a window in
tized but was later rejected by Peter and made a mistake, it must have been at once the wall (2 Cor. 11:33)” (Archaeology and
John for trying to bribe his way into a exposed, and other writers would not have the New Testament, 1991, p. 234).
position of power and influence in the so frequently repeated the story as they have
Church (Acts 8:18-24). Magnificent Caesarea
done” (ibid., footnote, p. 171).
Nothing else is directly mentioned in Whether the base of the statue was Meanwhile in Jerusalem Peter had been
the Scriptures about this shady character, dedicated to Simon Magus or not, the his- arrested again and this time was sentenced
known in history as Simon Magus. toricity of this biblical personage is also to death by Herod Agrippa, grandson of
Herod the Great. A few decades ago this “I was on the supervisory staff at Cae- he put on a garment made wholly of silver,
ruler, too, was confirmed as a historical fig- sarea from the beginning of full-scale and of a contexture truly wonderful, and
ure when Israeli archaeologist Benjamin excavations in 1972 until 1982,” writes came into the theatre early in the morning;
Mazar found scale weights with Herod John McKay. “Our work has largely con- at which time the silver of his garment
Agrippa’s name and title that date to the firmed the impression given by Josephus in being illuminated by the fresh reflection of
fifth year of his reign. both his Wars and Antiquities, of the grand the sun’s rays upon it, shone out after a sur-
When Herod Agrippa heard of Peter’s scale on which Herod built to satisfy his prising manner . . . and presently his flatter-
miraculous escape (Acts 12:5-9), he flew own vanity and that of the emperor Augus- ers cried out . . . ‘Be thou merciful to us; for
into a rage. “But when Herod had searched tus” (Archaeology and the New Testament, although we have hitherto reverenced thee
for him and not found him, he examined 1991, pp. 139-140). only as a man, yet shall we henceforth own
the guards and commanded that they thee as superior to mortal nature.’ Upon this
should be put to death. And he went down Herod Agrippa’s death the king did neither rebuke them, nor reject
from Judea to Caesarea, and stayed there” The Bible also records Herod Agrippa’s their impious flattery . . . A severe pain also
(verse 19). unexpected death at Caesarea. “Now arose in his belly . . . And when he had been
Caesarea was an impressive artificial Herod had been very angry with the people quite worn by the pain in his belly for five
port built by Herod the Great. Named in of Tyre and Sidon; but they came to him days, he departed this life . . .” (Antiquities
honor of Augustus Caesar, it became the with one accord, and having made Blastus of the Jews, XIX, viii, 2).
Roman headquarters of Judea. Herod also the king’s personal aide their friend, they The two accounts, the Bible and Jose-
Photos: Scott Ashley (left), Israel Governernment Tourist Office
had a magnificent palace there where he asked for peace, because their country was phus, in this complement each other. Jose-
would court Roman officials. supplied with food by the king’s country. phus does not mention the origin of the
“The city included buildings typical So on a set day Herod, arrayed in royal stomach pain, but the Bible mentions it
of a Hellenistic city, such as a theater, apparel, sat on his throne and gave an ora- was because of “worms.” Luke, the physi-
amphitheater, hippodrome, aqueduct, tion to them. And the people kept shouting, cian, used the Greek word skolekobrotos
colonnaded street, and an impressive ‘The voice of a god and not of a man!’ in reference to Herod Agrippa’s terminal
temple dedicated to Caesar” (The Inter- Then immediately an angel of the Lord condition. The word refers to tapeworms
preter’s Dictionary of the Bible, 1962, Vol. struck him, because he did not give glory or other intestinal worms, which can block
1, p. 480). Most of the remains of these to God. And he was eaten by worms and the intestinal tract and cause great pain
buildings have recently been found by died” (Acts 12:20-23). and sometimes lead to death, as was the
archaeologists, including a stone plaque Josephus offers additional details in his case here.
that mentions Pontius Pilate [see The independent account of Herod Agrippa’s We will continue our survey through the
Good News, May-June 2000, p. 25]. death: “On the second day of which shows book of Acts in the next installment. GN
September/October 2000 21
The Book of Acts:
The Message Spreads
by Mario Seiglie
One whom you worship without knowing, gods so they would leave no one out. found in Acts 18:2 where we learn that
Him I proclaim to you” (Acts 17:16, 22-23). “The adherents of ancient polytheistic when Paul arrived in Corinth he found
Why was Paul so incensed with the religions,” he says, “characterized as they Priscilla and Aquila, who had lately come
idols in Athens? Is this an accurate descrip- were by superstitious ignorance, may have from Italy, having been banished from
tion of the place? A.T. Robertson notes: simply erected altars to unknown gods ‘so Rome in a general expulsion of Jews under
“Pliny [the Roman writer] states that in that no deity might be offended by human Claudius, who reigned from 41-54. This
the time of Nero [A.D. 54-68], Athens had neglect’” (ibid.). event is referred to by Suetonius and others
over 30,000 public statues besides count- and can be dated to A.D. 49” (McRay,
less private ones in the homes. Petronius Jews expelled from Rome pp. 225-226).
[a Roman satirist] sneers that it was easier From Athens Paul traveled a short way Who was this Chrestus who was
to find a god than a man in Athens. Every to another Greek city, Corinth. “After these responsible for the Jewish riots? The sub-
gateway or porch had its protecting god” things Paul departed from Athens and went ject has been intensely debated. Since
(Word Pictures of the New Testament, to Corinth. And he found a certain Jew the name Chrestus and Christus are pro-
notes on Acts 17:16). named Aquila, born in Pontus, who had nounced alike, it is likely that it had to do
What about the altar “to the unknown recently come from Italy with his wife with the dissension in the Jewish commu-
god”? Has there been any confirmation Priscilla (because Claudius had com- nity over the newly established Christianity
that such altars existed? Archaeologist manded all the Jews to depart from Rome), and the teachings of Christ.
John McRay mentions: “Pausanias [the and he came to them” (Acts 18:2). F.F. Bruce mentions that Chrestus could
Greek historian], who visited Athens Were Jews expelled from Rome during have simply been a Jewish troublemaker,
between 143 and 159 A.D. saw such altars. the reign of Emperor Claudius? The but he adds: “It is more likely that [Sueto-
In describing his trip from the harbor to Roman historian Suetonius records such nius] had the Founder of Christianity in
Athens he wrote: ‘The Temple of Athene an order: “As the Jews were indulging in mind, but that, writing some seventy years
Skiras is also here, and one of Zeus further constant riots at the instigation of Chrestus, after the event and not being particularly
off, and altars of the ‘Unknown gods’ . . . he banished them from Rome” (Life of interested in Christian origins, he consulted
Corbis Digital Stock (left), Corel Professional Photos
Apollonius of Tyana, who died in A.D. 98, Claudius, 25.4). It is estimated some some record of the riots and imagined
spoke of Athens as the place ‘where altars 20,000 Jews eventually were expelled, wrongly that Chrestus, who was men-
are set up in honor even of unknown gods’ among them Aquila and Priscilla. tioned as the leader of one of the parties
. . .” (Archaeology & the New Testament, It is worthwhile to note this expulsion concerned, was actually in Rome at the
1991, p. 304). decree is a key date for fixing Pauline time, taking a prominent part in the strife.
In 1909 an archaeological expedition chronology. “One example of how archae- In fact, what we have in this statement of
uncovered an altar with the inscription ology has contributed to establishing a Suetonius is the dissension and disorder in
“To unknown gods” in Pergamum, a Pauline chronology,” writes Professor the Jewish community at Rome resulting
Roman province. McRay comments that McRay, “is that now we can set the from the introduction of Christianity into
the idolatry in Athens was so widespread approximate beginning of Paul’s work in one or more of the synagogues of the city”
that Athenians built altars to unknown Corinth on his second journey. The key is (The International Commentary of the
November/December 2000 19
Emperor Nero’s tutor. Gallio came from an What happened to Gallio after his
illustrious family in Spain that eventually encounter with Paul? Regrettably, after
moved to Rome. His real name was Mar- Claudius died in 54, Nero became the
cus Annaeus Novatus, but he was adopted emperor. For a while Nero governed
by the orator Lucius Junius Gallio and wisely under the tutorship of Gallio’s
afterwards bore his adoptive father’s last brother Seneca. But five years later Nero
name. His brother Seneca, who mentions did an about-face and gave himself to his
him in his writings, said, “No mortal is passions and lusts. He expelled his mentor
so pleasant to any one person as Gallio from his sight. His debauchery eventually
is to everybody.” caused Nero to become insane, and soon
It is striking that Luke also describes Nero was feeling tormented by Seneca’s
Gallio’s stable and affable personality. and Gallio’s integrity and presence, so he
After Paul’s persecutors trumped up had them both executed in 65.
charges against Paul, Gallio quickly saw
through their lies and dismissed the false
accusations. To prevent such incidents
from occurring again, he had the Jewish
leaders punished for filing false charges
(Acts 18:14-17). This set a legal precedent
throughout the Roman Empire concerning
The Roman emperor Claudius
expelled all Jews from Rome. This Paul’s mission and the Christian religion.
action is recorded in Acts 18:2. “If Gallio had accepted the Jewish
charge,” adds The Expositor’s Bible Com-
New Testament, 1974, p. 368, “Acts”). mentary, “and found Paul guilty of the
Later Aquila and Priscilla were to alleged offense, provincial governors
become instrumental in Paul’s ministry. everywhere would have had a precedent,
They gave him a job in Corinth (Acts 18:3) and Paul’s ministry would have been
and traveled with him to Ephesus (verse severely restricted. As it was, Gallio’s
19). They then served as hosts for a church refusal to act in the matter was tantamount
group in their home and sent their greet- to the recognition of Christianity as a reli-
ings to their Corinthian friends in one of gio licita [an authorized religion]; and the
Paul’s letters (1 Corinthians 16:19). Some- decision of so eminent a Roman proconsul
time after Claudius’s death in 54, they would carry weight wherever the issue
returned to Rome and were included in arose again and give pause to those who The emperor Nero greatly perse-
Paul’s greetings to the church members might want to oppose the Christian move- cuted early Christians. Paul was
there (Romans 16:3). ment . . . For the coming decade or so, the executed during his reign.
Christian message could be proclaimed in
Gallio, proconsul of Corinth the provinces of the empire without fear F.F. Bruce says about Gallio: “He left
During Paul’s long stay in Corinth his of coming into conflict with Roman law, Achaia because of a fever and went on a
preaching eventually led to conflict with thanks largely to Gallio’s decision” (Lon- cruise for his health (Seneca, Moral Epis-
the Jews there. “And he continued there a genecker, p. 486, notes on Acts 18:14-16). tles, 14.1) . . . In 65, along with Seneca and
year and six months, teaching the word of It is remarkable that archaeological evi- other members of his family, he fell victim
God among them. When Gallio was pro- dence has also been found confirming Gal- to Nero’s suspicions” (The International
consul of Achaia, the Jews with one accord lio was the proconsul of Achaia, just as Commentary of the New Testament, 1974,
rose up against Paul and brought him to the Luke had recorded. p. 374, “Acts”).
judgment seat” (Acts 18:11-12). “At Delphi,” writes Professor McRay, Such were the times in Rome. During
Here Luke mentions another Roman “archaeologists found a stone which prob- this same period Nero began his murder-
Photos: Z. Radovan, Jerusalem
governor of the time. Has any evidence ably was once attached to the outer wall of ous rampage of Christians in Rome after
been found to corroborate the existence the Temple of Apollo. Inscribed in it is a he falsely blamed them for having set the
of Gallio? copy of a letter from Claudius to the city city on fire, which historians generally
It turns out Gallio was prominent in of Delphi, naming Gallio as the friend blame Nero as having started.
Roman history. He was the brother of of Claudius and proconsul of Achaia” We will continue with our survey of
the great Stoic writer Seneca, who was (McRay, p. 226). Acts in the next article in this series. GN
having seized Gaius and Aristarchus, Paul’s goddess Diana (or Artemis, as she was called hands on him, crying out, ‘Men of Israel,
travel companions” (Acts 19:23-29). by the Romans). In 1956 an impressive help! This is the man who teaches all men
The temple of Diana, one of the seven statue of Diana was discovered in Ephesus; everywhere against the people, the law, and
wonders of the ancient world, was four times it stands prominently in the museum there. this place; and furthermore he also brought
the size of the Parthenon in Athens, Greece. Into this scene of popular paganism Greeks into the temple and has defiled this
Its ruins were brought to light by the British entered the apostle Paul. Demetrius had holy place.’(For they had previously seen
January/February 2001 19
side. They were, therefore, hard to manage.
Further, they had only one mast and on that
mast one great square sail, made sometimes
of linen and sometimes of stitched hides.
With a sail like that they could not sail into
the wind” (Daily Study Bible, comment on
Acts 27:21).
On the voyage to Rome, Paul and his
company were shipwrecked near the island of
Malta and barely made it to the beach without
drowning. There they waited several months
until another ship took them to Rome.
The Appian Way
Luke’s account continues: “And so we
went toward Rome. And from there, when
the brethren heard about us, they came to
meet us as far as Appii Forum and Three
Inns” (Acts 28:14-15).
According to archaeological and literary
This Greek inscription from the temple in Jerusalem warns that only Israelites are
allowed to pass this point and enter the inner courts of the temple.
evidence, Luke accurately recounts the way
stations to enter Rome from the west, the
Trophimus the Ephesian with him in the submitted to several preliminary hearings shortest route from the nearest seaport. “At
city, whom they had supposed that Paul had that left him unsatisfied, so he exercised his Neapolis, Paul and his contingent turned
brought into the temple)” (Acts 21:27-29). right as a Roman to appeal his case to the northwest to travel to Rome on the Via Appia
Paul was arrested on a false charge of emperor in Rome. —the oldest, straightest, and most perfectly
having taken a gentile (a non-Israelite) inside The voyage to Rome, on a cargo ship, made of all the Roman roads, named after the
the temple. Next to each temple entrance was harrowing. Luke accompanied Paul censor Appius Claudius who started its con-
was an inscription warning everyone that on the trip. His narrative is a masterpiece struction in 312 B.C. During the seven-day
only Israelites were permitted to enter. of accuracy down to tiniest details. “Luke’s stopover at Puteoli, news of Paul’s arrival in
Bruce explains: “That no Gentile might account of Paul’s voyage to Rome,” explains Italy reached Rome. So a number of Chris-
unwittingly enter into the forbidden areas, The Expositor’s Bible Commentary, “stands tians there set out to meet him and escort him
notices in Greek and Latin were fixed to the out as one of the most vivid pieces of back to Rome. Some of them got as far as the
barrier at the foot of the steps leading up to descriptive writing in the whole Bible. Its Forum of Appius (Appii Forum), one of the
the inner precincts, warning them that death details regarding first-century seamanship ‘halting stations’built every ten to fifteen
was the penalty for further ingress. Two of are so precise and its portrayal of conditions miles along the entire length of the Roman
these notices (both in Greek) have been on the eastern Mediterranean so accurate . . . road system . . . Others only got as far as the
found—one in 1871 and one in 1935—the that even the most skeptical have conceded Three Taverns Inn, another halting station
text of which runs: ‘No foreigner may enter that it probably rests on a journal of about thirty-three miles from Rome” (ibid.,
within the barricade which surrounds the some such voyage as Luke describes” comment on Acts 28:15).
temple and enclosure. Anyone who is caught (Longenecker, p. 556). Luke thus provides us with a detailed
doing so will have himself to blame for his The remains of several ships similar to and accurate account of Paul’s apostolic mis-
ensuing death” (The New International the one described by Luke have been found sions during the first decades of the Church.
Commentary of the New Testament: The on the bottom of the Mediterranean Sea. The book of Acts ends with Paul waiting for
Book of Acts, 1974, p. 434). They corroborate the precision of Luke’s his case to be heard by the emperor. From
account. “These grain ships were not small,” later historians we learn that he was set free
Paul’s journey to Rome notes Barclay. “They could be as large as and continued his apostolic journeys for sev-
After Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem, the 140 feet long and 36 feet wide. But in a eral years until he was again arrested, impris-
Roman authorities discovered a plot to kill storm they had certain grave disadvantages. oned and ultimately beheaded in Rome.
Z. Radovan, Jerusalem
him and hurriedly sent him to nearby Cae- They were the same at the bow as at the We will continue this series with a look
sarea, the Roman capital of Judea. Since he stern, except that the stern was swept up like at archaeological evidence that illuminates
was a Roman citizen, a rare and prestigious a goose’s neck. They had no rudder like a details of some of Paul’s many letters to
designation in those days, he was entitled modern ship, but were steered with two great congregations and members of the early
to full military protection. In Caesarea he paddles coming out from the stern on each Church. GN
I
n the previous three installments of this series . . . The sands of the Egyptian desert were ideal for
we covered events described in the book of their preservation, for papyrus, although very brit-
Acts. We now turn our attention to the apostolic tle, will last for ever so long as moisture does not
writings, better known as the epistles, addressed get at it.
to specific individuals or congregations or larger “As a result, from the Egyptian rubbish heaps,
How accurate are groups of people. archaeologists have rescued hundreds of docu-
the epistles from an How accurate are the epistles from an archaeo- ments, marriage contracts, legal agreements, gov-
archaeological and logical and historical point of view? We can be
thankful that much background information is
ernment forms, and, most interesting of all, private
letters. When we read these private letters we find
historical point of available about these writings that confirms their that there was a pattern to which nearly all con-
view? We can be authenticity. formed; and we find that Paul’s letters reproduce
exactly that pattern” (Daily Study Bible, Bible
thankful that The apostolic letters Explorer software, notes on Romans 1:1, emphasis
much background One of the first questions that comes to mind added throughout).
information is when examining the epistles is how they compare So far some 15,000 papyrus documents have
with the style and composition of other writings of been documented that date from 2700 B.C. to New
available about the same era. Testament times and well beyond. From the bibli-
these writings that In the 20th century archaeologists discovered cal point of view the most important papyrus
confirms their many private letters dating from the apostles’ time scrolls include:
that show the prevailing style of writing and corre- • The 87 papyri containing parts of the Greek
authenticity. spondence. Written on papyrus, they corroborate New Testament.
that the apostles’ • The Dead Sea Scrolls, discovered some 50
letters are written years ago, which include books and commentaries
in the style com- about the Old Testament.
mon in those days. • The Septuagint version of the Old Testament (a
Scholar William Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures that was
Barclay notes in common use in the time of the apostles).
about Paul’s writ- The New Testament papyrus scrolls date from the
ings: “It is a great late first to the seventh century and vary in size from
pity that Paul’s scraps containing a few words to almost complete
letters were ever books of a Gospel, Acts or the Pauline epistles.
called epistles. Grant Jeffrey compares the number of biblical
They are in the writings discovered to other works found: “Modern
most literal sense scholars now possess more than five thousand manu-
letters. One of the script copies of portions of the New Testament in the
great lights shed Greek language. In addition, there are an additional
Paul wrote to Christians in Rome, heart of a mighty on the interpreta- fifteen thousand manuscripts in other languages from
empire, well before he set foot there. Little did he know tion of the New the first few centuries of this era. No other important
he would die in Rome several years later. Palatine Hill Testament has text, whether historical or religious, has more than
and the Roman Forum, ruins of which are shown here,
were the heart of the city. been the discovery a few dozen copies that have survived until our
and the publica- generation” (The Signature of God, 1996, p. 88).
tion of papyri. In the ancient world, papyrus was the From the private letters of the apostles’ time
substance on which most documents were written we find their introduction typically included the
nonetheless suggestive. In Philippians 4:22, edge Commentary. “In the earliest Greek them to forgive and restore him as a member.
Paul speaks of the saints of Caesar’s house- literature it was linked with wealth and Paul’s other epistles and those the other
hold. It may be that they were for the most immorality. When Plato referred to a prosti- apostles wrote all reflect the aspects of
part slaves, but it is still important that tute, he used the expression ‘Corinthian everyday life in the Greco-Roman world
Christianity seems to have penetrated early girl.’According to Strabo, the Greek geog- of that age. Although critical scholars
January/February
May/June 2001 19
have focussed intensely on the apostolic of his two epistles also conform to the unusual style and are among the most
epistles to try to find any discrepancy or norm for those times. The Expositor’s Bible respected by scholars.
anachronism, none has been forthcoming. Commentary states, “First Peter is an epis- “No two works in the whole range of
tle or letter written in the normal letter form literature,” wrote Sir William Ramsay,
The epistle of James of the [New Testament] world” (Edwin “show clearer signs of the genius of one
Of all the epistles, James’ is the most Blum, 1981, p. 213). writer, and no other pair of works are so
practical and picturesque. The Bible But how could Peter, a Galilean fisher- completely in a class by themselves, apart
Knowledge Commentary calls it “a literary man, write in the fine Greek style of these from the work of their own and every
masterpiece . . . that combines the rhyth- epistles? other time” (Alexander Ross, The New
mic beauty of Greek with the stern inten- “The parallels between this first letter International Commentary of the New Tes-
sity of Hebrew” and says that, “in fact, the and Peter’s sermons recorded in Acts are tament: The Epistles of James and John,
Book of James probably has more figures significant,” answers The Bible Knowledge 1974, p. 110).
of speech, analogies, and imagery from Commentary. “Peter’s public ministry John penned his epistles toward the end
nature than all Paul’s epistles together” spanned more than 30 years . . . He lived of the New Testament period. They reflect
(Logos Library System software, 1985, and preached in a multicultural world. the later struggles of the remaining apostles
introduction to James). It is reasonable to believe that after three against gnostic groups and other opponents
How could Jesus’ half brother (Matthew decades Peter could have mastered the lan- of God’s law (antinomians) who were
13:55) have developed such a polished lit- guage of the majority of those to whom he influencing Church members and seducing
erary style? One commentary says about ministered. Certainly Peter had the time many away from the truth. Archaeology
him: “The author had been from fifteen to and talent to become an outstanding com- has helped us better understand some of
twenty years a member, and for a number municator of the gospel via the Greek lan- the issues that John faced.
of years, the official head, of the Jerusalem guage” (Logos Library System software, “The extensive Gnostic library that
Church, which very early in its history had introduction to 1 Peter). was found at Nag Hammadi in Egypt in
more Hellenists than Hebrews in its mem- Peter ends his first epistle with a refer- 1945,” states John McRay, “has provided
bership. In daily contact with such Hel- ence to his location: “She who is in Baby- us with new information regarding heresy
lenists, James could, in the course of the lon, elect together with you, greets you; and in the early church and about the nature
years, have attained to considerable profi- so does Mark my son” (1 Peter 5:13). of the canon of the New Testament at this
ciency the use of the Greek tongue” (The Some commentators regard the men- time” (p. 18).
New International Commentary of the New tion of Babylon as a cryptic way of refer- Thanks to the discovery of material
Testament: James, 1974, p. 19). ring to Rome, but the historical evidence documenting some of the gnostic beliefs,
Another evidence of the authenticity of shows that the actual city of Babylon the issues John mentioned have been
the letter is the mention of Christians still had a thriving Jewish community during confirmed to be historical.
meeting in synagogues. James writes of dif- those days.
ferent classes of people coming “into your The Scriptures indicate most of Peter’s Conclusion
assembly” (James 2:2). The Greek word mission dealt not with gentiles but with This concludes the brief overview of
translated “assembly” here is sunagoge, Jews. Paul mentioned that “the gospel for what archaeology and history tell us about
an assembly of people. It was natural for the uncircumcised [gentiles] had been com- the apostolic epistles.
James, as leader of the church in Jerusalem, mitted to me, as the gospel for the circum- Grant Jeffrey sums up the historical find-
to refer to the meeting places where Chris- cised [Jews] was to Peter” (Galatians 2:7). ings: “The tremendous advances in histori-
tians gathered as synagogues, since the “Many have wondered,” writes historian cal research and biblical archaeology in the
term did not have the negative connotation William McBirnie, “if this [reference to last century have convinced most scholars
it later took among anti-Jewish groups. Babylon] did not mean Rome, which was in the last two decades that the Gospels
“There is evidence that early Jewish frequently called ‘Babylon’ by the early and Epistles were written within thirty-five
Christians sometimes met in synagogues,” Christians. The actual city of Babylon, years or less of the events which they
says archaeologist John McRay. “The New however, still was of importance. It was describe . . . In an article for Christianity
Testament letter of James refers to Chris- a great center of Jewish colonists and was Today, Jan. 18, 1963, W.F. Albright [the so-
tians (undoubtedly Jewish) meeting in a a powerful center when Peter ministered called dean of modern archaeology] wrote:
synagogue (2:2), but bear in mind that at there for a time. The Eastern churches trace ‘In my opinion, every book of the New
this time Jews probably met most often in their lineage to Babylon, and hence to Testament was written by a baptized Jew
homes and rented halls” (Archaeology and Peter, to this day” (The Search for the between the forties and eighties of the first
the New Testament, 1997, p. 72). Twelve Apostles, 1973, p. 57). century A.D.’” (pp. 86-87).
In the next installment we will conclude
Peter’s epistles John’s writings this archaeological survey by covering the
Peter’s writing style and the background John’s Gospel and epistles have an last book of the Bible, Revelation. GN
used some of the characteristics of each city [in the future]” (verse 19, emphasis added Centuries earlier Heracleitus, an Ephe-
to spiritually evaluate its congregation and throughout). Hence part of the message of sian philosopher, described the inhabitants
to prophesy the history of His Church up Revelation would apply to John’s time, and there as “fit only to be drowned[,] and the
to His second coming. part would be for future generations. reason why [they] could never laugh or
Christ recognizes the effort of the Ephe- smile was because [they] lived amidst such
The first church: Ephesus sian brethren, in spite of many obstacles, to terrible uncleanness.” Such was the reputa-
The port city of Ephesus was a short keep the faith and carry out the commission tion of ancient Ephesus. It would have been
voyage from Patmos. Therefore one could He had given them. “I know your works, difficult to live as a Christian in the midst
logically send a letter there and then on to your labor, your patience,” He told them, of such an immoral city.
the remaining six cities Christ mentioned. “and that you cannot bear those who are Knowing this, Christ gives the brethren
Archaeologists have uncovered the evil” (Revelation 2:2). the hope that if they persevere in the faith
remains of the Roman roads that stretched In Ephesus was much evil to avoid— they will receive something that all the
from Ephesus to Laodicea. “It is no acci- within and without the congregation. It was temple worship of Diana could never give
dent,” notes John McRay, “that the letters there that Paul had warned the “elders of the them—the gift of eternal life. “To him who
in Revelation 1-3 are arranged in this same church” (Acts 20:17): “For I know this, that overcomes,” He promised, “I will give to
sequence. Beginning with Ephesus, the roads after my departure savage wolves will come eat from the tree of life [symbolizing eternal
follow a geographic semicircle, extending in among you, not sparing the flock. Also life], which is in the midst of the Paradise
northward, turning to the east, and continuing from among yourselves men will rise up, of God” (Revelation 2:7).
southward to Laodicea—thus connecting the speaking perverse things, to draw away the
Smyrna: Center of emperor worship
Map by Shaun Venish, photos courtesy ArtToday
cities on what must have functioned as an disciples after themselves” (verses 29-30).
ancient postal route” (Archaeology and the Moreover, the Ephesian brethren had to The next city on the ancient postal circuit
New Testament, 1997, p. 242). resist the many temptations the immensely was Smyrna, about 40 miles north of Eph-
The apostle Paul had founded a large popular pagan temple worship offered them. esus. It was a flourishing city and the main
church in Ephesus, and now Jesus addressed Archaeologists have found at Ephesus the center of emperor worship.
the members there with a prophetic message ruins of one of the seven wonders of the Jesus tells the church in Smyrna: “Do
that applied to them and was predictive of ancient world, the temple of Diana, or not fear any of those things which you are
the Church’s future. Jesus had told John: Artemis, also mentioned in the Bible (Acts about to suffer. Indeed, the devil is about
“Write the things which you have seen, and 19:27). Thousands of priests and priestesses to throw some of you into prison, that
the things which are [at the present time], served the temple; many of the priestesses you may be tested, and you will have
and the things which will take place after this were dedicated to cultic prostitution. tribulation ten days” (verse 10).
July/August 2001 19
These words had not only a prophetic as serving as a description of a future time Pergamos? Some historians trace it to the
sense but a literal fulfillment in John’s day for the Church. collapse of the Babylonian Empire, when
as well. The brethren in Smyrna knew they The mention of Satan’s throne in Per- some Chaldean priests established their reli-
were special targets of the persecution under gamos likely refers to the famous worship of gious center in Pergamos. “The defeated
Domitian, for the city’s history had shown its most popular deity, the serpent god Askle- Chaldeans fled to Asia Minor, and fixed
an unwavering loyalty to Rome. It was pios Soter, whose Latin equivalent means their central college at Pergamos,” notes his-
proud that it had been declared a “free city,” “the man-instructing serpent and savior.” torian William Barker in his book Lares and
which meant its residents had the right to The serpent god was none other than Satan, Penates of Cilicia (1853, p. 232).
govern their own affairs. whom Revelation describes as “that serpent Certainly the Old Testament identifies
“Long before Rome was undisputed of old, called the Devil” (Revelation 12:9). Satan’s chief seat of activity as being in
mistress of the world,” comments William Pergamos was so renowned for the wor- ancient Babylon, where the doctrines of its
Barclay, “Smyrna had cast in its lot with ship of this god, who supposedly healed mystery religion “made all the earth drunk”
her, never to waver in its fidelity. Cicero [thethe sick, that this deity was called “the (Jeremiah 51:7). This would make its reli-
Roman orator] called Smyrna ‘one of our Pergamene god.” Many of the coins discov- gious successor, Pergamos, the temporary
most faithful and most ancient allies’ . . . ered in Pergamos have the serpent as part new “Satan’s seat” of the Babylonian
Such was the reverence of Smyrna for of their design. mystery religion.
Rome that as far back as 195 B.C. it was The remains of the shrine to Asklepios “That seat,” comments Alexander His-
the first city in the world to erect a temple have been uncovered by archaeologists. lop, “after the death of Belshazzar [the last
to the goddess Roma” (Letters to the Seven “A 450-foot segment of the widest section Babylonian king], and the expulsion of the
Churches, 1957, p. 29). was excavated and reconstructed so visitors Chaldean priesthood from Babylon by the
The only way Church members could go to the site can experience a beautiful Medo-Persian kings, was at Pergamos,
about peacefully in this place was to carry a approach to the Asklepieion,” notes John where afterwards was one of the seven
certificate showing they had offered incense McRay. “Dedicated to Asklepios Soter, the churches of Asia. There, in consequence,
to the emperor and proclaimed him lord. god of healing, the Asklepieion was a kind for many centuries was ‘Satan’s seat.’
Among the ancient papyri letters that of Mayo Clinic of the ancient world . . . “There, under favor of the deified kings
archaeologists have found is one with such Numerous treatment rooms, sleeping rooms of Pergamos, was his favorite abode and
a request and another with an accompany- (for incubation and autosuggestion in psy- was the worship of Asklepios, under the
ing certificate declaring: “We, the repre- chiatric treatment), meeting rooms, and form of the serpent . . . Pergamos itself
sentatives of the Emperor, Serenos and temples were located here . . . Patients com- became part and parcel of the Roman
Hermas, have seen you sacrificing.” ing to the shrine believed that Asklepios Empire, when Attalus III, the last of its
Many of the Christians in Smyrna would heal them. There was no perceived kings, at his death, left by will all his domin-
would die because of fierce persecutions. dissonance between science and religion in ions to the Roman people in 133 BC” (The
So Christ encourages and reminds them the ancient world“ (McRay, pp. 271-272). Two Babylons, 1959, p. 240).
that He is offering them something Caesar “From all over the world,” adds William In this way, the Roman emperors had
worship could never provide—the chance Barclay, “people flocked to Pergamos for become the heirs of “Satan’s seat” during
to live forever. He exhorts them: “He who relief of their sicknesses. R.H. Charles has John’s day. Later, when the Roman Empire
overcomes shall not be hurt by the second called Pergamos ‘the Lourdes of the ancient collapsed, its successor, the Holy Roman
death” (verse 11). world’. . . Thus, pagan religion had its cen- Empire, would inherit the role. It is note-
ter in Pergamos. There was the worship of worthy that Revelation 17:4-5, 18 reveals
Pergamos: “Where Satan’s throne is” Athene and Zeus, with its magnificent altar that in the end time a powerful religious sys-
Next on the Roman mail route was Per- dominating the city [now partially recon- tem from the ancient past will again reign
gamos, the Roman capital of Asia Minor. structed in the Pergamum Museum in over the nations and be identified as “Mys-
This city would never reach the commercial Berlin]. There was the worship of Askle- tery, Babylon the Great, the Mother of har-
greatness of Ephesus or Smyrna, but it was pios, bringing sick people from far and near, lots and of the Abominations of the Earth.”
the indisputable center of religious, medical and above all there were the demands of
and artistic culture of the region. The city’s Caesar worship, hanging forever like a Pressure to compromise in Thyatira
famous library, with 200,000 parchment poised sword above the heads of the Chris- Some 40 miles east of Pergamos lay
rolls, was rivaled only by the library in tians” (The Daily Study Bible, notes on Rev- Thyatira, a city important for its commerce
Alexandria, Egypt. elation 2:12-17, Bible Explorer Software). in wool and textiles.
Christ tells the church at Pergamos: When the city was excavated from 1968
“I know your works, and where you dwell, Origin of serpent worship to 1971, its architectural remains showed it
where Satan’s throne is” (verse 13). Again, in Pergamos had the typical Roman style of colonnades
this prophecy had a literal fulfillment as well How did serpent worship begin in and public buildings and a temple to the
goddess Artemis. The city was especially symbolic name] apparently reasoned that Sardis’s status as a great commercial center.
famous for its fine woolen cloth, usually an idol is of no consequence, and advised The wealth of the city—which had been
dyed in a shade that came to be called Christians to eat such meals. That these the capital of the Lydian Empire under the
Thyatiran purple. It was from Thyatira meals all too readily degenerated into sexual opulent King Croesus—was legendary.
that Lydia, a seller of purple and convert looseness made matters worse. But we can Christ exhorts this church, “Be watchful,
to Christianity, had come (Acts 16:14). understand that some Christians would wel- and strengthen the things which remain, that
Inscriptions at the site reveal the existence come a heresy of this type. It enabled them are ready to die, for I have not found your
of trade guilds, many of them associated to maintain a Christian profession while works perfect before God” (Revelation 3:2).
with the powerful textile industry. countenancing and even engaging in The Sardian brethren could readily iden-
Christ says about this congregation: immoral heathen revels” (Tyndale New tify with a warning to be watchful. The only
“I know your works, love, service, faith, Testament Commentaries, 1975, p. 71). two times Sardis had been conquered were
and your patience; and as for your works, Christ reminds the Thyatiran brethren when its citizens had become overconfident
the last are more than the first. Neverthe- they must come out of that worldly society, and failed to watch.
less I have a few things against you, no matter how enticing it appeared, and not Once, when King Cyrus of Persia
because you allow that woman Jezebel, compromise with the truth. He promises to besieged the city, the Sardians, nestled in
who calls herself a prophetess, to teach those of Thyatira who remain faithful that their fortress high above, paid little atten-
and seduce My servants to commit sexual they will be arrayed, not in Thyatiran pur- tion to the invader. Cyrus could not find a
immorality and eat things sacrificed to ple, a cloth used mainly by Roman royalty, way to get up to the citadel and even
idols” (Revelation 2:19-20). but at His coming with the spiritual mantle offered a reward to the soldier who discov-
Since Thyatira was a religious center, of rulership over the nations. ered a pathway. Sometime later a vigilant
and the home of powerful guilds demanding He tells them that “he who overcomes, Persian soldier spied a defender who had
religious participation of their workers in and keeps My works until the end, to him accidentally dropped his helmet from
their banquets, it was difficult for Christians I will give power over the nations—‘He above. The careless soldier climbed down a
to resist falling into idolatry. shall rule them with a rod of iron; they secret pathway to retrieve it, and that night
“The strong trade guilds in this city,” shall be dashed to pieces like the potter’s the Persians led their troops up the same
says Leon Morris, “would have made it very vessels’—as I also have received from My pathway and to the top. To their surprise,
difficult for any Christian to earn his living Father” (Revelation 2:26-27). the site was completely unguarded. The
without belonging to a guild. But member- watchmen had gone home to sleep, think-
ship involved attendance at guild banquets, Sardis: Warning to watch ing there was no need to keep guard at
and this in turn meant eating meat which Poised above the rich Hermus Valley, night—and so Sardis fell.
had first been sacrificed to an idol. What Sardis was 30 miles south of Thyatira. The Incredibly, several centuries later the
was a Christian to do? If he did not conform city appeared as a gigantic watchtower and same sequence of events occurred when
ArtToday
he was out of a job . . . was considered impregnable. Five roads a Greek general besieged the city. After a
“The teaching of Jezebel [probably a converged below it and contributed to year’s siege the Greeks appeared to lose all
July/August 2001 21
hope of conquering the city. Then one of Christ” (1982, “Philadelphia,” p. 926). world renowned, Christ tells them their
the Sardian soldiers dropped a helmet and “spiritual garments” were in pitiful condi-
retrieved it. That night the Greeks led some Laodicea: Warning to repent tion. He recommends they focus instead on
men up the steep cliff. When they reached The last city on the route was Laodicea, buying from Him the spiritual clothing of
the top, the place was again unguarded. 45 miles southeast of Philadelphia. With true righteousness that He later describes
Sardis’s inhabitants had forgotten their three main roads crossing it, the city was as “fine linen, clean and bright, for the fine
lesson, and their city fell again. one of the richest commercial centers in the linen is the righteous acts of the saints”
Christ uses this lesson to drive home world. The Laodiceans were famous for (Revelation 19:8).
a powerful spiritual point to His Church: producing shiny, black wool clothing and Jesus next tells those brethren, who were
“Therefore if you will not watch, I will come boasted of an outstanding medical center blind to their true spiritual condition, that the
upon you as a thief, and you will not know that specialized in eye ointments. With the “Phrygian powder” concocted in their med-
what hour I will come upon you” (verse 3). wealth amassed, it had also become the ical center as an eye ointment was useless.
banking center of the region. Instead, He advised them to use His true
Faithfulness in Philadelphia Christ says to this church: “I know your spiritual eye salve so they can clearly see
About 25 miles southeast of Sardis lay works, that you are neither cold nor hot. and repent of their compromising attitudes.
the city of Philadelphia, newest of the seven I could wish you were cold or hot. So then, Lastly, Christ warns them not to put their
cities. An imperial road passed through it because you are lukewarm, and neither cold trust in their physical wealth but in Him,
from Rome to the east, so it became known nor hot, I will vomit you out of My mouth. who can develop the true gold that comes
as “the gateway to the East.” Because you say, ‘I am rich, have become from overcoming trials and building righ-
Christ says to this church: “These things wealthy, and have need of nothing’—and do teous spiritual character. This solid advice is
says He who is holy, He who is true . . . not know that you are wretched, miserable, of lasting value to the entirety of the Church
Behold, I am coming quickly! Hold fast what poor, blind, and naked—I counsel you to at any time in its history.
you have, that no one may take your crown. buy from Me gold refined in the fire, that
He who overcomes, I will make him a pillar you may be rich; and white garments, that Conclusion
in the temple of My God, and he shall go out you may be clothed, that the shame of your This concludes our archaeological
no more” (Revelation 3:7, 11-12). nakedness may not be revealed; and anoint review of the last book of the Bible. We
Christ emphasizes His loyalty to His true your eyes with eye salve, that you may see” hope this series has been a satisfying
followers and reminds them to be equally (verses 15-18). journey through the Bible and that it has
faithful to Him. If they persevere in His Archaeologists have discovered the main strengthened your faith.
Word, He will give them a crown that they aqueduct going to Laodicea, and several Throughout this series we have con-
may rule with Him in His Kingdom. miles of it can still be traced. The water firmed what Paul wrote in 2 Timothy 3:16-
We find a definite theme of brotherly piped in from the south had so many miner- 17: “All Scripture is given by inspiration
fidelity in this section. The Philadelphian als that the Roman engineers had covers of God, and is profitable for doctrine, for
brethren could well identify with this installed so they could remove the mineral reproof, for correction, for instruction in
admonition. deposits before the pipes clogged. righteousness, that the man of God may be
Philadelphia means “brotherly love.” “For all its wealth, the city had poor complete, thoroughly equipped for every
The city was named after the love the king water,” says The Expositor’s Bible Commen- good work.” GN
who founded the city held for his brother. tary. “The water either came from the nearby
The city was established by Attalus II (159- hot springs and was cooled to lukewarm Recommended Reading
138 B.C.), who was called Philadelphus or came from a cooler source and warmed
(“brother lover”) in honor of his loyal affec- up in the aqueduct on the way” (notes on To learn more
tion toward his brother, King Eumenes II Revelation 3, Zondervan software). about the book of
of Pergamos. During his brother’s lifetime Christ uses the Laodiceans’ lukewarm Revelation and
Attalus II was his most loyal assistant. He and distasteful water to point out that their what it reveals
successfully commanded his brother’s poor spiritual state is equally offensive to about the past,
forces in several wars and later became Him. He warns them that, if they do not present and
the trusted ambassador to their ally, Rome. rapidly improve their spiritual condition, He future, be sure
There he won respect and admiration from will reject them. He detests the Laodicean to request your
the Romans for his brotherly fidelity. attitude of compromising with God’s laws. free copy of The
The New Bible Dictionary comments: By contrast, He later describes those who Book of Revelation Unveiled. Contact
“As Philadelphus was renowned for his are faithful to Him as “those who keep the any of our offices listed on page 2, or
loyalty to his brother, so the church, the commandments of God and the faith of request or download it from our Web
true Philadelphia, inherits and fulfills Jesus” (Revelation 14:12). site at www.gnmagazine.org.
his character by its steadfast loyalty to Further, even if their clothing were