Professional Documents
Culture Documents
border threshold
Matt Hoffmann
1
2
contents
1 THE BORDER
13 CONTENTION
21 THRESHOLD MODEL I
ROMAN ARCH
38 THRESHOLD MODEL II
ISLAMIC
43 A SPECTACLE AT THE BORDERLINE
45 THE WAGAH BORDER
53 HISTORICAL CONTEXT:
INDO - PAK BORDER
64 SITE FOCUS
71 WORK CITED
3
Tijuana | Baja California border
4
“The border is a divided fiction that, dependent on the desired type of spatial and social organisation,
gives rise to a particular material form. It is a place where the forces of production and migration meet
in narrow channels, forming a marginalized territory of contested enclaves, buffer zones, military areas,
protective strips and no man’s land: an intensified supply and negotiation space of geopolitical warfare.”
MONU 08- BORDER URBANISM]
5
type A
type C
6
Borderline as political boundary
The line that divides the U.S. from Mexico has always been
as much a barrier as a border because the two nations
have little in common – neither language nor legal system,
nor standard of living. Yet our economies are closely
intertwined. Our collective view of the border shifted from
an engaging approach to a defensive one. Influence on anti-
immigrant politics. From a legal perspective, borders are
precise boundaries that delineate the geographic extent
of a government’s authority. The US – Mexico border was
initially defined by the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo,
which ended the Mexican War (1846 -48) and carved
off roughly one-half of Mexico’s territory for the U.S. The
Border changed again with the Gadsden Purchase of
1853, through which the U.S. acquired portions of what
is now southern New Mexico and Arizona. In terms of
relationships, culture, and economics, the U.S- Mexico
border is actually a wide swath that extends hundreds of
miles into each nation.
type A
type C
Threshold at the Korean DMZ - borderline condition B : impermeable
8
150 120 90 60 30 0 30 60 90 120 150
Greenland
(Denmark)
Greenland
(Denmark)
St. Pierre
Alaska and Miquelon (Fr.)
(U.S.A.)
60
Jammu and
Kashmir *
Bermuda (U.K.)
Western
Sahara
Turks and Caicos Islands (U.K.) St. Pierre
and Miquelon (Fr.)
Northern
Puerto Rico (U.S.A.) Mariana
Islands (U.S.A.)
ST. LUCIA Jammu and Guam (U.S.A.)
Kashmir *
Bermuda (U.K.)
30
Hawaii
(U.S.A.)
Puerto Rico (U.S.A.) Chagos
Archipelago/
Marquesas (Fr.)
ST. LUCIA Diego Garcia** Christmas TIMOR LESTE
Agaleda Island (Austr.)
Cocos (Keeling)
Tromelin Island Islands (Austr.)
Cargados Carajos Shoals
French St. Helena (U.K.)
Society Gambier Is. (Fr.) Rodriges Island
French Guiana (Fr.)
U.S.- Mexico border Radcliffe Line : India-Pakistan
Polynesia
Arch. 60 30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
(Fr.)
(Fr.)
0 Réunion New Cale
ds (Fr.) (Fr.)
90 Pitcairn 60 30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Austral Is. Islands
(U.K.)
(Fr.) Chagos
Archipelago/
Marquesas (Fr.)
Diego Garcia** Christmas TIMOR LES
Greenland Agaleda Island (Austr.)
(Denmark) Cocos (Keeling)
Tromelin Island Islands (Austr.)
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used Cargados Carajos Shoals
Greenland
French on this map do not implySt.official
Helenaendorsement
(U.K.) or acceptance
Society (Denmark)Gambier Is. (Fr.) Rodriges Island
Polynesia by the United Nations.
Arch.
(Fr.)
Cook (Fr.) *Dotted line represents approximately the Line of Control Réunion
Islands in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan.
The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been
(Fr.)
(N.Z.) Pitcairn agreed upon by the parties.
Austral Is. Islands Falkland Islands (Malvinas) (U.K.)*** 60
(U.K.)
(Fr.) **Appears without prejudice to the question of sovereignty.
30
10 UNITED NATIONS
Western
Sahara
A N T A R C T I
or the Power involved in a special treaty relationship
C
The initials in parentheses refer to the administering Power
A 30
Turks and Caicos Islands (U.K.)
Chagos 0
Archipelago/ Tokelau (N.Z.)
Diego Garcia** Christmas Wallis and
TIMOR LESTE
Agaleda Island Chagos (Austr.) Futune Islands
Archipelago/ (Fr.)
Cocos (Keeling)
Tromelin Island Diego Garcia** Islands (Austr.) Christmas Wallis and
TIMOR LESTE American Futune Islands
CargadosAgaleda
CarajosIsland
Shoals (Austr.) Samoa (U.S.A.)
St. Helena (U.K.) (Fr.)
Cocos (Keeling) Niue (N.Z.)
Rodriges Island
Tromelin Island
EU: Schengen borders Korean demilitarized zone
Islands (Austr.) American
Cargados Carajos Shoals Samoa (U.S.A.)
St. Helena (U.K.) Réunion New Caledonia
(Fr.) Niue (N.Z.)
(Fr.) Rodriges Island
9
30
Mexico Customs
San Ysidro, San Diego Land port of entry El Paso Bridge of the Americas
11
12
“Architecture searches for new modes and new typologies from the same experi-
mental potential inherent in the difficult borderline conditions themselves, then
it can become an instrument for the cultural transformations struggling today to
occur.” -Lebbeus Woods
contention:
It is along these boundaries where we consider the architectural
possibilities of international borders rather than their limitations and propose that
the nature of border itself - through certain design motives that exploit the idea
of iconography in architecture - can become a dynamic space that allows two
conflicting frontiers bounded by a borderline to coexist.
13
Architecture of the threshold.
AXIALITY
14
Taking in account this physical detachment from different political roles in German history as a threshold.
the borderline - and flanking landscape hills, the Archway After napoleon’s defeat in 1814, and the Prussian
is representative of a PORTAL that permits circulation occupation of Paris, the Quadriga was fully restored to
both in and around it. The detachment from the borderline Berlin and Victoria’s wreath was supplemented with a
however does not limit the capacity of the structure as a new symbol of Prussian power, the Iron Cross. At this
control device between two differing conditions, in this case time only the royal family could pass through the central
between the procession beginning at the circus maximus archway as well as members of Pfuel family from 1814 to
and the public space of the piazza. 1919. The central archways was used in addition by the
When the threshold is physically bounded by the coaches of Ambassadors on single occasions when they
borderline, the structure that regulates the permeability would present their letters of credence to the monarch.
between the two spaces can be considered a GATE. The gate was used by the Nazis as a party symbol,
Bounded by the former Berlin Wall, the Brandenburg Gate however was badly damaged in the war and through a
is one of the main symbols of Berlin and the former gate joint effort between East and West Berlin, was repaired.
into the city. The gate consisted of twelve Doric columns, During the Revolutions of 1989 and when the wall fell, the
forming five major passageways in which citizens were only gate symbolized freedom and unification and became a
allowed to use the two outermost two. Although the Gate’s gather space between East and West Berlin’s as they were
design has essentially remained the same, it has played allowed to permeate through the threshold.
Above: The architecture of the PORTAL threshold in the Above: Highlighted in yellow - the architecture of the GATE
Collosseum Valley, Rome. threshold at the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin, Germany.
15
[98 -117] Trajan
[306-337] Constantine
Trajan [98-117]
Hadrian [117-138]
Constantine [306-337]
16
The threshold, as a historical model of
both a spatial regulator and narration
device, provides an example of how
facade and surface can express a visual
perspective of a set of cultural and
religious values. Similar to the ideas of
the Roman archway, the Islamic world
proclaimed their glory in a way that
outlasted both their own lives and those
of their dynasties. Akbar’s capital of
Fatehpur Sikri is a perfect example of the
use of physical forms to communicate
power. The Gate of Victory leads into
the courtyard of the Great Mosque,
containing the tomb of the city’s patron
saint, Shaykh Salim Chishti. It is the
supreme example of the symbolic
gateway in Islam, an assertion of the
monarch’s power and splendor far in
excess of any functional need.
Pakistan
India
city center
The Portal The Gate
Brandenburg Gate - Gateway
20
How can past
architectural models
of thresholds
inform a new way
of understanding
today’s typical border
checkpoint?
Colo
ssu
so
f So
l
Meta Suden
Colosseum
Arch
Ci
rc
us
M
ax
im
us
the procession
Colosseum
23
axis and focal point off axis shift
? ?
? ?
24
the monuments in the valley, the bronze statue of the sun god
Sol was oriented with the existing Neronian grid and off-axis with
roadway. However, being that it was a great distance from the ?
? ?
archway [approx. 353ft], the monument alluded to be aligned in ?
perspective and filled the central archway when approaching the
Arch of Constantine from the Circus Maximus at the south end.
? ?
?
only evident in the numerous portraits that depict him with the
Sol’s rayed crown and the inscription : SOLI INVICTO COMITI [to
the invincible sun, companion] on three-quarters of Constantine’s
coinage, but most importantly in the underlying planning process
of the triumphal arch in coinciding with the Colossus of Sol. By
installing his triumphal arch right in front of the Colossus Sol,
Constantine transformed the way spectators saw the statue.
caelian hill
palatine hill
25
Along the via triumphal in the northward direc-
tion, as observers approached the Colosseum
Valley they were drawn into the orbit of the
distant monuments by this long, straight vista
that framed the distant monuments in the
piazza. The focalized character of the avenue
that eventually led up to the arch, was empha-
viewpoint - pause
sized by temple complexes that occupied the
steep inclines of the Palastine and Caelian Hills hills widen
that cluttered the peripheral and made the axis
of the road even more dominant. As a specta- arch colossus
tor, the approach to the arch became cinematic
in that the monuments beyond the threshold in
the piazza continued to move in and out of the
frame until approximately 115ft away when Co-
lossus of Sol would have been framed perfectly
in the tall central passageway. At this distance,
the via triumphal is at its widest possibly offering
26
space for the procession to pause and
observe the monumentality and the
framing of the two statues separated
by the inscriptions of the emperor’s
achievements on the frieze of the
Arch of Constantine.
353 ft
27
-353ft -35ft 0 ft 35ft 353ft 886ft
886ft
Beginning with the term; “you saw” this passage emphasizes the spectacle developed by the architectural play be-
tween the triumphal arch, the axiality of “via triumphal” and the monumental elements in Colosseum Valley.
-353ft -35ft 0 ft 35ft
d.
353ft
spectator
886ft
353ft
spectator
886ft
353ft
s
35ft
35ft
35ft
28
INSCRIPTION & NARRATIVE
Narrative: architecture of
the narrative
Constantine’s reign
as emperor
Attic
29
North Elevation
s
hali
iump
Tr
Via
West Elevation
the elements
Meta Sudans
Colo
[fountain]
ssu
so
f So
l
Meta Suden
Colosseum
Arch
Cir
cu
s
M
ax
im
us
30
the procession
Those on the east and Those on the east and
west ends belong to a west ends belong to a
triumphal procession, triumphal procession,
with an emperor enter- with an emperor enter-
West Elevation ing Rome, and they ing Rome, and they
overlap around the four overlap around the
corners on to the main four corners on to the
faces as far as the first main faces as far as
pilasters. the first pilasters.
Triumphal Procession
31
North Elevation - left side
On the north side of the arch the attic reliefs bring the emperor
to Rome. At the east end he arrives. Following the standard
iconography of this scene, the emperor is accompanied by Mars
and Dea Roma. A Victory flies overhead. Two women, one veiled,
the second bearing an offering tray with fruits, stand behind. In
the background are a garlanded arch and a temple. The arch
is a quadrifons; that is, it has two major openings that cross in
its center. The pediment of the temple has a figure of Fortuna,
identified by the globe and a wheel between which she sits. There
is a cornucopia in each angle. The temple is thus identified as
the Temple of Fortuna Redux, a most appropriate divinity for an
imperial return to the city. This temple in Rome was rebuilt by
Domitian in 93.
EMPEROR arrival
Triumphal Procession
Those on the east and
west ends belong to a
triumphal procession,
with an emperor entering
Rome, and they overlap
around the four corners
on to the main faces as
far as the first pilasters.
32
North Elevation - right side
On the right of the central opening of the arch there are the final
pair of Antonine reliefs. First comes a scene of liberalitas, the
emperor distributing support payments to Roman citizens. Here
in action is the famous dole, which was a concrete advantage of
the citizenry of the capital. The emperor, the scale of whose figure
dwards the other participants in the scene, is seated on a high
podium. Three dignitaries are grouped around him. A slave passes
him purses of money from a sack beneath his feet. In the fore-
ground at the foot of the podium there are gathered the recipients
of the emperor’s generosity.
EMPEROR departure
Imperial generosity
Submission of the
defeated
Triumphal Procession
Triumphal Procession
34
Piazza del Colosseo
South Elevation
East Elevation
lis
pha
Trium
Via
the elements
Colo
ssu
so
f So
l
Meta Suden
Colosseum
Arch
Cir
cu
s
M
ax
im
us
35
the procession
South Elevation - left side
BATTLE ENDS
Triumphal Procession
Those on the east and west
ends belong to a triumphal
procession, with an emperor
entering Rome, and they overlap
around the four corners on to
the main faces as far as the
first pilasters.
36
South Elevation - right side
Presentation of an allied chieftain to the army. The
scene is a military base. The general’s headquarters, the
praetorium, is in the background. On the left, the emperor, in
a campaign dress, tunic and cloak, addresses the army from
a podium. With him on the podium is a figure which recurs
beside the emperor in each of the military scenes of the series.
Standing below the emperor and facing the crowd of soldiers
is the subject of the presentation. Being a friend of Rome, he
is a noble barbarian, but as a mark of this identity he wears
a fringed cloak. Behind the soldiers of the foreground the
standard-bearers of the army appear in their characteristic
animal-pelt headgear. They hold standards which carry figures
among which one can distinguish Victory, Mars, and Hercules.
The emperor and his general stand on a podium to
the right side of the panel. The time of battle is approaching,
and the soldiers appear with armor, helmets, and spears. In
the background there are again two standard-bearers holding
legionary standards. The “eagles”
Here, we find first a scene of sacrifice before
combat. Among the crowd of soldiers and victims the
BATTLE BEGINS emperor offers a pinch of incense over a flaming tripod. On
the right a trumpeter, facing inward toward the host, sounds
his instrument while another musician, his head wreathed,
adds the shrill note of the double flute. The general,
Departure from Milan bareheaded, mingles with the crowd. Spears and ensigns,
both the legionary eagles and the vexilla carrying a cloth from
a crosspiece, fill the background together with large wreaths
which we should imagine suspended in some way behind the
gathering. A standard-bearer, grim in his loin skin headdress,
looks out from the throng.
Triumphal Procession
Rome: Arch of Constan-
tine: Ext.: south face:
right side: frieze “Battle
of Pons Milvius”: from
Hadrianic monument
37
“A gate serves to admit and to
exclude. It is also a symbol – of strength,
of security, of wealth.” -2
The Elements of Decoration: surface, pattern and light
Islamic art is derived from decorative principles
that form the bases for all types of Islamic buildings and
objects from very different times. There is never a type
of pattern or decoration that is specific to a certain
typology of building, instead each pattern is based off
of the relevant time and place of the construction.
These patterns are applied to the traditional material
palette in which includes textiles, ceramics, woodwork,
metalwork, books. The patterns are difficult to understand
unless scaled against something that is known, and with
the introduction of color the system of interrelated
patterns becomes even more complex. Another variable
that is introduced into this complex system is light, where
the surface changes subtly as the sun moves around it
and creates the effect of a three-dimensional surface from
one that is completely flat. The decoration techniques are
also intended to hide any sign of permanent parts of a
building through the use of hangings, carpets and curtains.
Since little furniture is needed for day to day life in Islam,
mattresses for sleep can be moved around resulting in
interior spaces that are seemingly continuous. In
gerenal, “Islamic art is an art of repose, intellectual rather
than emotional, where tensions are resolved.” It is also
dynamic, in that like water itself, the patterns continue to
reflect and multiply while remaining static on the face of
the structure. Friday Mosque, Afghanistan
39
Islamic Arch. Specifically Hindu Arch.
straight gate
animal sculptures
protection
decoration
materials relevant to
their time period
multiple scales
interior space is
continuous
Decoration colors interrelated to
patters
dynamic patterns
complex system of light
40
The frame
The Geometry
Calligraphy
Play of Light
Water
42
context: border + spectacle
43
How does the threshold act as a device that facilities
spectacle?
View as spectator at Wagah Border during the closing of the gates ceremony
45
Aerial view of Wagah Border, Pakistan
The mulit-threshold
layering and expansion
space between these
layers results in a highly
versitile space that can
be inhabited by citizens
from either country.
Traditionally, the space
is programmed for the
“lowering of the flag”
ceremony which occurs
everyday, however it
has the potential to
become an even more
dynamic space if we
exploit it composition.
46
Pakistani threshold at Wagah Border Indian threshold at Wagah Border
India
India
Pakistan
Pakistan
47
RWANDA
BURUNDI I N D O N
UNITED REP. Chagos
OF TANZANIA Archipelago/
SEYCHELLES
Diego Garcia** Christmas
MALAWI
PAKISTANCOMOROS Agaleda Island (Austr.)
Cocos (Keeling)
Tromelin Island Islands (Austr.)
Cargados CarajosraShoals
h Border
Crossing
Wa
ZIMBABWE MOZAMBIQUE Rodriges Island Amritsar
MADAGASCAR
MAURITIUS
Lahore Réunion
(Fr.)
SWAZILAND
LESOTHO INDIA
green marble
1a 1 1b
threshold borderline threshold
borderline (I)
50
seating elements
1a
level A A.
1
elevated balcony - not for public
1b
seating hierarchy
modernist architecture
space for high ranking officials
military officers
high ranking officials balcony
threshold height - india
51
ceremony
Indian population
Pakistani population
daytime
Indian population
Pakistani population
52
context: Indo - Pak History the
common ground
53
1206-1526CE
MUSLIM PERIOD
Delhi
Muslim
Most of the craftsmen were Indian
Indian
INDO-MUSLIM architecture.
Indo- Muslim architecture did not appear
as fully developed importation but was the
Arabian
result of a style that evolved over hundreds Sea
of years. During most of the time Delhi was
Bay of Bengal
the Muslims’ capital city, and the styles
that developed there influenced provincial
art, though it was not entirely a one-way
process. The early Muslims in India were
a very small ruling minority, and it became
apparent that their architecture would
reflect an indigenous Indian style, since
most of the craftsmen were Indians. Since Indian Ocean
the development of the Indo-Muslim style is
best seen in the city of Delhi, examples of
architecture are limited to these areas.
Delhi Sultanate
54
Not only were Indian builders were devoted to a tradition
totally different from that of Islam, but their methods of
construction were different. From a very early period they
seemed to have mistrusted and avoided the arch because
of their feeling that it lacked repose – that “the arch never
sleeps.” Because of a preference for a post and beam type
Persian Empire of construction, Indian builders did little experimenting with
different building methods. When the Indian craftsmen
wished to form an arch he used a corbelled arch or dome.
When the Muslims decided to construct the great arched
Delhi Sultanate screen to the Quwwatul-Islam mosque, this was the method
employed by the Indian builders.
Indian
58
Jahangiri Mahal, Indian ornament Jahangiri Mahal
Tomb of Itmad-ud-Daula, ornate gateway Taj Mahal - Indian small dome - Persian large dome
59
Trade and Travel: Markets and Caravanserais
Arabs and non-Arab conquests were originally nomadic and
inherited a tradition of travel establishing the idea that the
wealth of cities depended upon the transport of goods over
long distances. The pilgrimage or hajj, was imposed upon
the Faith of Islam and was one of the most powerful motives
of all for travel. Therefore the two classes of travelers
from Islamic countries were merchants and pilgrims, who
required more frequent places for rest and shelter in the
harsh conditions and inhospitable countryside. Caravanserais
became relevant in this landscape; as places along main
routes where men and their animals would be safe for the
night, and where they could be sure of food and water.
Rulers, the state or rich patrons would fund the construction
of these enclaves. Turkish for caravanserai, the two Sultan
Hans outside Konya are examples of these prestige buildings
constructed in the early 13th century. In Anatolia, between
Konya and Aksaray is the largest caravanserai on that road
dating back to 1229. The decoration and contrast between
the deeply cut stonework and the plain ashlar are typical of
Sejug art at its most sophisticated state.
61
POST PARTITION OF INDIA: CONFLICT TIMELINE
After India’s independence from Great Britain in 1947, the Indian subcontinent was partitioned into
Hindo-dominated but nominally secular India and the Muslim state of Pakistan. The ruler of Jammu
1947 | and Kashmir decided to accede to India in return for military assistance. This event caused severe
rioting and conflict because the Kashmir valley was predominately Muslim, therefore Pakistanis still
believe that Kashmir should have been their territory.
In October 1947, India and Pakistan went to war, just after Pakistan supported a Muslim insurgency
1947 | in Kashmir. The war ended on January 1949, and the LOC [Line of Control] which was formally known
as the ceasefire line, was established. The location of the borderline was determined where the two
1948 | sides topped fighting, however the referendum was and has never been held.
In April 1965, a clash between border patrols erupted into fighting in the southern end of the border-
line, in the Rann of Kutch. Later, Pakistan launched a covert offensive across the ceasefire line into
1965 | Jammu and Kashmir. In 1966, India and Pakistan signed a declaration, committing to solver their
conflict using peaceful means. They resumed to their boundaries before the war.
indo Pakistani relations decended when Pakistan descended into civil war after East Pakistan
demanded autonomy and later independence. India invaded East Pakistan in support of its people after
1971 | millions of civilians fled to India. At the end of 1971, Bangladesh was created out of East Pakistan.
Armed resistance to Indian rule broke out in the Kashmir valley in 1989, with some groups calling for
independence and others calling for union with Pakistan. India accused Pakistan of supplying weapons
1989 | to the militants. During the 1990s, with the emergence of militant Muslim groups, the movement’s
ideology became essentially Islamic in nature.
62
India and Pakistan set up low-level meetings to defuse tension over Jammu and Kashmir. The
diplomatic push became more concerted a year later and an agenda for peace talks was agreed
1997 | on. Also in 1997, Pakistan suggested that the two sides meet to discuss restraining nuclear and
missile capabilities.
Fears of a nuclear confrontation grew, after both sides conducted nuclear tests. The US ordered
sanctions against both countries, with several European nations doing the same. Tensions were
1998 | reduced early the following year after the two sides signed an accord pledging to intensify efforts
to resolve all issues – including that of Jammu and Kashmir.
Conflict again erupted after India launched air strikes against Pakistani-backed forces that had
infiltrated Indian-administered Kashmir. Fighting built up towards a direct conflict between the two
1999 | states and tens of thousands of people were reported to have fled their homes on both sides of
the ceasefire line. Later that year, General Musharraf led a military coup in Pakistan.
Tension along the ceasefire line continued. In October 38 people were killed after an attack on the
Kashmiri assembly in Srinagar. A month later, 14 people were killed in an attack on the Indian
2001 | parliament in Delhi. India again blamed Pakistani-backed Kashmiri militants. A dramatic build up
of troops along the Indo-Pakistan border ensued.
63
SITE
1947
Lahore
Kasur
1971
Firozpur
1981 PAKISTAN
Delhi
1997
1998
INDIA
1999 Kar achi
2001
64
KASUR
PAKISTAN
FIROZPUR
INDIA
Distances:
Kasur-Firozpur [25 km]
65
INTERNATIONAL BORDER
OPERATING AREA
THRESHOLD A
THRESHOLD A
Site : Kasur-Ganda
66
67
tan
Pakis tan
Pakis
India
India
permeability
Rotate
threshold
tan
Pakis
exchange spectacle
68
DAY BORDER OPEN
Pakistan India
MARKET
MARKET MARKET
GARDEN
GARDEN
permeability
PRIMARY
GARDEN GARDEN
MARKET MARKET
tan
Pakis
GARDEN
India
spectacle
SCREENING
Pakistan India
69
borderline
kasur
70
WORK CITED
3. Berg, Eiki, and Henk Van. Houtum. Routing Borders between Territories,
Discourses, and Practices. Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2003. Print.
4. Claridge, Amanda, and Judith Toms. Rome. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1998. Print.
6. Durth, Werner, and Günter Behnisch. Berlin Pariser Platz. Berlin: Jovis,
2005. Print.
8. Hillenbrand, Robert. Islamic Art and Architecture. New York: Thames and
Hudson, 1999. Print.
11. Levi, Scott Cameron. The Indian Diaspora in Central Asia and Its Trade:
1550 - 1900. Leiden [u.a.: Brill, 2002. Print.
13. Rumley, Dennis, and Julian V. Minghi. The Geography of Border Landscapes.
London: Routledge, 1991. Print.
71
India Pakistan. The World Bank. Sustainable Development Policy Instiute. By Sha- India Pakistan. The World Bank. Sustainable Development Policy Instiute. By Sha-
heen R. Khan, Moeed Y. Bokhari, and Shoaib Aziz. 2005. Print. heen R. Khan, Moeed Y. Bokhari, and Shoaib Aziz. 2005. Print.
72