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Instruments for Engineering Measurement

29 Van Riebeeck Street


Gerdview P.O.Box 2222
GERMISTON 1401 ZA-1416 PRIMROSE
South Africa Tel: (011) 828-6169
Fax: (011) 822-1377

STRAIN GAUGE
CIRCUITRY:

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Foreword (a word from our sponsor…) expensive, or affordable but unsuitable. To date, we have delivered
some very fine systems, the latest with microcontroller technology,
Instruments for Engineering Measurement was established in more than 16-bit resolution and computer interface. We stay away
1992, at first as a “systems integrator” and an importer of high from carrier frequency amplifiers, because of cable capacitance
quality loadcells from – the previously unknown – Kaliber problems, and DC amplifiers have come a long way in long term
Instrument and Measurement Technology Company in Budapest, stability. Good amplifier design is of paramount importance, and it
Hungary. Because there are a great number of loadcell is possible to produce systems at a reasonable price which are a
manufacturers in the world, each offering better and better loadcells happy marriage of old-fashioned analogue technology, and modern
at lower and lower prices, our Customers were limited to those who digital processors, rather than try to eliminate analogue problems
needed something special, or at least a loadcell which could endure with software !
severe dynamic loading and adverse environments without being In November 1997, we purchased the entire wire grid strain
damaged. gauge manufacturing process from Kaliber, who decided to give up
These Customers were few and far between, and our attention the wire grid strain gauges, and to start making foil grid strain
turned to another of Kaliber’s products: the wire grid strain gauge. gauges for their own loadcell and transducer production. Since we
This type of strain gauge was manufactured a long time ago by started with the wire grid strain gauge manufacture, we have made
Philips, TML, HBM, and possibly others. The available literature (T. a few improvements to the form of the strain gauge. The copper
Potma: Strain Gauges) refers to wire grid strain gauges on a paper terminals are larger and do not extend to the edge of the gauge.
backing, and the great difficulties in obtaining accurate readings Also, for half and full bridge measurement, we offer matched strain
with these. Problems were experienced with production, especially gauge pairs, whose elements are chosen from the same batch,
with attaching terminals to the grid, without contaminating the paper even from the same sheet that they were made. The huge benefit
backing with solder fluxes. Relatively high cost of production, a high of this was observed at an outdoor site near Stilfontein, where the
reject rate, coupled with the lack of modern-day adhesives, and a ambient temperature varies greatly. With a temperature variation at
special “feel” needed to apply these strain gauges propagated the the metal surface of +30 to +13 °C, (just before sunset to just
idea that strain gauge application was a “black art” known only to a before sunrise) we observed a measured value which varied by 1
select few. The select few, in turn, capitalised on this idea, and kept count, with a measuring range of 0,2 mv/v representing 327 counts
the experience to themselves. on the digital display. This, with no temperature compensation at
With the development of printed circuit techniques, strain gauges all, and with a constant mass applied, therefore the measured
rapidly became a mass produced item, with all kinds of grid shapes value contained the span temperature error as well as the zero
and sizes imaginable, which could be made with the photoresist point temperature error. To save installation time, we pre-wire the
and etching method. Ultra-small strain gauges were feasible, strain gauges as half bridges with external terminals, and we
especially for applications in loadcells and other transducers, where actually did an experiment to check our installation speed. Sanding
the measuring element is necessarily small, requiring miniature and degreasing of the surfaces, sticking 16 gauges in 8 places,
strain gauges with grid lengths of 3 mm and less to measure the wiring up, insulation testing, sealing, running the cable and
strain on the small load bearing element. In stress analysis too, installing the amplifier, connecting it to 220v power took 1 hour and
many tiny strain gauges could be made on one small backing to 20 minutes for 2 people.
measure strain gradients on small parts. We have found that the wire grid strain gauge offers some
In the early 80’s, HBM stopped the manufacture of wire grid strain benefits: the cross-section of the grid is circular, therefore the
gauges, and TML continued with them until the early 1990’s, then gauge factor is very predictable, being within 1% of the theoretical
stopped also. value of 2,05. The temperature coefficient of the gauge factor
The wire grid strain gauges of Kaliber were of a much more happens to inversely match the temperature coefficient of the
sound design than the paper-backed type. Phenolic resin was used elasticity of steel, within a few parts per thousand. The temperature
as a backing, and constantan wire of 20 - 30 microns diameter coefficient of the zero point is zero, which means that we can not
used for the grid. The manufacturing process allows the grid to be produce “temperature compensated” strain gauges. Rather, we
completely embedded in the backing, which is not more than 50 - suggest to use a matched pair in a half bridge, and then the zero
100 microns thick, and heavy duty copper solder terminals to be point temperature error cancels completely. The application
integrated into the strain gauges. Of course, this allows easy process that we use, together with their large and robust
handling, and attaching of measuring cable directly to the strain construction makes it possible to apply these strain gauges even in
gauge. Our first experiences with these strain gauges was that they dusty, windy conditions, and get measuring results as good as
were easy to apply and extremely stable, especially at strain levels when applied in a clean laboratory. We have discovered that readily
below about 500 µm/m. Their relatively long grid (10 and 20 mm) available application materials produce excellent results. Our
allows low error measurement, with excellent long term stability. covering material, first applied in 1997, is re-enterable, yet protects
Soon we discovered that customers who were in the market for the strain gauges for years in mint condition, despite our
strain measurement were not interested in learning the application competitors’ comments that this type of application is strictly short-
process, rather they were happy to give us an order to do the term…
complete job. We accepted the challenge, and did not invoice until In recent months, our strain gauges have been exported to
the job worked to the customer’s satisfaction. In this way, we did Europe, Australia, and Israel, each time with accuracy which was
our first strain gauge job, instrumenting of a 100t garage type above the client’s expectation. Although our experience shows that
press, in Welkom. This was rapidly followed by the strain gauging this is a precise and predictable technology (and not a black art),
of the big 750 t press at the same place, then a 100t Amsler press. there are some applications where we find temperature gradients,
The presses were calibrated by SABS, and were found to be well and these can cause headaches with regard to temperature error.
within the accuracy requirements. In the case of the 750 t press, Besides applying temperature compensation as the loadcell
the overall linearity was better than 0,2%, much better than any manufacturers do, simple prevention such as thermal insulation is
other measuring system used on that press. Kaliber themselves did an effective solution. As wonderful as the strain gauge technology
not believe that their product was that good ! But, the long term may be, some applications demand extra attention, and the lesson
temperature stability was not so good, and the zero point had to be to be learned is that we never stop learning. Each project is a
adjusted at the beginning of each test. thrilling, challenging and learning experience.
Soon, we started manufacturing our own amplifiers, because
what was available in the market was either good and frighteningly Louis Eder

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CONTENTS

GAUGE FACTOR ...................................................................................................................................... 4


quarter bridge. .......................................................................................................................................... 6
half bridge. ................................................................................................................................................ 9

cantilever beam, ...................................................................................................... 12

full bridge ................................................................................................................. 12

Resistivity of copper:................................................................................................ 15

Temperature coefficient of resistance of copper wire: ............................................. 17

AMPLIFIER INPUT RESISTANCE .......................................................................................................... 22


USE OF DUMMY GAUGES FOR TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION ................................................. 25
THREE WIRE CONNECTION ................................................................................................................. 27
FOUR WIRE CONNECTION ................................................................................................................... 28
METHODS OF COMBINING READINGS FROM MULTIPLE BRIDGES............................................... 29

PARALLEL CONNECTION OF THE BRIDGES ...................................................... 30

SERIES CONNECTION: ......................................................................................... 31

FORMULAE ............................................................................................................................................. 33
1. QUARTER BRIDGE ..................................................................................................................... 33
2. HALF BRIDGE.............................................................................................................................. 33
3. FULL BRIDGE.............................................................................................................................. 34

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GAUGE FACTOR
The change of resistance caused by strain in metallic strain gauges is determined by
their gauge factor. The gauge factor (k) is the most important characteristic of the
strain gauge and is about the same for all available strain gauge types from the
various manufacturers. The gauge factor is the constant that determines the electrical
signal as a function of mechanical strain:

The value of the gauge factor k is around 2,


which means that in the usual type of
measurement on metals, with a strain of 1000
µε using 120 Ω strain gauges results in a
resistance change of 0,24 Ω.

To measure such a small resistance change accurately precludes the use of


instrumentation such as ohmmeters. A more precise method is to use comparison
techniques, using one or more known, stable, fixed resistors:

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Initially, R1 = R2 and the value of UOUT
will be:

UEXC. R2
UOUT = -------------
R1 + R2

UEXC
UOUT = -------
2

= 0,5 UEXC

A change of resistance, induced by strain, of 0,24 Ω will cause an output voltage of:

UEXC. 120
UOUT = -----------------
120,24 + 120

120. UEXC
UOUT = -----------
240,24

UOUT = 0,4995 . UEXC

It is quite difficult to measure a change between 0,5.UEXC and 0,4995.UEXC with any
degree of accuracy.

Two possible ways of overcoming this difficulty are:

Compiled by Louis Eder / Instruments for Engineering Measurement


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1. Generate equal and opposite UEXC voltages and reference UOUT to zero.

This arrangement demands very stable power supplies,


as even a very small common-mode swing of + and -
UEXC will result in an apparent, erroneous output.

2. Create an artificial zero point, using two fixed resistors:

The matching of + and - UEXC now


becomes unimportant, as the output
depends only on the potential difference
between the junctions of R1 and R2, and
R3 and R4.

This is a widely used circuit for the


measurement of an unknown resistor, and
is known as the Wheatstone bridge.

In strain gauge work, we refer to this


circuit, which has only one of the four
elements actually varying, as a

quarter bridge.

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HISTORICAL NOTE:

Copyright 1995 by Grolier Electronic Publishing, Inc.


Wheatstone, Sir Charles

Sir Charles Wheatstone, b. Feb. 6, 1802, d. Oct. 19, 1875, was an English
physicist and inventor whose work was instrumental in the development of the
telegraph in Great Britain. Wheatstone served (1823-34) an apprenticeship as
a musical-instrument maker. His work in acoustics won him (1834) a
professorship of experimental physics at King's College, London, where his
pioneering experiments in electricity included measuring the speed of
electricity, devising an improved dynamo, and inventing two new devices to
measure and regulate electrical resistance and current: the RHEOSTAT and
the Wheatstone bridge. He worked on magnoelectricity and submarine
telegraphy, and he suggested the STEREOSCOPE. In 1837 he designed,
with William F. Cooke, an electric telegraph system that became standard in
Britain in 1840.

Bibliography: Bowers, Brian, Sir Charles Wheatstone FRS, 1802-1875 (1975)


Hubbard, Geoffrey, Cooke and Wheatstone and the Invention of the Electric
Telegraph (1965).

There are strong advantages to using a


Wheatstone bridge for strain gauge
circuits. The bridge allows addition and
subtraction of strain signals which enables
magnification of wanted signals and
cancellation of interferences as we shall
see later.

Our output signal is:

UOUT = UA - UB

UEXC . R1 UEXC . R3
= ----------- - -----------
R1 + R2 R3 + R4

UOUT R1 R3
------ = ----------- - -----------
UEXC R1 + R2 R3 + R4

Using the numerical example of ∆R = 0,24 Ω:

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UOUT R1 R3
------ = ----------- - -----------
UEXC R1 + R2 R3 + R4

120,24 120
= ----------- - -------
240,24 240

= 0,500 499 5 - 0,5

= 0,000 499 5 V / V

or 0,4995 mV / V

Let us examine the following case where the strain is compressive, and the resulting
∆R negative:

UOUT R1 R3
------ = ----------- - -----------
UEXC R1 + R2 R3 + R4

119,76 120
= ---------- - ------
239,76 240

= 0,499 499 4 - 0,5

= -0,000 500 6 V / V

or -0,5006 mV / V

Here we see evidence of the inherent non-linearity of the Wheatstone bridge when
used for quarter bridge strain measurement. ERROR% refers to the difference
between tensile and compressive strains of equal magnitude.

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Applying R2 in addition to R1 and making
use of the property of the strained member
known as Poisson's ratio adds an extra
active element to the quarter bridge, making
it a

half bridge.

The reason why this is possible is that while


R1 stretches, R2 will simultaneously
contract. (The contraction of R2 will,
however be smaller than the stretch of R1 -
in this case 30%.)

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Using the previous strain value of 1000 µm/m and initial resistances of 120 Ω, we
have:

∆R1 = +0,25 Ω and

∆R2 = 0,3 . -0,25 Ω

∆R2 = - 0,075 Ω

UOUT R1 R3
------ = --------- - ---------
UEXC R1 + R2 R3 + R4

120,25 120
= -------- - -----
239,925 240

= 0,5011982 - 0,5

= 1,1982 mV / V

Beside the increased signal, let us


look at the linearity error of this
circuit.

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Applying compression to create compressive strain, the equation becomes:

∆R1 = -0,25 Ω and

∆R2 = 0,3 . +0,25 Ω

∆R2 = + 0,075 Ω

UOUT R1 R3
------ = --------- - ---------
UEXC R1 + R2 R3 + R4

119,75 120
= -------- - -----
240,075 240

= 0,4988024 - 0,5

= - 1,1976 mV / V

Once again, the ERROR reflected in the graph shows the difference between the
signals of two strains of the same magnitude and opposite polarity.

Note the convention of expressing the output of the Wheatstone bridge as a voltage
ratio. Because the bridge itself does not generate any current, its output will always be
a fraction of the excitation voltage. Increasing the excitation excessively is not possible
because of self-heating of the strain gauges, whose current should be limited to less
than 25 mA generally. For 120 Ω gauges, this means a maximum of 6v excitation, and
an output at 1000 µε of 3 mV.

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In measuring certain types of strain, we can take advantage of the symmetrical
properties of the strain
on the measured
object.

Ideally, there will be two


points in equal comp-
ression and two points
in equal tension, the
magnitudes of tension
and compression also
being equal.

Such a case is the


cantilever beam,
where, by careful placement of the strain gauges, we can obtain the required
symmetry.

Connecting the strain gauges as shown, will


produce a

full bridge
whose properties we will now examine.

Taking the original resistance and strain


values, we get:

R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = 120 Ω

∆R1=∆R2=∆R3=∆R4 = 0,24 Ω:

UOUT R1 R3
------ = ----------- - -----------
UEXC R1 + R2 R3 + R4

120 + 0,24 120-0,24


= -------------------------- - ------------------------
120+0,24+120-0,24 120+0,24+120-0,24

120,24 119,76
= ----------- - ----------
Compiled by Louis Eder / Instruments for Engineering Measurement
12
240 240

= 0,501 - 0,499

= 0,002 V / V

or 2,0000 mV / V

We can see that reversing polarity of the strain will simply swop around the two terms,
but the output will be of the same value (and opposite polarity).

One important property of the fully active full bridge is therefore:

NO LINEARITY ERROR.

Some applications where this type of measurement can be utilised are:

bending (as illustrated above)


torsion
shear.

In each case, two pairs of strain gauges can be used, each pair being subjected to
equal and opposite strains.

Let us now examine the case where the cantilever beam is strained in a direction that
we do not want to measure:

The four strain gauges are


all compressed, that is,
their values are reduced.
Looking once more at the
previous schematic
diagram and using the
bridge formula, we have:

Compiled by Louis Eder / Instruments for Engineering Measurement


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R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = 120 Ω

∆R1=∆R2=∆R3=∆R4 = 0,24 Ω:

UOUT R1 R3
------ = ----------- - -----------
UEXC R1 + R2 R3 + R4

120 + 0,24 120+0,24


= -------------------------- - ------------------------
120+0,24+120+0,24 120+0,24+120+0,24

120,24 120,24
= --------- - ----------
240,48 240,48

= 0,5 - 0,5

Another important property of the full bridge is:

CANCELLATION OF UNWANTED STRAINS

Temperature variations in the measured member can cause unwanted strain


readings. We can make use of the fact that the measured member changes
dimensions equally in all directions in response to temperature change, but a word of
caution when measuring cylindrical or other irregular members ! (The dimension
change is of the metal itself, not taking into account the thickness of adhesive and grid
carrier. This can cause some considerable errors.)

Now that we have considered quarter, half and full bridge circuits, let us examine a
few practical applications where usage of bridge circuits helps to solve problems...

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Here, we have to measure a strain value at a particular point on a structure.

On this structure, we have no means of using the full, or even the half bridge, only one
active strain gauge is used. The other three-quarters of the bridge is in the measuring
instrument.

We have added extra resistance to the active quarter bridge, in the form of connecting
wire. The 0,22 mm2 wire is commonly available, and its resistance is as follows:

Resistivity of copper:

ρ = 0,017 Ω / m / mm2 at 0°C

and our wire resistance is therefore:

0,017 . 10
RL1 = -------------
0,22

= 0,7727 Ω (if the temperature is 0°C)

The return wire has the same resistance, so we have a total extra resistance of
0,7727 . 2

= 1,545 Ω
Compiled by Louis Eder / Instruments for Engineering Measurement
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This results in the following equivalent circuit:

Applying the Wheatstone bridge formula:

R1 = 120 + 1,545 Ω (strain gauge plus leads)

R2 = R3 = R4 = 120 Ω

∆R1= 0,24 Ω (our initial scale of 1000 µε)

UOUT R1 R3
------ = ----------- - -----------
UEXC R1 + R2 R3 + R4

120 + 1,545 + 0,24 120


= -------------------------- - ------------
120+0,24+120 120+120

121,785
= --------- - 0,5
240,24

= 6,9305 mV / V

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Knowing about non-linearity in the quarter bridge circuit, we should also check what
the instrument reading will be with zero strain:

R1 = 120 + 1,545 Ω (strain gauge plus leads)

R2 = R3 = R4 = 120 Ω

∆R1= 0 Ω (zero strain)

UOUT R1 R3
------ = ----------- - -----------
UEXC R1 + R2 R3 + R4

120 + 1,545 120


= -------------------------- - ------------
120+120 120+120

121,545
= --------- - 0,5
240

= 6,4375 mV / V

The signal span will therefore be :

0,493 mV / V for 1000µε , and not the


0,4995 mV / V for 1000µε that we expect.

This is an error of some 1,3 %, and should be taken into consideration.

Of this signal, 0,493 mv/v is due to the strain of 1000 µε, and the rest, being 6,4375
mv/v, is due to lead resistance. This is a large value, but strain amplifiers will have
sufficient adjustment to balance this value to zero.

Another, more tricky problem is the fact that copper, in spite of being one of the best
conductors of electric current, has quite a large temperature coefficient of resistance

Temperature coefficient of resistance of copper wire:

α r(Cu) = 0,004 Ω / Ω / °C

With our wire resistance of 1,545 Ω, and an expected ambient temperature range of
(say) 0°C to 25 °C (typical Highveld winter's day in a factory), the wire resistance
values will be:

Compiled by Louis Eder / Instruments for Engineering Measurement


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at 0°C: 1,545 Ω

at 25°C: 1,545 Ω +(1,545 . 0,004 . 25)

= 1, 6995 Ω

Because our amplifier cannot tell the difference between strain induced resistance
change and temperature induced resistance change, it will measure a strain caused
by a change in resistance of:

1,6995 - 1,545 Ω = 0,1545 Ω

which will correspond to a strain reading of:

∆R
---- = k. ε
R

∆R
ε = ----
R.k

0,145
= --------------
121,545 . 2

= 596,4 µε

for the ambient temperature change alone ! (Assuming, of course, that the
strain gauge itself is fully compensated to the metal of the member being measured,
and gives no output change for the member's own temperature expansion.)

Using the Wheatstone bridge's properties, part of the problem can be compensated. It
is simply a matter of where we connect the measurement point:

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We actually add more resistance to the circuit, but, please note that, because there is
no current flow to the amplifier, the new resistance will have no effect on the
measurement.

Note also, that one of the lead resistances, RL2, now belongs to R2, not to R1 any
more .

Let us examine the initial conditions once again:

τAMB = 0°C , ε = 0, RL1=RL2=0,7727 Ω

UOUT R1 R3
------ = ----------- - -----------
UEXC R1 + R2 R3 + R4

120,7727 120
= -------------------------- - ------------
120,7727 + 120,7727 120+120

= 0 mv/v

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τAMB = 25°C, ε = 0, RL1=RL2=0,7727 Ω +(0,7727 . 0,004 . 25) = 0,85 Ω

UOUT R1 R3
------ = ----------- - -----------
UEXC R1 + R2 R3 + R4

120,85 120
= -------------------------- - ------------
120,85 + 120,85 120+120

= 0 mv/v

We have got rid of the temperature problem, and our amplifier no longer has to
balance out a large offset value, but we should also look at the error in the measured
strain value:
τAMB = 0°C , ε = 1000µε, RL1=RL2=0,7727 Ω, ∆R1 = 0,24 Ω

UOUT R1 R3
------ = ----------- - -----------
UEXC R1 + R2 R3 + R4

120 + 0,7727 + 0,24 120


= ------------------------------------- - ------------
120,7727 + 0,24 + 120,7727 120+120

121,0127 120
= ------------- - -----
241,7854 240

= 0,4963 mv/v

τAMB = 25°C, ε = 1000µε, RL1=RL2=0,85 Ω, ∆R1 = 0,24 Ω

UOUT R1 R3
------ = ----------- - -----------
UEXC R1 + R2 R3 + R4

120 + 0,85 + 0,24 120


= ------------------------------ - ------------
120,85 + 0,24 + 120,85 120+120

121,09 120
= ------------- - -----
241,94 240

= 0,4959 mv/v

The temperature change produces a span error of 0,08% which can probably be
ignored.
Compiled by Louis Eder / Instruments for Engineering Measurement
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A very useful strain gauge arrangement for normal strain measurement is shown here.
It encompasses complete temperature compensation (in the accuracy range that
can be considered acceptable), and produces minimal linearity error and the
biggest signal that can be had under the circumstances.

It uses two strain gauges applied in the main strain direction, and two at right angles,
making use of the Poisson effect.

UOUT R - ∆R1 R + ∆R3


------ = -------------------------- - -------------------------
UEXC R - ∆R1 + R + ∆R2 R - ∆R3 + R + ∆R4

∆R1= R.k.ε ∆R2= ν.R.k.ε ∆R3= ν.R.k.ε ∆R4= R.k.ε

Taking a value of R=120, k=2, ν=0,3 and values of ε from -1000 to + 1000 µm/m, we
get the following:

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Quite an acceptable performance, with the additional feature of cancelling any
superimposed bending (although this is not necessarily desirable).

AMPLIFIER INPUT RESISTANCE

Having examined various bridge circuits, it would have been noted that in each case,
stress was placed on the fact that no current may be drawn from the output
connections, otherwise the bridge circuit will not function correctly. This imposes
certain requirements on the input circuitry on the measuring amplifier, regarding input
resistance. At the same time, we should also consider that (especially in the early
days of strain measurement), the only instruments that were available for measuring
the output of a bridge were moving-coil galvanometers, which had a very low input
resistance.

Copyright 1995 by Grolier Electronic Publishing, Inc.


galvanometer

{gal-vuhn-ah'-muh-tur}

A galvanometer is an instrument that measures the amount of electrical current by converting electrical energy into the
physical displacement of a coil, which in turn moves a pointer or light beam. The device was named for Luigi GALVANI, an
18th-century Italian physiologist and physicist.

In a galvanometer, a coil of fine wire is suspended between the poles of a permanent magnet, so that when the coil is
magnetized as current passes through it, the like poles of magnet and coil repel each other and cause an attached pointer to
deflect across a calibrated scale. When a light beam is used instead of a pointer, a mirror is mounted on the side of the
moving coil and a fixed beam of light is directed at the mirror. As the coil turns, the reflected image of the light moves along a
translucent, calibrated panel. The coil may be mounted on a spindle, whose ends turn on rubies or very hard steel.

The direct-current ammeter is a type of calibrated galvanometer that measures larger currents a calibrated galvanometer
may also be used as a direct-current voltmeter, which measures direct voltage using Ohm's law. Galvanometers are
currently being replaced by modern digital instruments.

Leslie W. Lee

Bibliography: Cooper, William D., Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques (1978).

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The earliest measuring instruments for strain were called bridges or compensators
and they used no electronic amplifiers at all. Their operating principle was based on
precision switchable resistors, which were adjusted until the bridge output was zero,
indicated by a galvanometer. When this condition occurs, no current flows between
the output terminals of the bridge, and no error is introduced, even if the
galvanometer's resistance is very low.

The schematic of such an instrument is shown here in rough form:

For quarter bridge operation, R3 and R4 are


fixed. R2 comprises precision resistors selected
by a multi-way rotary switch and also a
continuously variable FINE adjustment, each
with calibrated dials.

The strain gauge wiring criteria are the same as


we have previously discussed, that is, attention
must be paid to lead resistances.

At the start of the measurement, the R2 dials


are set until the galvanometer reads zero. A
note is made of the dial settings, and this is the
zero condition.

With the strain applied, the dials are set once


more to produce a zero on the galvanometer.
The difference between the "zero" and
"strained" settings on the dials produced the
required measured value.

The actual "bridge" instrument was quite refined. Dial calibration was directly in µm/m,
and there was also provision for gauge factor adjustment. One manufacturer of such a
Bridge was the Swiss HUGGENBERGER, and there is at least one such instrument
still in (semi)active use in South Africa.

In fact, the highest precision strain meters (until recently) still employed the
"compensator" or null balance technique, as it is the most precise, offering inherent
linearity compensation and independence of measuring amplifier input current.

Let us examine the influence of the current drawn from the Wheatstone bridge on
accuracy.

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For the purpose of this discussion, it is convenient to replace the conventional
Wheatstone bridge with an equivalent circuit:

UG
I = --------
RB + Ri

RB is the bridge resistance, with RB = R1 = R2 = R3 = R4, and Ri is the input


resistance of the amplifier, acting as shown.

The voltage appearing at the input of the amplifier, by Ohm's Law, will be:

URi = I. Ri

Ri
= UG . --------------
RB + Ri

As Ri tends to infinity, so URi tends to UG , because the fraction will tend to 1.

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The span error introduced by the amplifier's input resistance will be:

Ri
= 100 . ( 1 - -------------- ) %
RB + Ri

As users of strain gauge amplifiers, we expect that this instrument will provide us with
an acceptably accurate measured value. The graph shows the span error introduced
by amplifier resistance which is less than infinite. An especially irritating factor is
having an altered apparent strain reading when using strain gauges with a different
resistance.

USE OF DUMMY GAUGES FOR TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION

Although many modern strain gauges incorporate self-temperature-compensation, it


may be wise to examine the manufacturer's specifications in detail to establish exactly
to what extent this compensation is applicable to the job at hand.

In many applications, it may be better not to rely on the self-compensation, but to use
half- or full bridge circuits wherever possible. In that case, the self-temperature
compensating properties of the strain gauges become of no consequence. If the full
bridge is not feasible, a half-bridge circuit offers a good compromise, and if even this
is not practical, we need to look at the possibility of temperature compensating
"dummy" strain gauges.

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The compensating or "dummy" gauge R2 is cemented to a piece of metal which is the
same metal as the main
member, to ensure that its
temperature coefficient of
expansion is the same. The
dummy piece of metal is
attached to the main member
in such a way that it is free
from stress, but is exposed to
the same ambient
temperature. An important
point to note is that if the
dummy metal is substantially
smaller than the main
member, then there may be
transient temperature effects,
if the ambient temperature
should change rapidly, for
example if exposed to
sunlight or other radiant
sources. The smaller piece of
metal will heat more rapidly,
and produce a false reading.

CONNECTING IN THE BRIDGE

Two methods of connecting the dummy in the bridge will be described:

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THREE WIRE CONNECTION

The advantage of this connection is that minimal lead resistance (span) error is
introduced. It is useful for single measurement points.

This connection method is widely used for other resistance-type transducers, such as
resistance thermometer devices (RTD’s), for example, the very precise platinum wire
thermometer (Pt 100).

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FOUR WIRE CONNECTION

Although this connection method introduces double the span error of the previous
circuit, it has the advantage that one dummy (R2 circuit) can be used for a number of
measurement points, each of which uses only one active strain gauge (R1).

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METHODS OF COMBINING READINGS FROM MULTIPLE BRIDGES
The reason for combining readings is usually if the need arises to measure the total or
average strain in a number of members, without regard to the values of the individual
strains.

BEAM A BEAM B

For this example, we need to measure the average (or total) strain on the two
members shown.

We can, of course use two strain amplifiers to individually measure the strains, then
mix their outputs. However, if the individual strains are not important, we can use a
more elegant and more economical method, that is to connect the bridges together in
one of the following two circuits, either parallel, or series, as follows:

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PARALLEL CONNECTION OF THE BRIDGES

BEAM A BEAM B

This connection method will reduce the bridge resistance to half of that of a single
bridge. It may mean that the supply current capability of the amplifier will be exceeded.
Some strain amplifiers (especially the cheaper ones) can not accommodate a bridge
resistance below 350 Ω without special modifications.

This is the circuit used for connecting multiple loadcells to a single amplifier, such as
in platform scales and weighbridges.

The equivalent circuit is as follows:

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BEAM A BEAM B

It can be seen from the equivalent


circuit, that it is essential for the
resistances of the two bridges to be the
same if the signal is to be a faithful
indication of the average strain.

SERIES CONNECTION:

Although, at first glance, this connection


method appears much more complicated
than the previous, parallel connection, close
inspection will reveal that it is, in fact as
simple. The strain gauges of BEAM A are
wired in a half bridge, as are the strain
gauges of BEAM B. Wiring errors are
eliminated if the wiring is kept symmetrical,
and the added advantages of the series
circuit are:

- Bridge resistance is the sum of the


individual bridges, making it easy on the
measuring amplifier's excitation circuit,
reducing excitation current

- double the excitation voltage can be used to


increase the mv signal level (especially
useful in electrically noisy environments)

This connection is not used for loadcells, because each loadcell is a complete bridge,
and the bridge has to be broken to allow connection in series.

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The equivalent circuit for the series connection is shown here:

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FORMULAE

1. QUARTER BRIDGE

UOUT k.ε
------ = -----
UEXC 4000

Output (mv/v) is equal to Gauge Factor times strain (µm/m) divided by four thousand
(the thousand is to convert the micro in the strain to milli in the volt).

NUMERICAL EXAMPLE:

With a gauge factor of 2, and a strain of 500 µm/m, output wll be:

2 . 500
-------------- = 0,25 mv/v
4 000

(See Page 6)

2. HALF BRIDGE

UOUT k . (ε1 - ε2)


------ = ---------------
UEXC 4000

Output (mv/v) is equal to Gauge Factor times the difference of the strains (µm/m)
divided by four thousand.

NUMERICAL EXAMPLE:

For measuring normal strain, with a gauge factor of 2, and strain1 of 500 µm/m
(tension), strain2 of -150 µm/m (compression), the output wll be:

2 . (500 – (-150))
-------------------------- = 0,325 mv/v
4 000
(See Page 8)

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3. FULL BRIDGE
UOUT k . (ε1 - ε2 + ε4 – ε3)
------ = ---------------------------
UEXC 4000

Output (mv/v) is equal to Gauge Factor times the difference of the strains (µm/m)
divided by four thousand.

NUMERICAL EXAMPLE 1:

For measuring normal strain, with a gauge factor of 2, and strain1 of 500 µm/m
(tension), strain2 of -150 µm/m (compression), the output wll be:

2 . (500 – (-150) + 500 - (-150))


----------------------------------------- = 0,65 mv/v
4 000

(see Page 19)

NUMERICAL EXAMPLE 2:

For measuring bending, shear, or torsion with


ε1 = +500 µm/m (tension)
ε2 = -500 µm/m (compression)
ε3 = +500 µm/m (tension)
ε4 = -500 µm/m (compression)

2 . (500 – (-500) + 500 - (-500))


----------------------------------------- = 1 mv/v
4 000

(see Page 10)

This concludes the lecture on strain gauge circuitry. As an attachment, an extract is


shown from Mr Karl Hoffman's book: Applying the Wheatstone Bridge Circuit, HBM
Publication vd72001e, (reproduced here without permission) which summarises the
various strain gauge connections for your reference. Other material for this lecture
was obtained from Grolier Multimedia Encyclopaedia (historical notes) and from hard
experience, with MicroMeasurements, HBM KALIBER, and our own, South African
made IEM strain gauges, with hundreds of field applications Locally, as well as in
Australia, Europe and the Middle East.

July 1996
Modified March 2000
Louis Eder, Instruments for Engineering Measurement, Germiston.

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Compiled by Louis Eder / Instruments for Engineering Measurement
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INDEX

altered apparent strain, 24 linearity, 9


ambient temperature, 17 non-linearity, 8
AMPLIFIER INPUT RESISTANCE, 21 offset value, 19
average strain, 28 ohmmeters, 4
bending, 12 PARALLEL CONNECTION, 29
bridge resistance, 29 Poisson, 20
bridges, 22 Poisson's ratio, 9
cancellation of unwanted strains, 13 Pt 100, 26
cantilever beam, 11 quarter bridge, 6
COMBINING READINGS, 28 QUARTER BRIDGE formula, 32
compensation, 17 Resistivity of copper, 14
compensators, 22 RTD, 26
compressive strain, 8 self-temperature-compensation, 24
dummy, connecting, 25 SERIES CONNECTION, 30
equivalent circuit, 23 shear, 12
FOUR WIRE CONNECTION, 27 single measurement, 26
full bridge, 11 symmetrical strain, 11
FULL BRIDGE formula, 33 Temperature, 13, 16
galvanometer, 21 temperature compensation, 20
gauge factor, 4 THREE WIRE CONNECTION, 26
half bridge, 9 torsion, 12
HALF BRIDGE formula, 32 voltage ratio, 10
HBM, 33 Wheatstone bridge., 6
input resistance, 23 wire resistance, 14

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