Mechanical Drafting

UC-NRLF
02I3
042
MECHANICAL DRAFTING
BY
CHARLES B. HOWE, M.E.
FI RS T EDITION
FIRST THOUSAND
NEW YORK
JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.
LONDON : CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED
1916
<
Copyright, 1916,
BY
CHARLES B. HOWE
THE SCIENTIFIC PRESS

ROBERT DRUMMOND AND COMPANY
BROOKLYN. N. Y.
is
PREFACE
THIS book is written for the purpose of assisting the such as conventions and data, and also problems. A list
student to a knowledge of the principles of mechanical draw- of these sheets may be procured from the publishers of this
ing and their practical applications. It is not intended to book. Additions to the list will be made from time to
be a manual of self-instruction, but rather an assistant time, and teachers are requested to correspond with the
to the teacher in reinforcing his presentation of the subject author and to express their views and wishes.
matter and in supplying him with convention, data, and The plan of supplying a text, the principles of which do
problem sheets, the preparation of which ordinarily con- not change greatly from year to year, in combination with
sumes much of his time and energy. loose-leaf sheets, which can be selected and arranged to suit
It is believed that the treatment of the subject, as pre- individual requirements, will enable a large number of
sented here, will be found to stimulate the interest of the teachers to formulate a course of study adapted to the
student and to serve a much more useful purpose than does needs of their classes.
the formal drawing usually taught. Drawing instruments and materials generally are fur-
A course of study will not be found in this book. A nished by the schools and therefore all information relating
definite courseplanned to cover all schools would be adapted to their selection is omitted.
to none, because conditions vary locally and are changing The author believes that the chief value of a knowledge
from year to year; but any teacher may select and arrange a of mechanical drawing is its utility as a medium of expression,
course, closely adapted to his needs, from the supplementary and this text has been prepared from this point of view.
loose-leaf sheets which are published with the Drafting There can be no question, also, as to its helpfulness in the
Series. These sheets contain informational instruction, study of applied geometry, but the amount of time that
330420
VI PREFACE
may usually be devoted to mechanical drawing is so lim- be placed upon this phase of the instruction and several
ited the author feels that it should be spent entirely in lessons should be given in the above manner, preceding the
acquiring a knowledge of and skill in drafting rather than use of instruments.

in the solution of numerous geometrical problems, which Following this there should be considerable practice in
are seldom used in practice, and most of which can be solved the application of principles in the making of isometric
by the use of T square and triangle instead of by geometrical and working drawings with instruments, both in detail
methods. and assembly. Simple projections, without dimensions and
On the other hand, the study of orthographic projection omitting all reference to the theory, may be presented next.
is essential to a thorough course in mechanical drawing. Simple problems machine and plan drawing, working
in
Projection should be presented through the solid, avoiding from sketches, models and blue-prints are next in order.
as much as possible the difficult terms and methods of Isometric and perspective sketches should be used freely
descriptive geometry. The third angle, only, should be in presenting the material for working drawings. Mere
studied for the following reasons: First, it is used almost copying from blue-prints should be avoided except for pur-
exclusively in drafting offices; second, the principles of poses of conventional rendering. In drawing plans the
projection are the same for all angles; third, a better under- pupil should begin with the representation of a very simple
standing of the subject will be secured by concentrated drill plan and elevation drawn to a scale of f in. = 1 ft.
floor
upon the principles as applied to one angle only. The representation of doors and windows in elevation
The sequence of the subject as here presented is more a should then be studied and applied to a simple problem.
matter of convenience than an arrangement for a course This should be followed by studies of structural details in
of study. The author has made it a practice to begin with section and isometric drawing. Next, he should copy the
very simple working drawings and to introduce isometric plans and elevations from a good design of a small house,
drawing, after a few lessons, translating freely from one making only slight modifications as directed by the in-
form of expression to the other. This method will greatly structor. After obtaining some proficiency in problems of
assist the pupil in learning to read drawings, i.
e., to visualize this character he may essay to work a problem from his
the object. In this stage, the actual
object should be employed own sketches.
as the basis of the freehand sketch, which may be rendered After the pupil has studied geometry as a mathematical
either in views or isometric. Considerable emphasis should subject, the principles of orthographic projection should
PREFACE VII
be taught, followed by intersections and developments. In conclusion, the author acknowledges the courtesy of
He will then be ready to undertake advanced drafting courses those who have loaned drawings, photographs, and cuts for
along some special line leading eventually to skill and reproduction, and desires to mention in particular the fol-
thoroughness in that branch. lowing: The National Fireproofing Co., Eugene Dietzgen
The teacher should always insist that drawings be Co., F. E. Brandis Sons & Co., The Revolute Machine Co.,
"blocked in" by fine, light, solid lines which are to be left The C. F. Pease Co., The Pratt & Whitney Co.
on the finished drawing but not inked. This will facilitate CHARLES B. HOWE.
the checking of drawings and will also serve as an indication NEW YORK,
May, 1915.
that the pupil is following practical methods in drafting.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I CHAPTER IV
MATERIALS AND INSTRUMENTS GEOMETRY OF DRAWING

PAGE PAGE
The adjustment, and care of the drawing board,
use, (a) The intersection of surfaces Explanation and use
T square, triangles, scale, compass, dividers, pen, bow-set of the developed surface, definition, character of intersec-
etc. Drawing papers, pencils, inks, erasers, and miscella- tions Intersections determined by two general methods:
neous articles; their description and use 3 The method of elements and the method of the auxiliary
plane (6) The development of surfaces: Definition and
CHAPTER II statement of principles; explanation of typical problems;
(a) The prism and cylinder, (6) The pyramid and cone,
PRINCIPLES OF DRAFTING
(c) Intersecting solids, (d) The oblique cone 34
Character of preparation for and
lines, lettering, penciling,
the layout of the drawing, completion of the pencil drawing CHAPTER V
Inking and tracing Geometrical constructions Technic
Kinds of drawings 11
WORKING DRAWINGS
Definition, purpose, execution, kinds Scale drawing,

CHAPTER III views, lines and other conventions, dimensioning and rules
of practice Sections 47
GEOMETRY OF DRAWING
Orthographic projection Application and definition of CHAPTER VI

projection, planes of projection, traces, projections State-
MACHINE DRAWING
ment and explanation of the principles of orthographic pro-
jection in the third angle Revolution, auxiliary views, the Screw threads Definition, standards, representation of
true length of a line 23 various forms, bolts, nuts, tapped holes Dimensioning and
CONTENTS
CHAPTER IX
describing machine parts Sections and conventions Repre-
sentation of shafts, pulleys, gears, holes, tapers, symmetrical PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION AND SKETCHING
and information in shop terms PAGE
pieces, Titles, part desig-
nations, bills of material Checking a drawing 57 Mechanical perspective, perspective projection, treated
as a problem in orthographic projection Terms defined,
CHAPTER VII principles and problems explained Isometric drawing:

Purpose and principles explained together with methods and
PLAN DRAWING applications Oblique projection and cabinet drawing
Use of shade lines and line shading Sketching: Kinds and
Definition and kinds; plans, elevation, detail, section
purpose of sketches, methods and principles 120
Lettering and conventions Building construction Work-
ing drawings Specifications, common measurements, plumb-
ing, materials of construction, details of construction in tile CHAPTER X
and concrete Drawing plans 75
BLUE PRINTING
CHAPTER VIII
Use of prints, preparation of slow, medium, and rapid
PLOT AND MAP DRAWING papers, printing, washing, and drying, intensifying, alter-
ations and corrections, transparentizing The Van Dyke
Definitions, explanations of terms, data, plotting Data "
White" and "brown " prints Carbon and hekto-
process:
from survey and title abstract, map and certification
graph prints Commercial printing: Electric continuous
Topography: Conventions and rendering Profile: Eleva- coating, printing, washing, and drying machines 135
tion, datum, levels and leveling The contour map Grading,
the prismoidal formula 106
MECHANICAL DRAFTING
DRAFTING INSTRUMENTS AND MATERIALS PLATE I.
TRIANGULAR BOXWOOD SCALE J-.lJLlJLL.iill

32' 16' 8' 4' 8
> 2 4 2 '
3 IN. TO THE FOOT ,-J-
'16
IN.
OR|. j. -H.f-,1.ll,2,3,4!N.TOTHEFOOT,TV IN.

^
TRIANGULAR BOXWOOD CHAIN SCALE: 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 PARTS TO THE INCH
INDIA INK ERASING SHIELD

MECHANICAL DRAFTING
CHAPTER I
MATERIALS AND INSTRUMENTS

1. The selection of materials and instruments requires 3. The T square consists of a thin straightedge or
considerable knowledge and experience. The former is blade to which is secured the head. The upper edge of the
secured through the trade catalogs and by personal inspec-
tion at the dealer's; in the absence of the latter, competent
advice should be sought. There is a great variety in the
quality, style and size of

drawing instruments; the outfit
selected will be determined by the kind and amount of work
to be done and the cost. Individual preference is also an
important factor. The selection should be left to those who
are responsible for the instruction and are familiar with local
requirements.
The usual outfit is illustrated on Plate I. This may be
increased as desired, and, if necessary, the bow set may be
omitted, but these instruments are almost indispensable.
2. The drawing board should have at least one flat sur-
FIG. 1. Using the T Square.
face and a true working edge. One of the short edges is
selected as a working edge and is used at the left. No blade and the inside edge of the head must be straight.
other edge should be used, because the shrinkage of the In use, the T square is held with the head firmly set against
wood causes the board to become "out of square." the working edge of the board and with the blade flat
MECHANICAL DRAFTING
against its face as in Fig. 1. Lines are drawn only on the triangles by drawing lines at 45 and 90 with a given
upper edge, holding the pencil point close against it. Move line, then by reversing the position of the triangle note
the T square by sliding the head. whether or not the edges now coincide with the test line.
4. The triangles most frequently used are the 45 and the (See Fig. 3.) A steel protractor may be used to test the
30-60. All angles and edges should be true. The triangles of 30 and 60.
angles are used for drawing vertical and inclined lines.
For drawing vertical lines, the triangle is placed against the
FIG. 3. Proving the Triangles.
6. The irregular curve is used for drawing lines which

are neither straight nor arcs of circles. Such lines are
usually determined by a series of points through which a

freehand curve is lightly
FIG. 2. -Using the Triangle. penciled, after which it is
made smooth by applying

T square as shown in Fig. 2. Inclined lines are drawn with the curve. The curve is
the triangle resting against the T square or another triangle. placed so that a portion of
The corners of triangles easily get out of true and there- it coincides with the line
fore the edges only should be used. and with the general direc- Fia 4 ._ Using the Curve .
5. Testing for Accuracy. Prove the straightness of the tion of curvature. A part
leftend of the drawing board, and of the upper edge of the of the matched portion only is drawn, the curve then being
blade and the inside edge of the head on the T square, by shifted and matched again as suggested in Fig. 4. This opera-
means of a straightedge. Prove the correctness of the tion is repeated until the whole line is smooth and continuous.
MATEEIALS AND INSTRUMENTS
7. The scale is for laying off measurements. It is The needle point should be left in this position permanently
placed flat on the drawing with the zero mark exactly at and the lead adjusted to it.
the point. The required distance is then read off and in- The lead used should not be softer than 4H and should
dicatedby a small dot, using a fine pencil point, in the man- be sharpened to a chisel point.
ner shown in Fig. 5. 9. In use, the compass should be slightly inclined for-
Successive dimensions should be laid off when possible ward and rotated clockwise between the thumb and finger,
without moving the scale. The edges of the scale should the needle point being pressed into the paper sufficiently
be protected from wear or damage, otherwise the marks or
FIG. 5. Using the Scale.
graduations will become indistinct. The accuracy of the
scale may be proved by laying off several divisions, then FIG. 6. Using the Compass.
reversing the scale to see if they coincide.
8.The compass consists of the following principal parts : to hold firmly but not to punch a large hole in the paper.
Head, legs, and lengthening bar. The legs are designated Fig. 6 will illustrate the method. A small freehand circle
according to use as "needle point," "pencil point," and penciled around the hole assists one readily to pick up the
"pen point." center again. Concentric circles should be drawn beginning
Each leg is provided with a joint which enables a parallel with the smallest, removing the compass from the paper for
adjustment to be made for large circles. The compass is each change of radius. A circle should be drawn with one
adjusted by first inserting the pen leg, then the shoulder sweep of the compass ;
a second sweep will broaden the line.
of the needle point is brought even with the pen point. In drawing circles having a diameter greater than 1", the
MECHANICAL DRAFTING
legs of the compass should be adjusted so that they are and rotating it in opposite directions alternately. See
parallel. For arcs of large radius the lengthening bar is Fig. 7. The dividers are readjusted if the space is not
used; the marking point is moved with the right hand and commensurate and the distance is stepped off again, the trial
the needle point is steadied with the left. process being repeated until the divisions are equal. The
The beam compass used for radii beyond the capacity
is trial points should not puncture the paper.
of the ordinary compass with lengthening bar. 11. The bow-set consists of bow-dividers, bow-pencil,
10. The dividers are used for spacing off equal distances and low-pen. They are intended to be used for small
and laying off measurements. The dividers are adiusted and work; their construction, adjustment and use are similar
to those of the larger instruments described above. The
"
compasses are used for circles of less than f radius.
12. The ruling pen is one of the most important instru-
ments of the set. It is essential that the condition and use

of thepen be observed carefully. The points or "nibs"
must be of equal length, rounded at the point as shown at
(a), Fig. 8, and fairly sharp. The space between the nibs
determines the width of the line and is regulated by the
adjusting screw.
The pen is filled by flowing the ink between the nibs
from the point of a quill there must be no ink on the out-
;
side. Too much ink will result in a blot.
FIG. 7. Using the Dividers. 13. When in use on the paper as

both nibs should rest
shown at (b), Fig. 8, leaving a space between one nib and the
manipulated with one hand. Fine adjustment is secured by T square or triangle. If only one nib touches the paper a
using the "hair-spring." To lay off equal spaces, or to ragged line or blot The pen should be drawn
will result.
divide a distance into equal parts, the dividers are set from left to right and from bottom to top, inclining it slightly
roughly by guess. This distance is then stepped off by in the direction of movement, as shown at (a) Fig. 8 and in
holding the instrument lightly between the thumb and finger Fig. 9.
MATERIALS AND INSTRUMENTS
The pen should be pressed lightly against the ruler; oughly with a piece of good linen. If ink is left in the pen
varying the pressure will cause unevenness. Note that the it will corrode the steel.
hand is steadied and guided by the light touch of the fingers. The above instructions for the ruling pen apply to the
compass pen also.
When the nibs of the pen become worn they must be
resharpened. This requires experience, and competent

advice should be sought before attempting it.
FIG. 9. Using the Pen.
15. The protractor is used for laying off, or measuring,

angles. When used, it is placed with its center at the vertex
of the angleand the zero marks coinciding with one side,
which should be extended for this purpose. The desired
NOTE SPACE angle is by making a dot with a fine pencil point at
laid off
FIG. 8. The Ruling Pen. the required division and drawing a line through it to the
vertex.
14. As the ink dries rapidly, the pen must be wiped 16. Care of Instruments. Keep the blade of the T
This should be done thor- clean by sand-papering it
frequently between the nibs. square occasionally lightly.
8 MECHANICAL DRAFTING
Triangles should be wiped off with a damp cloth. Pens Tracings are generally made by inking the drawing on
should be wiped dry, using a piece of linen or chamois; tracing cloth or linen. Transparent paper is sometimes
ink should not be allowed to dry on. When not in use the used, and a soft pencil may be substituted for ink when the
pens should be left open. conditions do not require the more durable and sharper-
Keep all instruments clean. They should be rubbed lined tracing.
frequently with a chamois, and steel parts should be oiled Bond paper of good texture and light weight is
19.
occasionally. sometimes used, both for the original drawing and for the
17. Drawing paper is made in various grades, sizes, and tracing. It has a good drawing surface and takes ink well.
shades. Good drawing paper is tough, strong, and will

withstand considerable erasure.
For drawings that are to be inked, the surface of the
paper should be fairly smooth and of a quality such that the
ink will lie well upon it. Pencil drawings should be made on
a paper having a hard surface with a "grain" which will take
the pencil. The working surface of a paper is the one from
which the "water-mark" is read, but the opposite side may
Co-ordinate Ruling Isometric Ruling
be used.
FIG. 10. Cross-section Paper.
In general white papers are used for drawings that are to
be inked, and buff papers for pencil work that is to be Blue prints may be made from bond paper, but this is
traced. greatly facilitated by first applying a commercial solution
18. The kind of paper to be used for drawing depends to render the paper more transparent. Other papers may
" "
upon circumstances. only one copy is needed, it may be
If be transparentized and printed from with success.
made upon a light buff or white paper of good quality and Cross-section paper should be used for sketching. It
inked directly upon the sheet. Usually several copies are may also be used for printing as directed above for bond
required and the original is then made upon a buff detail paper. It may be had in 8x8 and 10x10 divisions to
" "
paper, after which it is traced. From the tracing any the inch, also in isometric and other rulings. See
number of blue prints may be made. Fig. 10.
MATERIALS AND INSTRUMENTS 9
20. Pencils of various qualities and degrees of hardness drawing. The eraser should be kept clean and when it
are used in drafting. The lead should be smooth, not gritty, becomes old and hard it is no longer fit for use. Erasers
and of a hardness suited to the paper. The grade selected should be used only when necessary, and then lightly, to
should produce a fine, light line on the surface of the paper, avoid injuring the surface of the drawing.
which may be erased without leaving a trace. A 4H or 6H 23. If the student is careful to see that hands and
grade for lining and a 2H or 4H grade for lettering are com- drawing tools are clean, that he understands the arrange-
monly used. Draftsmen usually prefer a pencil of hexag- ment and plan of procedure before he begins, and is care-
onal shape, as it is not so liable to roll. ful to employ only fine, light lines, very little erasing will
21. The harder or drawing pencil is usually sharpened be required. The practice of smearing a drawing and
on both ends one to a round point and the other to a then scrubbing it at the end should be discouraged. Some
teachers require drawings to be made over again that show
erasure.
ROUND come
24.
Drawing inks are usually prepared and in
bottles with a quill filler attached to the cork. A good

PLAT India ink should flow freely, dry quickly, and be water-
proof. The bottle must be kept corked to prevent evapora-
tion. If the ink is too thick, a few drops of dilute am-
FIG. 11. Pencil Points.
monia or distilled water may be added.
flat point, as shown in Fig. 11. The round point is used Red ink is sometimes used for center and dimension
for locating points and the flat point for lining. The softer lines, and blue for construction lines; the objection to their
used for lettering and sketching and is sharpened
pencil is use is that they fade.
on one end to a round point. The points should be kept 25. Miscellaneous Articles. Thumb tacks should have
sharp by frequent applications to the sand-paper or file. small, flat heads, and short, tapering pins. They should
22. Erasers are of great variety in quality, grade, shape be pressed in flush with the board. Some prefer to use 1 oz.
and size. For pencil lines a soft, velvet rubber may be copper or iron tacks.
used. Ink lines require a hard rubber. The best quality A sand-paper or a flat file should always
pencil pointer of
should always be used, as a poor eraser will spoil the be ready and used frequently. A combination file and tack-
lifter is a useful implement. Keep the dust from the dent should select his own pen and then take good care
drawing, tools, and hands. of it.
A pen-holder of medium large diameter, preferably with A pen-wiper of linen

very good pieces of tracing cloth
is ;
a cork stock, should be provided. from which the "sizing" has been soaked make excellent
The pen-point for lettering should glide smoothly pen wipers.
and make a line of uniform width without pressure A chamois for wiping the instruments is essential,
sufficient open the point.
to The ball-pointed pen is A blotter should be at hand in case of need, but it is not
popular and other styles have rounded points. The stu- to be used on inked lines.
CHAPTER II
PRINCIPLES OF DRAFTING
26. The fundamental object of mechanical drawing is be observed. The outlines of the object shown should
to convey information for purposes of construction. It always be the most prominent feature of the drawing and,
is intended to be used in the place of oral or written expres-
sion and therefore it should be regarded as a language,
having as such well-defined forms, usages, and conventions.
The basis of this universal language is the line, and in its
various forms the line may be regarded as constituting the

alphabet of mechanical drawing.
27. The lines of a drawing are conventional. The out-
lines of the object are represented by lines of greater width;
full lines if the edges are visible, and dash lines if invisible.
Auxiliary lines are of a lesser width and include all except

outlines. They are center, dimension, extension, section,
and construction lines. The character and uses of the vari-
ous lines are shown in Figs. 12 and 13.
Colored inks are frequently used to denote auxiliary
lines, which should then be drawn full instead of broken. Fia. 12. Illustrating the Alphabet.
28. To facilitate the reading of the drawing it should

be strong in contrasts, which effect is secured, partially, by therefore, the lines representing the visible and invisible
varying the widths of the lines. There is no absolute edges should be drawn strong and bold.
standard for this, but the relation of the lines should 29. Lettering is very important, and if not well done it
11
detracts from the appearance of the drawing. Skill in alphabet shown on Plate II will assist to an understanding
lettering may be secured by the application of a few simple of these features. The height and width of letters should
be proportional.
In forming letters should be observed that their pro-
it
portions are determined by the space which the boundaries,

real or imaginary, inclose.This will be understood by
referring to Fig. 14 and noting the relative positions of the
"cross-bar." When the cross-bar is placed too low, the
letterappears inverted or top-heavy. The greater space
should be below the bar, but the spaces above and below
/-/
(a)
HH
(6) (c)
B B a B (6) (c)
FIG. 14. Effect of Varying FIG. 15. Effect of Increasing Space

Height of Cross-bar. Below Cross-bar.
should be very nearly equal. In a similar manner, by vary-

ing the length of the top or bottom bar, the letter may be
changed from an unstable to a stable appearance as shown
in Fig. 15. In (d) the cross-bar is also raised a trifle above
the center.
30. Letters should be spaced so as to equalize the areas
between them, and not at a fixed distance. Words are made
more prominent by increasing the spaces. Letters should
FIG. 13. Illustrating the Alphabet.
be made full-bodied and kept rather close together; words
should be kept well apart.
principles. In the first place the form and proportions of Letters may be slanted or not according to taste, but
letters should be carefully noted. The analysis of the in every case the aim should be to secure uniformity and
LETTERS AND FIGURES PLATE II.
A B COETGH/JKL MNOP Q ABCDEFGHUKLMNOPQR

/? S TU VWXYZ STUVWXYZ 123456 7890
/23456789O& 3/ abcdefghijklmnopqrst
ob c c/efgh/jk/mnop qrs tu v wxyz uuwxyz
ABODE FGHIJKLMNOPQ
RSTUVWXYZ
1234567890 & 3|
NOTE: The form, proportion, and sp
of letters should be studied analytically. This
may be done to advantage on cross-section
paper in the manner indicated.
Small letters should be made two-thirds
obcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz the height of capitals.

The slant should be uniform.
simplicity. The angle of slant is 60 to 70; a natural lines. This is illustrated on Plate III. The dimensions
slope approximately 65.
is indicated may be varied to suit. The purpose of a scheming
Small letters should be two-thirds the height of capitals; sheet to plan in advance the layout of a drawing so as to
is
for notes and general purposes |" and TS" respectively, are secure a balanced arrangement and to avoid crowding. The
recommended. rectangles are drawn and indicate the approximate

to scale
31. All lettering on drawings should be done freehand size and location of the views. This is done on note or trial
and light guide lines should be ruled to secure evenness. paper.
A sense of proportion is of great importance in lettering, The views should be located in such a manner that the
and it may be acquired by forming the habit of critical space on the drawing sheet is well occupied without crowd-
observation. ing. A well-balanced effect adds to the appearance of a

Use a medium, H or 2H, pencil, and a ball-pointed pen. drawing.
Everything depends upon practice. The figures within the circles indicate the individual
32. Penciling is of the greatest importance in securing drawings of the separate parts of an object. They are
good workmanship. The beginner generally makes the identification marks and should appear also in the B.M.
mistake of using too which produces a heavy
soft a pencil, (Bill of Material; under the proper heading.
line, or of bearing on too much with a hard pencil, which Sheets are laid out to suit conditions, as follows :
cuts grooves into the paper. The pencil should be adapted (a) Assembly; a drawing showing the object as a whole.
to the paper used and fine, sharp lines Should be drawn (6) Detail; a drawing showing a single part of the object.
lightly but clearly. (c) A group of related details, i. e., of the same material
33. Horizontal lines are drawn with the upper edge of or of adjoining parts.
the T square from left to right. Points for such lines should (d) Miscellaneous details.
be located at the left. (e) Assembly and details.
Vertical and inclined lines are drawn with a triangle 35. The layout of a drawing includes the following steps
and usually from the bottom toward the top. Points for in their order: (a) Draw the margin lines; (6) block in a
such lines should be located at the bottom. space for the title; (c) draw the center lines of the views;
34. The preparation for drawing includes tacking the (d) draw the outlines of the views. Some draftsmen do
paper on the board and drawing the margin and trimming not use margin lines.
LAYOUT OF SHEET PLATE III.
EDGE OF PAPER-
TRIMMING LINE'
BORDER LINE-
DEVELOPMENT OF THE PENCIL DRAWING PLATE IV.
(a) Main Center Lines. (6) Principal Outlines.
(<) Details. (d) Dimensions, Notes, etc. ;

Outlines Darkened.
16
PKINCIPLES OF DRAFTING 17
The outlines of the views should be blocked in very If the drawing is to be traced the outlines should be em-
lightly, using a hard pencil and a fine line. Do not measure phasized with a pencil of or H
grade. HH
off the corners, but draw the lines of indefinite length and All drawings should be carefully checked for error.
them to all views. This is a time-saver. See Plate 39. The inking of a drawing should not be proceeded
project
IV. with until the penciling is finished. If the surface of the
Prove the correctness of the layout. drawing has been damaged by erasure, poor results will be
36. The details should be drawn after the outlines are obtained. The surface must be free from dust.
all in. Next, draw the dimension and extension lines, The inking should proceed systematically. Having
arrow points, figures, notes, and title in the order named. adjusted the pen to a given type of line, begin at the top
Each detail should be drawn complete in all views and ink all the horizontal lines of that type; next, the ver-
before proceeding with the others. It is not good practice tical lines, beginning at the left; finally, ink the inclined
to complete one view before beginning others. lines. Always work away from the fresh ink and do not
It is customary to draw first all center lines full and use a blotter on the lines. Try to secure uniformity and
afterward to retrace them. This saves time in block- accurate corners, joints and tangents. If a line is imperfect,
ing-in. ascertain the fault and apply the remedy.

37. There is a great variety in the form and location of 40. If erasure is necessary it should be done with great
titles, also in numbering or indexing drawings. Suggestions care, using light pressure, so as to remove the ink only and
are offered on Plate V. not damage the surface of the drawing. An erasing shield
The usual location for the title is the lower right-hand will assist in this respect.
corner, as this position facilitates filing. Practice inking on a separate sheet before attempting
A bill of material, or stock bill, if it is placed on the sheet, it on the drawing.
should be located directly above the title. Shake the bottle of ink before filling the pen; test the
38. The final drawing is usually in ink and the pencil pen after filling to see that the ink flows freely and that the
drawing should be considered as temporary in character. line is of the proper width.

The pencil drawing should be complete and the character Ink the lines in the following order :
Center, circles, arcs,
of all lines distinctive, so that any competent person may curves, straight, dimension, figures, section, lettering. See
ink or trace it, but no time should be spent unnecessarily. Fig. 16.
FORMS FOR TITLES AND BILLS OF MATERIAL PLATE V.
PLOT
OF SURl/EY OF
THE MAPLES FARM
TOW/V OFNEWSTEXD
ER/E CO. /V.Y
SCALE /-OO Ft.
OKAWN BY DATE:
PRINCIPLES OF DRAFTING 19
41. Tracings are made by inking the drawing on trans- sary to trace only a part of the drawing at a time, protecting
parent paper or cloth. The object of this is to preserve the the remainder by a paper tacked over it. The whole should
original and also to provide additional copies quickly and be covered with a cloth over night.
cheaply by means of blue-prints. (See Chap. X.) 43. In general the directions previously given for inking
42. Tracing cloth having one side glazed and the other should be followed. The beginner should not attempt to
dull is
generally preferred. The beginner should always use a steel point for erasing; some do not use it at all. An
use the glazed side for inking, as the inevitable mistakes are erased surface should be rubbed with a piece of soap-stone
before it is again inked.
Instead of using lines to indicate a sectioned surface,
some draftsmen darken the area with a soft pencil or with
) CENTER LINES, (&)HOPIZONTAU
dilute ink applied with a brush to the dull side of the cloth.
44. Geometrical constructions are drawn by means of
the T square and triangles as far as possible. Angles of

15, 30, 45, 60, 75, and 90 may be drawn, as well as
parallels and perpendiculars, by using these tools singly or
HEX..',
.CROSS FLATS
in combination; also they are used to draw the equilat-
eral triangle, square, hexagon, octagon, and diagonals, as
shown on Plate VI. Circles may be divided, by using the
AN D NOTES
T square and triangles, into 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12 and 24 parts.
Fia. 16. Order of Inking.
Other constructions, when required, may be obtained from
more easily erased. The cloth
prepared by tacking it
is any text on geometry.
over the drawing, taut and smooth. Rub the surface with 45. Drafting technic depends upon knowledge and skill.
powdered chalk to take off the oil and clean it thoroughly. If it is to be acquired, great attention must be paid to details.
Do not put water on the cloth or handle it with moist Neatness and accuracy are absolutely essential. Slovenly
hands; it may be wiped off with benzine or gasolene. work should not be tolerated under any circumstances.
The moisture in the air will cause the tracing cloth to Neatness relates to the general appearance of the draw-
swell and shrink as conditions vary. It is therefore neces- ing, and includes erasures, blots, finger-marks and tears;
GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTIONS PLATE VI.
(d)
NOTE: FIRST POSITION OF TRIANGLE IS SHOWN BY DOTTED LINES.
HEXAGON
OCTAGON HEXAGON
SOSCELES
1ANGLE
(0)
20
PRINCIPLES OF DRAFTING 21
also evenness of lines, shape and slant of letters, and bal- To hold the pen over the drawing while filling.
anced arrangement of the drawing. To leave the cork out of the ink bottle.
Accuracy means exactness in laying off measurements To use the points of instruments to bore or ream holes.
and subdividing lines, in making intersections and connec- To leave the pens and bow instruments screwed up
tions, in laying off angles, in drawing lines, perpendiculars, tightly.
parallels, and tangents, and in locating centers and joining

arcs.
TOP view
OR PLAN
FIG. 17. Perspective Drawing

of a Box. FIG. 18. Isometric Drawing of a Box.
46. It is bad practice

To drop the T square, scale, or other tools on the floor.
To use the triangles or points of instruments to pry out
tacks.
To use the scale as a straightedge.
To hammer in thumb-tacks with the T square or any
other tool.
To use the upper edge of the T square as a guide for a
knife.
faces or sides of the object are seen. The drawing of the should be carefully noted. With respect to the front view,
box in Fig. 17 is of this type. The parallel edges appear to the top view placed above, the right-side view to the right,
is
vanish and to meet at a distant point. This is also called the left-side view to the left, and the bottom view below.
a perspective drawing. The bottom view is seldom used, and when the side views are
(6) An isometric drawing is similar to a perspective
but alike one should be omitted. The back view is not usually
the parallel edges are drawn actually parallel and not to a required, but, if drawn, it should be placed on a line with the
vanishing point as in perspective, see Fig. 18. front view and to the right or left of the side view respect-
(c) A projection drawing, so called, represents each ively. The above arrangement of views is in accordance
view or face of the object separately, as shown in Fig. 19. with "third angle" projection, which is generally used in
The broken lines represent edges that are hidden or invisible. practical work. It is explained and demonstrated in the
48. The arrangement of views for a projection drawing following paragraphs.

CHAPTER III
GEOMETRY OF DRAWING
Orthographic Projection A projection is a view or picture upon a transparent
49. Geometry has many applications in the practice screen. Rays of light from a stereopticon pass through the
of mechanical drawing. Ordinary constructions, such as lantern slide, travel in straight lines, and form an image or
drawing a perpendicular, parallel, or tangent, are accom-

plished by the use of the T square and triangles as ex-
plained in Section 44. Constructions which involve a solu-
tion, such as bisecting a line, or drawing a circle through

three given points, properly belong to the problems and
applications of mathematical geometry and should be studied

in connection with that subject.
50. There are, however, certain mathematical curves
which are required in the solution of drawing problems,,
such as, the ellipse, helix, involute, and cycloid. These can
be studied to the best advantage in connection with their
applications and, as the last two of them are related to the
more advanced phases of the subject, they are omitted
here. The first two will be found in connection with the FIG. 20. Perspective Projection or View.
problems to which they relate.
51. Orthographic projection is the foundation of me- projection upon the Let a pane of glass be held in
screen.
chanical drawing. An
understanding of its principles front of a thin object and from each corner or point imagine
and how they are applied is of great value in making and a ray or line of light to pierce the glass and travel to the eye.
interpreting drawings. Join the points where the rays pierce the glass with lines
23
and the result will be a picture, or view, or projection of the A top view or projection may be
obtained by placing the
object as shown in Fig. 20. glass horizontally over the top, and similarly, a side view
If the rays are made to fall upon the glass perpendicularly may be obtained by placing it vertically at the side as shown
instead of obliquely, the result will be a view or projection of in Figs. 22 and 23.
the object in its actual form and size, as shown in Fig. 21, It should be observed that, in the above discussion, the
FIG. 22. Projections of Object upon three Planes.

FIG, 21. Projection of Object upon a Plane.
object is placed in such a position that its faces are parallel
instead of being reduced or foreshortened as in Fig. 20. to the panes of glass and that only in this position are the
This is the characteristic principle of orthographic projection. projections of actual size and shape. If the object were
52. An orthographic projection is a view that shows turned so that the faces were not parallel, the projections
the actual form and size of an object. It represents the would correspondingly represent the faces as being shorter,
object as it really is and not as it appears. or foreshortened.

GEOMETRY OF DRAWING 25
03. The panes of glass correspond to the planes of views are the projections of the corresponding faces of
projection. They are known as the front (V), top (H), and the object upon their respective planes, as shown in Fig. 22,
side or profile (P) ; they are placed at right angles to each which are swung into one plane for convenience in working
other. The intersections of these planes are called traces. on the drawing board.
The intersection of H and V is also known as the ground
line. The object as shown in Fig. 22 is represented as being
FIG. 23. Projections of Object upon three Planes Object removed.
placed in a box or space having three dimensions. In making
drawings on a board it is possible to work in only two dimen-

FIG. 24. Planes Revolved into One Plane.
sions, therefore the top and profile planes are swung about
their traces until they are all in one plane (V) as shown in It, willbe seen that each corner of the object is repre-
Fig. 24. sented by three points in the drawing one point in each
54. A projection drawing of the same object shown pre- view. In other words every point on the object has a
viously may be seen in Fig. 25. The front, top, and side corresponding point or projection on each plane; these are
denoted the V, H, and P projections of the point, the zontal trace of profile plane), which is the intersection of
letters referring to the respective planes. For example, the H and P planes.
the projections of the point C are C v C h and C p
, ,
. The lines which project the points on the object to the
Where two points are located in the same perpendicular, planes are called projection lines or projectors; these lines
they project into one common point, as shown in Fig. 25; are always perpendicular to the planes of projection in
space, therefore on the drawing they will always be per-
pendicular or parallel to the traces.
56. It is evident that the top view is directly above the
front view; that the side view is in the same horizontal line
TOP VIEW
with the front view; that the front and side views are the
same height; that the front and top views are the same
length; and that the top and side views are the same width.
G L A thorough understanding of the fundamental principles
is absolutely essential in solving the problems in projection.
The student should therefore be familiar with the following
facts :
SIDE OR
FRONT VIEW The distances and ap are
END VIEW (a) a, the same, or that both the
front and side projections of a point are in a horizontal
line. Similarly the front and top projections are in a
vertical line.
FIG. 25. Drawing of Object in Orthographic Projection.
(6) The distances 6A and b p are the same and denote the dis-
the points B and C of the front view project into the one tance that the object is placed back of the front plane.
point BC in the top view. (c) The front view ABCD projects into a single line AD-BC
55. The traces are designated as GL (ground line), in the top view, and AB-CD in the side view.
which is the line of intersection of the H and V planes; (d) A line projects into a point, a shorter line, or its true
V Tr. of P (vertical trace of profile plane), which is the length, according to whether it is perpendicular, oblique,
intersection of the V and P planes; and H Tr. of P (hori- or parallel to a plane of projection.
(e) A surface projects into a line or figure, according to but the front and side views are now longer than before.
whether it is perpendicular or oblique to a plane of From this it is seen that placing an object obliquely to a
projection; if parallel to a plane of projection it is plane changes the projection upon that plane. This is
projected on that plane in its true shape and size. shown also in Fig. 27, where the object has been placed
FIG. 26. Projections of Object Oblique to V and P. FIG. 27. Projections of Object Oblique to H and P.
57. In the previous discussion of this subject it was obliquely to H and P, its projections upon those planes
assumed that the faces of the object were parallel to the being changed. In Fig. 28 the object is oblique to H and V,
planes of projection. In Fig. 26 the object is placed so and the projections upon those planes are correspondingly
that the front and side faces are not parallel to the planes. changed.
As the top face is still parallel to H, the top view is the same 58. The turning of the object into a position such that
as before except that it is turned into an oblique position, some of its faces are not parallel to the planes of projection
may be considered as the revolving of the object about an remains unchanged; but the lengths of the front and side
imaginary axis. In Fig. 26 the object was turned around views become greater.
on its base, or revolved about a vertical axis perpendicular (g) The position of the top view is changed, but its size and
shape remain unchanged.
These facts may be expressed tersely thus :
Distances parallel to the axis of revolution remain unchanged.

The view which lies in the plane perpendicular to the axis
of revolution remains unchanged.

The principles of projection, as stated above, also apply when
the object is revolved about an axis perpendicular to V or P.
59. From what has been stated it should be observed
that in revolving about an axis there is always an unchanged
view. Therefore in solving problems in projection the
unchanged view is the one to be drawn first, the other views
being then projected from it. After drawing the unchanged

view and projecting it to the other views, the unchanged
dimensions are then laid off and the remaining views are
blocked in.
If the points to be projected are numbered or lettered,

FIG. 28. Projections of Object Oblique to H and V. as for example !, !, denoting the respective projec-
lf ,
tions, the work cf tracing the projectors and determining

to H. In Fig. 27 the object was revolved about an axis the intersections will be made much easier. It is also
perpendicular to V. helpful to remember that when an object is revolved

When the object shown in Fig. 25 is turned on its base about an axis its various points describe circles which lie
or, in other words, revolved about a vertical axis, it is seen in parallel planes whose distances apart do not change.
that: This may be demonstrated by placing chalk marks on a top
(/) The distance a is the same as before, and the height also and then causing it to spin.
60. The revolutions of the object as studied above were to the plane of projection. If the face to be represented is
made each case from the object in its

in initial position. not parallel to a plane then it must be made parallel when
Revolutions may also be made in sequence, i. e., by starting it is desired to have a projection in its true shape and size.
the second revolution from the first and the third from the This accomplished in either of two ways (a) by revolving
is ;
second. The same principles and methods apply as before. the object or its face into a position parallel with the plane,
See Plate VII. as explained above, or, (6) by making the plane itself parallel
to the face. For thispurpose one of the three regular planes

(V, H or P) may be used, or an additional plane may be
used. Such a plane is called an auxiliary plane.
62. An auxiliary view is a projection upon an auxiliary
plane. In Fig. 29 is represented an object one of whose
faces is not parallel to a plane; this face is therefore not
projected in its true shape and size.
The method of obtaining the desired projection by the

use of the auxiliary plane is shown in Fig. 30. The figure
ABCD thus found is a projection of the top face of the
object in its true shape and size. It will be seen that the
auxiliary traces are drawn respectively parallel and per-

FIG. 29. Projections of an Object having One Face not Parallel to a Plane
of Projection.
pendicular to the face to be projected, the principles of
projection previously explained are then applied to deter-
In applying the principles of projection in drawing it mine the view.
must be fully understood that every line of the drawing is 63. An auxiliary plane be used in any manner
may
the projection of a surface. desired, but it should be set up perpendicular to one of the
Projectors, i.
e., construction lines in projection, should regular planes of projection and revolved about one of its
be drawn solid and very light. traces into the plane of the paper.
61. It has been shown that the face of an is In practical work it is customary to draw only the face
object
projected in its true shape and size only when it is parallel required rather than the whole view and to work the prob-
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION CONSECUTIVE REVOLUTIONS PLATE VII.
(a) Object parallel (6) Object in (a) re- (c)Object in (6) revolved about (d)Object in (c) revolved about
to all planes. volved about an an axis perpendicular to V. an axis perpendicular to H.
axis perpendicular to Front view unchanged. Top view unchanged.
H. Top view un-
changed.
30
C L
FIG. 30. Projection of a Face upon an Auxiliary Plane -called Fio. 31. Showing Method of Constructing an Auxiliary View, omittim:
.1 nxiliary View. Traces.
lem from center lines, omitting the traces. This method a center line. In symmetrical figures it is necessary to
is determined by points
illustrated in Fig. 31, the ellipse being construct only one-half of the view.
laid off from the true measurements found in the other views In a similar manner the true size and shape of the top
as shown. face is determined by revolving the plane of that face into
a position parallel to a plane of projection, which in this
case is H.
By the method of the auxiliary view it is possible to
determine projections of geometrical figures and irregular
curves and shapes; a sufficient number of points being found
they are joined and the projection is obtained.

65. The true length of a line is frequently required in the
solution of problems. It was stated above that an object

placed oblique to a plane of projection will be represented
by foreshortened faces on that plane; therefore any edge
of the object will be represented also by a foreshortened line.
It was stated also that a line will project on a plane in its
true length when it is parallel to that plane; the true length
of a line may be found, therefore, by making the line parallel
to the plane. This may be accomplished by the following

method :
A line, AB, is represented in Fig. 33 by its H and V

projections. To make the line parallel to V its H projection
FIG. 32. Auxiliary View obtained by Revolving the Face Parallel to a Plane. is revolved about A/, as a center until it is parallel with GL,
(AftB'ft). If the line AB were actually revolved in this
64. A further application of the principle of the auxiliary manner the point B would describe in space a horizontal
view is exemplified in Fig. 32. The outline of the base of circle, the projection of which on H is B/.B',, and on V is
the object shown is found by revolving one-half of it about B,BV As the H and V projections of a point lie in the
same vertical line, B' c must be the V projection of the point It should also be noted that a projection of a line parallel
B after the line has been made parallel to V. The true to GL indicates that the line itself is parallel to a plane.
length of the line is therefore AJBV The arrangement
67. of views shown in Fig. 25 is de-
The revolution could have been made parallel to H termined by the manner in which the planes of projection
are swung into the plane of the drawing as explained in
FIG. 34. Showing Arrangement of Views when V and P are swung into same
Plane with H.
FIG. 33. Showing Method of Finding the True Length of a Line.
paragraph 53. If the V and P planes are swung about

instead of V and the true length of the line would then have their traces into the H
plane the arrangement of views
been its H projection.
would appear as shown in Fig. 34. This method is preferred
66. The angle which A B' C (Fig. 33) makes with GL is by some and is geometrically correct, but it is not used as
the true size of the angle which AB makes with H. extensively in practice as the other.
CHAPTER IV
GEOMETRY OF DRAWING
(A) The Intersection of Surfaces structed of two or more parts which are usually geometrical
68. In the construction of certain kinds of objects, full- forms that intersect. The objects shown in Fig. 36 are
sized patterns of the outside surfaces are required. The built of two intersecting cylinders, each of which was cut
pattern is spread out flat on the material to be used and the from a pattern or development of its surface. In order to
latter is cut so that when rolled, folded, or formed it will lay out the pattern or development it is necessary to de-
make the object. Applications of this subject may be found termine the curve formed by the intersection of the two
Fio. 35. Application of Intersections and Developments in Sheet-Metal

FIG. 36. Geometrical Forms Intersecting.
Construction.
in practical arts as, for example, in tin-smithing pans, surfaces. Geometrical solids of the type forms are used as
funnels, boxes, cans and many other articles; in sheet- the basis for the study of the principles of this subject be-
metal construction (see Fig. 35) ventilators, sky-lights, cause nearly all practical problems are fundamentally
cornices and various kinds of formed work ;
and in patterns geometrical in character.
for boiler-making. 70. A line of intersection is a line common to any two
69. Many of the objects requiring patterns are con- surfaces that meet. The intersection of two plane surfaces
34
is a straight line (see Fig. 37); of a plane and curved gent plane and cutting the cylinder are also elements (see
surface, a straight line or a curve (see Fig. 38) ;
of two Fig. 38).
curved surfaces, a curve (see Fig. 39). The character of 72. Intersections are determined by two general methods;
the intersection is determined by the position of the planes the simpler one will be demonstrated first. Every point on
and surfaces with reference to each other; thus, in Fig.. 38, the curve is the intersection of two elements; therefore the
FIG. 39. Intersection of Two

FIG. 37. Intersection of Two Planes.
(a) Straight Line. (6) Curve. Curved Surfaces.
Fir;. 38. Intersection of a Plane with a Curved

Surface.
it is seen that the intersection of a plane and cylinder may problem is to find the elements which correspond and deter-
be a straight line or a curve. mine by projection their points of intersection. Through
71. The formed by a plane tangent to the
line of contact a number of points thus determined the curve may be drawn.
surface of a cylinder or cone is known as an element (see 73. Two intersecting cylinders are shown in Fig. 41;
Fig. 40). The intersections of any plane parallel to a tan- the curve of intersection is determined as follows: (a)
Divide the top view of cylinder B, into any convenient
arc, in B are points common to both cylinders and therefore
number of parts. Each of these points is the projection H determine the curve c d,
of an element in B, as a b. (b) Find the V and P projec- 74. The intersection shown in Fig. 41 is symmetrical,
tions of the same points; they are the projected elements therefore the whole of it need not be drawn. As the axes
of the cylinders A and B intersect, the curve of intersec-
(a) Cylinder.
FIG. 41. Cylinders Intersecting.

(/>) Cone.
Fio. 40. Tangent Plane producing an Element.

tion on the back coincides with that on the front; otherwise
in B corresponding to their H projections. These elements there would be a difference. The limiting point, c, of the
pierce the cylinder A, intersecting elements of the latter intersection found by projecting the point where the
is
which are determined by the intersections in P of the pro- extreme element of B in the side view pierces the cylinder A.
jected elements from B with the arc ef. (c) Draw the ele- 75. The method of the auxiliary plane for the determin-
ments in A ;
their intersections with corresponding elements ing of intersections is, in general, to draw a number of
planes so chosen that they shall cut either straight lines or such auxiliary parallel planes being used as may be required,
circles from the surfaces. The points in which these lines to give sufficient points to determine the intersection.
intersect are points on the curve, as the lines lie in the same In a similar manner the intersection on the back is
plane and also in the surfaces cut

by the plane. determined. It is not the same as the front in this case
76. In Fig. 42 are shown two cylinders intersecting ob-
Fio. 42. Cylinders Intersecting Obliquely.
liquely. The line xx is the trace of an auxiliary plane

FIG. 43. Cylinder and Cone Intersecting.
parallel to V. This plane cuts an element, a, from the
cylinder A and two elements 6 and 6' from B. The pro- because the axes of the cylinders do not intersect. At least
jections of these elements intersect at ab and ab' which are two of the required points are usually found by each plane.
points on the curve of intersection. In like manner other The planes should be drawn so that the lines cut are either
points are determined by the plane YY and so on, as many straight or circles.
In general, either of the two methods given may be
77. 78. In finding the intersections of a cylinder and cone,
used to determine intersections, but in certain problems one auxiliary planes may be passed through the axis of the cone,
method may be preferred or the other not adapted. as shown
in Fig. 43, or perpendicular to it, as shown in
In determining the intersections of prisms and pyramids, Fig. 44. In both cases the planes are parallel to the ele-
ments of the cylinder. In the first case elements are cut
FIG. 45. A Prism and its Development.
FIG. 44. Cylinder and Cone Intersecting. from the cone and cylinder, while in the second, circles are
cut from the cone and elements from the cylinder.
the auxiliary plane cannot be used to advantage, as the
intersections, instead of being curves, are composed of (B) The Development of Surfaces
Such intersections may be determined

short, straight lines. The development of a surface is the process of laying
79.
by the use of elements and the method is the same as that out a pattern of it on a plane. In paragraphs 68 and 69,
previously explained. the character and general applications of the process were
explained; the methods and principles of construction are For the purposes of practical construction, it is necessary
demonstrated in the following paragraphs. to allow extra material for laps and seams in making a
In Fig. 45 a prism and a pattern of its surfaces are
80.
shown. This pattern or development was produced by

laying each face of the prism on the paper and drawing
around with a pencil. It is obvious that if this develop-
it
ment were cut out and folded it would make a prism the
same size as the original, because each face of the develop-
ment is the same shape and size as the corresponding face
on the prism. This is the basic principle of this subject and
may be expressed thus :
To develop a surface it must be projected in its true shape and

size.
It is evident, therefore, that a developed surface must always be

drawn to scale full size.
81. From the preceding, it is apparent that the chief
factor in determining the development of a surface is the find-
ing of the true lengths of the lines bounding it. This is done
according to the principles and methods of projection and
intersections previously explained.
82. The problems of this subject may readily be grouped
according to types as follows:
(a) The prism and cylinder.
(6) The pyramid and cone.
(c) Intersecting solids. FIG. 46. Development of a Prism.
(d) The oblique cone.

development. However, this allowance is omitted in this
Each type will be demonstrated in the order given. treatment because its application is a matter of shop knowl-
edge and experience which can be understood only in the 84. The method explained in the preceding paragraph is
practice of the trades. sufficiently general to cover prisms with irregular bases as
83. Development of the right prism and cylinder. To well as regular, and prisms with any number of sides.
develop a prism similar to that shown in Fig. 45, a base As the cylinder is a prism having an infinite number of
line AB, or "stretchout," is first drawn (see Fig. 46). This sides, its development is similar to that of the prism; the
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011121314151
FIG. 47. Development of the Frustum of a Prism.
divided into as 876

is many parts as the prism has sides,
Fic. 48. Development of the Frustum of a Cylinder.
each division corresponding in length to the width of a face.
Perpendiculars are next drawn from each point on the stretchout being laid off equal to the rectified circumference
stretchout. The altitude of the prism is laid off and the of its base.
upper base line, CD, is drawn. The upper and lower bases 85. If the top part of the prism is cut off, the lower part
are then constructed geometrically, exact size, and the is called a frustum. A frustum is developed in the same
development is complete. manner as the whole prism except that, instead of drawing
the upper base line, CD, the length of each perpendicular Fig. 49. An elbow made up of more than two pieces would
must be laid off separately according to the lengths of the have middle section or sections developed in this manner;
its
corresponding edges, and the points thus found joined by the end sections would be developed as in Fig. 48. A four-
straight lines. The development of the frustum of a piece elbow is shown in Fig. 50.
prism is shown in Fig. 47. The true lengths of the various 88. Development of the right pyramid and cone. The
edges are obtained by projection as shown. development of the pyramid is very similar in method to
86. The development of the frustum of a cylinder is that of the prism. A pyramid is shown in Fig. 51.
shown in Fig. 48. The circumference of the base is divided

into any convenient number of equal parts which are pro-
FIG. 49. Development of the Double Frustum of a Cylinder.
jected as elements. The stretchout, AB, is divided into

the same number of equal parts; perpendiculars are drawn FIG. 50. A Four-Piece Eloovv.
and numbered to correspond with the elements, the lengths

of which are then laid off. Through the points thus found The first step in the development is to find the true
a curve is drawn, which is the boundary of the upper base. length of a slant edge, ab. This is done by the method of
In practice it is customary to make the seam on the finding the true length of a line, section 65, or by drawing
shortest element. the pyramid as shown at (6) Fig. 51, so that its slant edge
87. If a cylinder has neither of its bases perpendicular is parallel to V and therefore projects in its true length, cd.
to its axis,
it may be developed
by taking the stretchout at With this distance as a radius describe an arc (Fig. 52) and
some midpoint and developing on both sides as shown in lay off on it the points 1, 2, 3, 4, the true lengths of the
base lines. Join these points with and draw the base lines bases may be determined and drawn as before explained.
as shown to complete the development. See Fig. 47.
89. To develop the frustum of a pyramid proceed in the The development of a cone, or its frustum, is the
90.
same in general method as the pyramid. The cone may be

considered as a pyramid of an infinite number of sides
FIG. 52. Development of a Pyramid.
the elements of the cone corresponding to the edges of the
FIG. 51. A Pyramid.

pyramid.
91. To develop the cone, divide the circumference of
same manner as explained above. The true lengths of the the base into a convenient number of equal parts as in Fig.
slant edges must be found and also the true lengths of 54. Then, with a radius equal to the slant height (true
the portions cut off in each case. These are laid off and length of an element), draw an indefinite arc and lay off
the development completed as shown in Fig. 53. The the circumference of the base on this arc. The usual
GEOMETEY OF DRAWING 43
method of doing the latter is to step off with the dividers the (a) Cylinders with axes intersecting at right angles.
divisions from the circumference of the circle. While this (6) Oblique cylinders.
is not strictly accurate, the error is slight and it is the (c) Cylinder and cone.
method generally followed in practice, a slight allowance (d) Prisms.
being made for the deficiency. These will be discussed in order.

92. The frustum of a cone is developed in the same 94. (a) Cylinders with axes intersecting at right angles
manner as the pyramid and as explained in the preceding are developed by first determining their intersections, see
paragraph. The elements are revolved to determine their
FIG. 53. Development of the Frustum of a Pyramid. FIG. 54. Development of a Cone and its Frustum.
true lengths, which are then laid off, and through the points Fig. 41. The smaller cylinder is developed as shown in
thus found a curve is drawn. Fig. 55. The stretchout, AB, drawn equal to the cir-
is
93. The Development of Intersecting Solids. To develop cumference and divided into the same number of parts.
the surfaces of solids which intersect, it is necessary first to Starting with the shortest element, the lengths are laid off
determine their lines of intersection in order to find the true as determined by the curve of intersection in the front view.
lengths of their elements or edges. This was fully ex- Through the points thus obtained the curve is drawn.
plained in the first part of this chapter. For purposes of The larger cylinder is developed in a similar manner, the
study we may classify these problems as follows : elements being laid off on either side of the center line. It
should be noted that only the elements which determine the curves do not have the symmetry of those above. See
curve need to be drawn. See Fig. 56. Figs. 57 and 58. In dividing the stretchout, care must
95. (fe) Cylinders whose axes do not intersect, or are be taken to have the points. spaced in accordance with the
FIG. 55. Development of Smaller Cylinder of Fig. 41.

the revolved base of the cylinder B. By giving the matter therefore develop into a broken boundary instead of a curve.
a little thought the pupil can readily understand this. See Figs. 47 and 53.
96. (c) The development of intersecting solids, like the 98. Triangulation is an approximate method of develop-
cylinder and cone, Fig. 39, are obtained by first determining ment which is commonly used in practical work. It is
the intersections as previously explained; either the method particularly adapted to applications of the oblique cone,
of elements or of auxiliary planes may be used. The stretch-
outs are drawn and spaced and the elements laid off in the
same manner as given above for similar developments.
DEVELOPMENT
The development of the cylinder shown in Fig. 39 would be O'
FIG. 59. Development of the Cone of Fig. 39.
made in two parts, and each would appear similar to that FIG. 60. of Oblique Cone by Tri nguhition.
Development
shown in Fig. 55. The development of the cone is shown in
Fig. 59. which can be more readily and accurately developed by this
97. (d) In cases where the development includes either method. The surface to be developed is divided into tri-
prisms or pyramids, or both, the method of procedure is no angles having short bases. The true lengths are then found
different from that already explained. The edges of the of each of the sides of the triangles. The development
prism or pyramid are treated as elements. The inter- consists of constructing these triangles with their common
sections of plane surfaces will give straight lines which will sides joining. See Fig. 60.
99. The sides of the triangles are elements of the cone and and lay off on it the distance, O.A.. Then, with 0' as a
their true lengths are determined in the usual manner. The center, draw arcs with radii equal to the true lengths of the
bases of the triangles are short chords found in the top view sides. Next draw arcs with a radius equal to the base; their
of the base of the cone which is divided into small parts. intersections with the arcs previously drawn give points
To construct the development draw a centerline, O'A', which determine the curve.
CHAPTER V
WORKING DRAWINGS
100. A working drawing is one showing the form, size of views and details. (6)Conformity to standard practice.
and construction of an object. (c) The selection of essential and most suitable dimensions.
Its
purpose is to convey to the mechanic sufficient (d) Complete explanatory notes.
information to enable him to make the required object. In order that working drawings may be made and
103.
To this end the working drawing must be clear, accurate, read with ease and facility, certain symbols have been
and complete. Nothing should be omitted that is essential
or that would make the drawing obscure or doubtful; on
the other hand unnecessary views and lines should be left
out.
101. The basis of the working drawing is orthographic
I
projection as explained in Chapter III.
not follow, however, that the views of a working
It does
drawing must be in all respects true or complete projections. Fia. 61. of a Box.
Working Drawing
For the sake of clearness it is frequently advisable to depart
from the exact rules of projection. adopted which are known as conventions. These have
The necessary views, together with the dimensions and come to be recognized as more or less "standard." Their
other essential information, constitute the working drawing. forms and uses are explained in the following para-
A working drawing of a box is shown in Fig. 61. graphs.
102. In making working good
drawings, execution 104. Kinds of
Working Drawings. A drawing that is
depends upon :
(a) The proper selection and representation made roughly, without particular reference to the actual
47
dimensions, is a sketch. If the dimensions are indicated, A scale graduated in the manner described above is
then called a working sketch.

it is shown in Fig. 62, and a measurement of 4 ft. 3 in. is indi-
A
drawing which shows the various parts of an object cated. It will be seen that a drawing may thus be made to a
assembled in their relative positions is known as an assembly reduced scale without the necessity of computing fractional
drawing. Such a drawing usually has only a few of the measurements, which would be a laborious method and
larger reference dimensions upon it, or none at all. liable to error.
A
detail is a drawing of a single part to a larger scale It should be noted that the inch on the reduced scale is
than the assembly. It is intended for construction purposes divided into fractional parts similar to the full-sized scale.
and should therefore be dimensioned.
A scale drawing is one that is made exactly in accordance
with actual dimensions. If it is drawn to the same size as
the object, it is said to be "scale full size" or 12" = 1 ft. A

drawing may be one-half size, or to the scale 6" = 1 ft. and
so on.
Drawings should be made to as large a scale as possible.

In no case should other than a standard scale be used.
Details should be drawn full size when practicable.
105. An object that is too large to be drawn actual or
full size is drawn to a reduced scale. For example, suppose
that an object is of such a size that the drawing of it must
be made one-twelfth as large. It is evident that a distance
of one foot on the object would be represented by a distance
of one inch on the drawing, or, in other words, the foot on
the drawing is one-twelfth of the corresponding "standard"

foot on the object. The standard foot is divided into twelve
inches, therefore by dividing the reduced foot into twelve
parts each part will represent one inch.
WORKING DRAWINGS 49
The scales that are used most frequently are the 12", 108. Conventional Lines. Visible edges and outlines of
6", 3", 1|" and 1" for ordinary drawings and \" and |" for objects should be represented by full lines of medium width.
plan drawings. See Plate VIII.
Drawings of very small objects are frequently drawn to Invisible edges and outlines of objects should be repre-
an increased scale. sented by broken lines consisting of short dashes, separated

107. Views. In making a working drawing of an object, by spaces of about one-half the length of dashes.
the views that show it best should be selected, using sections Center lines and lines indicating the position of the plane
and details in preference to other views, and omitting in which a sectional view is to be made should be broken
lines consisting of alternate short and long dashes.
Construction lines including all lines which are in the
nature of diagrams and are not essential outlines or edges

of the object represented should be fine dotted lines.
In a pencil drawing it is customary to draw center and

construction lines full and light.
109. Dimension lines should be fine, broken lines, con-
NOTF: This vi'-w showing circles
H only should bo omitted.
sisting of long dashes, interrupted for the figures expressing
FIG. 63. Working Drawing of a Cylindrical Piece. the dimension. These lines should be terminated by arrow-
heads whose points touch the proper extension lines.
unnecessary views altogether. Where a note will serve Extension lines which project from points between which
instead, a view may be omitted. A view which shows only dimensions are to be expressed should be fine, broken lines
circles should be omitted and "D" or "Dia" (diameter) consisting of dashes of medium length. Such lines should
should be placed after the circular dimensions. See Fig. 63. not touch the outline of the object, and should extend slightly
The drawing should show the object in a natural position. beyond the point of the arrowhead on the dimension line.
When several details are shown on the same sheet, keep the Fine full lines in red ink may be substituted for broken
related parts near together. center, dimension, extension and construction lines, except
The arrangement of views should conform to the prin- that in drawings which are traced for printing the broken
ciples of projection as explained in paragraph 48. lines in black ink are to be preferred.
PLATE VIII.
VISIBLE LINE
INDICATE FEET ANDINCHES THUS:
INVISIBLE LINE
SECTION LINE
OR THUS:
DIMENSION LINE
5FT.3'
CENTER LINE
REFERENCE LINE ARROW POI N TS SH OU 1_D
TOUCH EXTENSION
ARROW HEADS
LI N ES.
WITNESS MARKS. OR
EXTEN SION LINES
MUST NOT TOUCH THE
DIMENSION CIRCLES BY TH E R D A M ET E R S.
I I
VIEW, UNLESS DRAWN

I N R ED I N K.
SECTION LINES SHOULDBE SPACED

ACCORDING TO THE AREA.
SECTION DIFFERENT PIECES

IN DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS.
DIMENSONS ALL READ RIGHT HANDED.
DIMENSION ARCS BY THEIR RADII.
50
WORKING DRAWINGS 51
110. Dimensioning. The most important feature in without touching a line of the drawing. Lines for dimen-
the making of a working drawing is the dimensioning. The sions should be at least f" apart.
selection and placing of dimensions require care, good judg-
The ultimate test
T
ment, and experience. of a working
drawing is its interpretation, which means to the mechanic,
not only a mental picture of the completed object, but also
->1
finding the correct dimension in the right place.

A knowledge of shop processes and methods of produc-
tion are essential to a complete understanding of how to
make shop drawings. The student should endeavor to
acquire this training and he should also study examples FIG. 64. Illustrating Principles of Dimensioning.
of good drafting practice in connection with the prin-
ciples.
Do not allow the dimensions to be crowded or to inter-
111.Dimensions should be placed outside the views as fere with each other or with the lines of the drawing.
far as practicable, and should be grouped. It is preferable
to place the dimensions to the right of the views. Place as i .
many dimensions as possible in connection with one view

the one furnishing the most information and do not repeat
them. See Fig. 64.
DRILL
Always dimension to visible edges, if possible. Over-all
dimensions should always be given, and these should be
placed outside of all sub-dimensions.
112. The figures denoting dimensions should read from
FIG. 65. Illustrating Close Dimensioning.
the bottom and right; they should never be placed on a
center line or on a line which would cross them. If a dimension space is small, place the figures outside
Fractions should be written thus J; not thus 3/4. and invert the arrows, or indicate by a leader the part to
Figures should be placed so that they may be erased which the figures refer. See Fig. 65.
Circles are dimensioned by their diameters and arcs by Sub-dimensions should be added and the total checked
their radii. Dimensions should read to the center lines of with the corresponding over-all dimension.
circles and not to the circumference. See Fig. 66. Denote feet and inches thus:
113. Related dimensions should be given in one view. (a) 6'-10", (&) 6 ft. 10", (c) 8 ft. Of".
For example, the diameter, depth, and location of a hole When the greatest dimension does not exceed two feet,
"
should all be given on the same view. figure the whole drawing in inches, omitting the marks.
Dimensions should be chosen with reference to the meas- In some cases even greater dimensions are figured entirely
in inches.
115. To insure completeness, the dimensioning must be

done systematically. Remember that it is essential to show
the length, breadth, thickness, and location of every part.
Each dimension should be scaled and compared with the

computation. Take nothing for granted. A drawing
should always be made from the view-point of the one who
is to read it.
The notes on a drawing are important. Give all the

information needed, and express it accurately and con-
cisely.
Begin the drawing with the most important view, but

FIG. 66. Illustrating Principles of Dimensioning.
it is usually advantageous to build up all views simultane-
ously, projecting from one to another.
urements which will be made in constructing the object, 116. A section is a view which represents the interior
and should indicate full size, independent of the scale. of an object as though it were visible. (See Fig. 67.) The
The length, breadth, thickness, and location of
114. purpose of a section is to show the construction more clearly.
every part must be clearly indicated. It is not expected The front view of the object shown in Fig. 67 would be
that the workman is to add or subtract dimensions; that is the same if the hole extended all the way through ;
the side
the business of the draftsman. view would be the same if there were a central hole; neither
WORKING DRAWINGS 53
view, therefore, is suggestive of the real shape of the object.

If the object is represented as having been cut open so that
the interior is visible or, in other words, if sections are taken
on the lines AB and CD, the actual shape of the object is
at once apparent.
A section may be defined as a view made by an imaginary
plane cutting the object. The part of the object in front of
SECTION ON C-D
ASSEMBLY AND DETAILS PLATE IX.
Of
-14-
,
REVOLVED SECTION
-12-
DETAIL B
*4U- !JW
DETAIL A.
DETAIL C PLANT STAND
54
WORKING DRAWINGS 55
is taken. In terms of "projection" this is known as "the view, looking from above the same position as a top view,,
trace of the cutting plane," or "section plane." and so on.
117. That part of the object which is back of the cutting 119. The selection of a section to show the object to the
plane may be omitted from the section view unless it helps best advantage is of great importance. Consider the object
to explain it. In some cases parts in the plane of the section shown in Fig. 68. A section on AB, as shown in Fig. 69,
may also be omitted. Everything lying in the plane of the has no features and adds nothing to the representation.
section need not be sectioned. This is well shown in the The same is also true of a section on CD
as shown in Fig. 70;
FIG. 70. Section of Object shown in Fig. 68 taken on Line CD.
Fio. 69. Section of Object shown in Fig. 68 taken on Line AB.

the side view is to be preferred. A full section on EF is
shown in Fig. 71; this view is a correct projection, but it
top views of details A and B, Plate IX. The contrast be- fails to convey a correct idea of the object and is, in fact,
tween the surfaces which are sectioned and those that are
misleading.
not serves to show the construction more clearly. A conventional section, as shown in Fig. 72, represents
118. The location of a sectional view usually follows the the object clearly and brings out the form.
general arrangement of the other views, i. e., looking at the 120. A be shown to advantage in
cross-section may
object from the right, the same location as a right side some cases by representing it as turned or revolved as
illustrated in Detail A, Plate IX. This method saves time 121. The kind of material to be used in the construction
and space. of an object is often represented by a characteristic notation.
FIG. 73. Illustrating a Half Section.
This will be illustrated in the following chapters in con-

nection with the various types of drawings.
122. In making a pencil drawing,
FIG. 71. Section of Object shown in Fig. 68 taken on Line EF. the section lines should be drawn
freehand in patches on the sectioned
surface to save time. See Fig. 74.
On the drawing the lines
inked
should be drawn with a ruling pen,
fine and light, equally spaced, and
covering the entire surface.
In some drafting rooms the sec-
FIG. 74. A Section on
tions are "stumped, "--blocked in a Penciled Drawing.
solid with a soft pencil on the back

of the tracing. Others use colored wax crayons, and some
Fia. 72. Conventional Section of Object shown in Fig. 68. "wash them in" with a camel's hair brush and diluted
India ink.
A piece that is symmetrical may be shown in half section,
the other half being drawn as an exterior view. See Fig. 73.
In this case it is usual to omit invisible lines.
CHAPTER VI
MACHINE DRAWING
123. In the representation of machine parts the first
consideration is the study of screw threads, bolts, screws,

holes and other small details which constitute an essential
part of machine construction.

124. Screw Threads. A screw is a cylinder around which
is an extended portion called a "thread." The thread is
constructed on a geometrical curve called a helix. See

Fig. 75. The distance between two threads is called the
pitch; thus, in Fig. 75, the pitch is 1". If a screw has 8

threads in the space of 1", the distance between threads,
or pitch, is |. The pitch is also expressed as the number
of threads per inch, which in this case is 8; this is the usual
method.
125. A section of the screw thread shown in Fig. 75,
taken lengthwise, would appear as in Fig. 76. This is called
the thread form or profile. There are several forms of
thread in common use, as shown in Figs. 76, 77, 78, and 79.
A standard thread consists of its form, or profile, and
definite diameters with certain corresponding pitches.
In this country the "standards" most frequently used

are as follows: United States Standard (also known as the FIG. 75. A Screw Thread.
57
Seller's, and Franklin Institute); Acme Standard; S.A.E. Fig. 75 would be difficult, laborious,and wholly unnecessary.
Standard (for automobilework); A.S.M.E. Standard; A system of conventions has been devised and is in general
(machine screw); Briggs Standard (for pipe). use for the purpose.
A geometrical study of the helix and the "thread parts"
are, therefore, not essential to the present discussion and
they are left to a more advanced treatment of the subject.
U. S. Standard and V threads should be shown as in
Fig. 80; the lines need not be spaced with reference to the
FIG. 76. V Thread Form or Profile.
pitch of the screw represented.
16 THS.
FIG. 77. U. S. S. Thread Form.

-Ill}
FIG. 80. FIG. 81.
Conventional Representation of V and U. S. S. Threads.
FIG. 78. Square Thread Form.
The form of the thread, if other than the usual, should

be stated in a note. The diameter, pitch and length of a
thread should always be given. If a screw has a left-hand
FIG. 79. Acme Thread Form. or multiple thread, a note should call attention to the fact.
127. The conventional thread shown in Fig. 81 has the
The form of thread in the S.A.E. and A.S.M.E. standards sanction of long usage, but that shown in Fig. 80 is advan-
is the same as the U. S. Standard form. tageous for the following reasons:
In the representation of screw threads on working
126. (a) It is more easily and therefore more quickly made.
drawings the exact construction of the thread as shown in (6) The majority of threads are made right-handed. In
CONVENTIONAL SCREW THREADS AND BOLTS PLATE X.
r TL
vMvVVV
D
60 MECHANICAL DKAFTING
the absence of other information a right-hand thread is 129. Every screw, in order to be effective, requires a
wanted. corresponding nut, i. e., a round hole having an internal
(c) If a screw has a left-hand or multiple thread the thread. A nut may be either movable or stationary.
direction of the slant is not a sufficient indication; a note See Fig. 83. The latter is called a "tapped hole." Tapped
must be used also. A note is sufficient and therefore the holes and nuts are shown by the same convention as a screw,
slant is unnecessary. the line being broken if invisible. Conventional details of
(d) A sectional view of a threaded hole shows a right- screw threads, bolts, and tapped holes are shown on Plate X.
hand thread having a left slant and vice versa. The oppo- 130. The parts of a bolt are called the head, body, thread,
site slant in either case would be technically wrong and and nut.
in both uncertain; thus it is better to use no slant and an
(a) (b)
FIG. 82. Thread Conventions sometimes used instead of Figs. 80 and 81.
FIG. 83. A Nut.
explanatory note for anything but the usual right-hand A bolt is usually drawn conventionally, one view only
thread. being shown. Heads and nuts are generally square or
128. The conventions shown in Fig. 82 are sometimes hexagonal in shape; the former is drawn conventionally
used. with one face and the latter with three. Parts such as
For screws of large diameter the threads are usually bolts, screws, etc., that are well represented in one view
represented as shown on Plate X. may be omitted in the others, and only the location need
Square thread screws should be represented as on Plate be shown.
X. The lines should be spaced and slanted in accord with 131. Bolts and screws other than standard require
the screw shown, unless the drawing is small or the pitch special drawings as shown in Figs. 84 and 85.
fine. A single thread is designated at (e) and a multiple Standard stock bolts, screws and parts used in machine
thread at (/). construction are shown on Plate XL These parts are usu-
MACHINE DRAWING 61
ally not detailed, but are specified on the B.M., bolt or stock In dimensioning a cylindrical piece, the diameter dimen-
list. Sizes of screws are designated by the screw gage sions should not be placed on the circular view, as they
number and length; bolts are designated by the diameter are not so easily read.
and length. Ordinarily the length of a bolt is the distance 133. Drawings of castings should be figured for the mar
from the point to, but not including, the head. chinist, not for the pattern-maker.
13 THREADS
t-
I
I
,1
I''i(j. 84. Special Bolt.
132. Dimensioning and describing. All the rules pre-
viously given for dimensioning working drawings apply to

machine drawing, but the character of the latter requires
additional information.
FIG. 85. A Special Screw.
Some machine parts have to be made with an exact-

ness that requires measurements to be made to thousandths
of an inch. Care must be taken in figuring such dimen-
sions and in locating the decimal point. If the dimension
is less than one inch, it should be written thus 0.165.
STANDARD MACHINE SCREWS STOCK PARTS PLATE XI.
CONE POINT ROUND POINT

FLAT POINT HEADLESS
MACHINE SCREWS SET SCREWS
HEXAGON
CHECK NUT
_L
T f
COTTER PIN
CAP SCREWS
HEXAGON
NUT
ROUND END FLAT END
KEY KEY
TAP BOLT
CAP SCREW IN USE
62
MACHINE DRAWING 63
"
eating thus, Make *|" ;
or thus, 4f Not to scale," or
thus,'
:
'
^ .
H"
134. Pieces having surfaces that are to be machine
finished should be designated in the drawing by the letter /
FIG. 88. Method of Designating a Knurled Surface.
on the projections of the surfaces, or F.A.O. when the finish

is to be all over. The dimensions on such pieces should
always be for the finished size.
NO. 6 TAPER PIN

/WHEN ASSEMBLING
Tfl
MACHINISTS' SMALL TOOLS PLATE XII.
Straight Shank Twist Drill Standard Hand Reamers
Taper Shank Twist Drill Adjustable Die-Stock Die
Counterbore
Center Reamers and Counter-sinks
Lathe Knurling Tool
Koring and Inside

Threading Tool
NOTE: From the tools shown are derived
such terms as Drill, Counterbore, Counter-
sink, Ream, Thread, Knurl, Bore, and

Mitt,
Tap, which the draftsman must designate

on the drawing.
MACHINE DRAWING
This method is used for dimensioning flanges, cover A countersunk hole is shown in Fig. 93.
plates, and cylinder heads. They are generally shown in 138. Tools for making and finishing various holes are
section. See Figs. 101 and 102.
Standard flanges are usually represented with "one hole

"
up," if the number of bolts is odd, and with "two holes up
FIG. 92. Method of Dimensioning the Layout of Holes.
FIG. 91. Method of Dimensioning Holes in Flanges, Cover Plates, and

Cylinder Heads.
if number is
the even. In the former case the holes are
generally shown in the plane of the section the same as

they would be in the latter case. See Fig. 101. FIG. 93. Conventional Representation of a Countersunk Hole.
137. Other methods of laying out and spacing holes,
including the designation of cored holes, are shown in Fig. 92. shown on Plate XII. The names of the operations per-
A counterbore is also indicated at A. formed are derived from the corresponding tools.
Methods of indicating holes that are to be drilled, bored, A standard taper is designated as in Fig. 96.
reamed, or tapped are shown in Fig. 94. A taper with a steep pitch should be indicated by the
The layout of the other holes should also be noted.
(b) (c)
FIG. 95. Dimensioning Ordinary Tapers.
FIG. 94. Dimensioning and Describing Holes.

FIG. 96. Dimensioning a Standard Taper.
139. In dimensioning ordinary tapers, such as keys, they
may be indicated as in Fig. 95. Any of the methods shown
degrees to which the grinder head is set. See Fig. 97.
may be used. The taper for a rod end is shown in Fig. 98.
MACHINE DRAWING 67
140. Shafts are dimensioned as shown in Fig. 99; see some features, however, which are characteristic of this
also Fig. 89. Diagonals indicate the location of bearings. class of work that require further consideration.
A long screw is shown in Fig. 100. In some cases parts lying in the plane of the section are
not sectioned or are omitted altogether. It is not usual to
\
/
FIG. 99. Dimensioning a Shaft.

~^&
section bolts, standard nuts, screws, shafts, keys, arms of
wheels (lengthwise), ribs, gear teeth, etc.
This is illustrated in Figs. 101 and 106.
FIG. 97. Dimensioning a Steep Taper. 7 THREADS
It is not necessary to draw threads the full length.

141. Sections. Sectional views of machine parts are
FIG. 100. Dimensioning a Long Screw.
142. In Fig. 101 the section of the cover is represented

conventionally by showing the bolts revolved into the plane
FIG. 98. Dimensioning the Taper of a Rod End.
of the section. They may also be shown as in Fig. 102. In
made according to the same general principles that were the latter case the bolts are shown in their true distance, not
explained in connection with working drawings. There are projected, from the center.
NOTATION FOR CONVENTIONAL SECTIONS AND APPLICATIONS PLATE XIII.
ABBREVIATIONS
Cast Iron C.I.
Wrought Iron W.I.
Malleable Iron Mai. I.
Cast Steel C.S.
Cold Rolled Steel C.R.S.
Machine Steel . ., M.S.
Steel Forging S. Forg.
Steel Tube S. Tube
Brass Br.
Bronze Brz.
Phosphor Bronze Ph.Brj.
Fiber.. ..Fbr
ORDINARY
CONCRETE RUBBLE
CONVENTIONAL BREAKS AND SHAPES
nee TAN r, u i_An H EXAGC
64 POUNDS PER SQUARE FOOT

10-INCH I BEAM
RO U Nu
k-
GRASS PLOT
bglM*-
!
/
2H-
"
H
;
,A6PHALT-
itr^'FiKISH I t:
BINOER
, ,. ,,r
;|i
STRUCTURAL SHAPE
68
MACHINE DRAWING
143. A dotted section is shown in Fig. 103. It is used 144. A section of a symmetrical piece should be made
in cases where it is desired to retain the full exterior view. symmetrical. The section of a pump valve, shown in Fig.
If the section area is large the outline only may be dotted.
FIG. 102. Conventional Section with Bolts Represented as Invisible.
106, illustrates this principle. A true projected section of

the valve seat would appear as in Fig. 107. It is readily
FIG. 101. Conventional Section of a Cover or Cylinder Head.

FIG. 103. A Dotted Section.
A partial section is shown in Fig. 104.
Sections with narrow surfaces are usually blocked in solid. seen that the section as shown is misleading, as it conveys
See Plate XIII, I beam and structural steel. no idea of the symmetry of the piece, and it is also difficult
of interpretation, whereas the conventional section is easily 147. Pulleys and gears are represented conventionally,
understood. the face view usually being in section. See Fig. 110. The
145. A section of a part having a rib may be drawn as
at A, Fig. 108, which shows the valve seat of Fig. 106. It
may also be represented by a revolved section as shown

at B.
FIG. 104. A Partial Section.
146. The material of which a piece is made is often repre-

sented by a conventional section line. See Plate XIII.
The shape of a piece may also be shown by a conventional
break or section, as a shaft, a pipe, or a bar. See Plate XIII. FIG. 105. A Discontinuous Section.
Long pieces are represented in this manner. See Fig.

89. They are also represented by the method shown in parts of a pulley are the rim and spider. The outside of the
Fig. 109. rim is called the face, which is made either "straight" or
MACHINE DKAWING
71
"crowned." The spider includes the arms and hub. The

hole in the hub is called the bore.
The size of a
FIG. 107. A True Projected Section of Fig. 106.
pulley is designated by the diameter, width of face,

and bore.
Fio. 108. Methods of Sectioning Ribs.
Pulleys and gears are secured to the shaft by set-screws or

FIG. 106. A Section of a Symmetrical I?iece.
keys, or in the case of "split" pulleys, by compression.
Keyways are frequently shown dotted, i.
e., behind the the scale, finish if F.A.O., and the pattern or list number if
section, thus avoiding an unequal thickness of section in the any. See Plate V.
hub which might cause a shop error. Sizes or names, pattern, list, or forging numbers are not
A " web " pulley has no arms, but is cast solid. Con-
ventional gears are shown in Figs. Ill and 112.
r
TYPICAL MACHINE DRAWINGS PLATE XIV.
CROWN FACE
|*TO FT.
!*- HUB eg ts M
<-IS"BORE-
,
.TAP t'-n
-4-.
A general drawing of machine details is shown on Plate c. Arrowheads and witness marks.
XIV. d. Figures by and computation.
scaling
149. Checking a It is
drawing. very important that e. Clearances.
every drawing should be care- 7. Finish Marks.
fully checked. Students should

practice by checking each other's
drawings. To be effective,
checking must be done systemat-

ically ;
the following scheme
will be found helpful:
1. Views:
a. Selection.
b. Arrangement.
c. Center lines.
,
2. Scale.
3.
r
Projections:
a. Outlines visible
and invisible.
b. Details.
4. Sections.
I FACE 1
5. Conventions and FIG. 112. A Conventional Gear with Spider.

standards.
6. Dimensions:
FIG. 111. A Conventional Small
Gear, or Pinion, with Web. a. Placing. 8. Notes.
b. Necessary length, 9. Bill of material.
breadth, thickness, Quantities, kinds, sizes, stock parts.

location. 10. Title.
CHAPTER VII
PLAN DRAWING
150. Kinds of Drawings. Plans are drawings which show ing to so small a scale the various details of construction,
the arrangement of the rooms, the exterior, and the con- such as framing joints, window and door frames, cupboards,
struction of a building. The first are called floor plans,
the second elevations, and the last details.
A simple floor plan is shown in Fig. 113. Note the con-

ventional method of indicating the size of the rooms, and
the position and size of the openings; i.e., the windows
and the doors.
A floor plan is in reality a horizontal section taken just
above the window but the space occupied by the

sill,
walls is either left blank or is blocked solid, and no attempt

is made to represent the actual section.
151. An elevation is shown in Fig. 114. It represents
the exterior features, proportions, arrangement, and finish

of the building.
A section, as the name implies, shows the interior in
elevation. Its purpose is to secure the proper heights

and proportions for the openings and wall spaces, good
arrangement, clearances in stairs, plumbing, etc.
Floor plans and elevations are drawn to a scale of
FIQ. 113. A Simple Floor Plan.
\" or j" = l'. It is not practicable to show on a draw-
75
cornices, trim, moldings, etc., and it is therefore necessary
to make the drawings of these features to a larger scale.
152. Detail drawings are made to scale full size or to ALPHABET
as large a scale as circumstances will allow. Generally
they do not represent the whole object, various sections
TOR
and parts being shown instead. See Plate XV.
ARCHITECTURAL
DRAWING
ABCDEFGhlJKLMnOP
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1
m&> îsgSfwgpssw
*5yV V *<**
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ii'fc," . ._-!;
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FIG. 114. An Elevation.
153. A perspective drawing is often made for the purpose LETTERIrlG

of conveying to the owner a
pictorial idea of the finished
rendered
" SMOULD BE UNIFORM
building. Perspectives are in pen and ink,"
" "
or wash drawings. The latter is done with a brush.
The former shown on Plate XV.
is
LETTERS MAY BE
154. Conventions, or symbols, are used on plan drawings
for the purpose of representing walls, doors, windows and
PROPORTIOMED To FiT
THE OIVEd SPACE.
FIG. 115.
PLANS, SECTION, PERSPECTIVE, AND DETAIL PLATE XV.
77
ARCHITECTURAL SYMBOLS. I. CONVENTIONS PLATE XVI.
STRUCTURAL. PLUMBING LIGHTING

FRAME BRICK CEILING BRACKET
OUTLETS O UTLETS
ELECTRIC V~^
DOUBLE-HUNG WINDOW
FRAM E WALL DOUBLE-HUNG WINDOW
WATER CLOSET $ NUMBER IN CENTER
INDICATES NUMBER
OF STANDARD 16 C. P. ;J
INCANDESCENT LAMPS
i]
^
(
X-*V
)2
BRICK WALL
BATH TUB GAS

NUMBER INDICATES
NUMBER OF GAS
BURNERS
IEOW1TH TERRACOTTA, FLUES REQUIRE

"of BRICK OUTSIDE. BRICK FLUES
REQUIRE 8"OF BRICK
LAUNDRY TRAYS COMBINATION

J INDICATES 4-16C. P.
INCANDESCENT LIGHTS ;
AND 2 GAS BURNERS
SINGLE SLIDING DOOR
RECTANGULAR CORNER
LAVATORIES
DOUBLE SLIDING DOOR
78
PLAN DRAWING 79
other features of construction. The more important of to secure a more artistic effect. There are many styles
these are shown on Plate XVI. in use; a simple one is shown in Fig. 115.
155. The lettering is an important feature of plan 156. Construction of a Building. Some knowledge of
-STAIR-WELL -
o
-o-
ul
CO 6
-RUN-
FIG. 116. Stair Arrangement.
drawing. The fundamental principles and rules for the the structural features of a building is essential in order to
construction of letters are the same as explained in Chap- be able to draw plans properly. There are several types
ter II. The form, however, is quite different, the aim being of construction, such as frame, brick, stone, hollow tile,
ELEVATION OF A HOUSE FRAME PLATE XVII.
80
HOUSE FRAMING DETAILS PLATE XVIII.
NOTE: There is no standard of details in framing, practice varies widely, but in a

locality the construction is generally uniform. This illustration is shown for the purpose of
defining terms and showing structural units and relations rather than to exhibit a definite
structure.
81
and concrete. The frame type should first be studied The construction as indicated on these plates represents
and understood by the student, not only on account of its the average customary practice in as simple a form as pos-
prevalence, but also because it is fundamental and the sible. The materials and methods of building construc-
others are readily understood from it. tion are usually standardized to a large extent in given
157. A building frame is made
rough timbers and rests
of localities; this refers not only to sizes of timbers, framing,
upon a foundation of stone, concrete, brick, or hollow and details, but also to plumbing, finish, and even to
style. The fundamental principles, however, are the same
everywhere and drawings may be varied to conform with
local requirements.
NOSIN 158. The construction of a window and door and their

corresponding openings is shown on Plates XX and XXI.
The details vary as was stated in the preceding paragraph.
The window and door casings, base, moldings, chair
and plate rails, and all other interior finish in wood are
designated generally as the trim.

159. The stairs are an important factor in the building.
In addition to their utility they may often be treated with
artistic effect.
FIG. 117. Details of Stair Construction.

A straight run of stairs is known as a flight, see Fig.
116. Details of construction are shown in Fig. 117. In
tile. See Plate XVII. The names of the members and laying out the stairs, sufficient head room must be provided
their relations should become familiar to the student. and the whole staircase requires careful planning.
A corner of a frame is shown to a larger scale on Plate 160. Chimney construction and a detail of a fire-place
XVIII. are shown in Fig. 118.
The frame of the building is covered on the inside Working Drawings. The working drawing is made
161.
and outside with finishing materials as shown on Plate to scale and figured, unless the exact dimensions are not
" "
XIX. essential or are stock sizes. It should contain all the
DETAILS OF FRAME CONSTRUCTION PLATE XIX.
83
CONSTRUCTION OF WINDOW AND DOOR PLATE XX.
_EJ-._EVATI ON
SSPj
SECTIONAL DETAILS OF WINDOW AND DOOR PLATE XXI.
HEAD- SECTION- F-G

-V
WALL-A4LD-
^SHEATMI^C-
'
SfcCTI9Ai-THR?-SILL- C'D
information rations consist chiefly
required
the builder to of the heights of the
by
or "beam meas-
properly lay out and floors,
urements," that
proceed with the con- is,
struction. dimensions giving the
162. The working locations of the floor
dimensions on a plan beams or joists for the
are the "stud measure- several floors with ref-

erence to the grade,
ments," that is, di-
mensions giving the curb, or sidewalk level.
locations of the stud The distances of the

lines for the exterior window sills above the
and interior frame; floor and the heights
the size and location of the windows are
of windows, also indicated.

doors,
chimneys, openings The arrangement
and other features. of the plumbing fix-
Ki&VSife*
The locations of tures and sizes of the
plumbing and lighting vent and drain pipes

fixtures and radiators are sometimes shown
are also shown here, on an elevation in
and such details of dotted lines, but usu-

construction as do not ally a plumbing section
require separate draw-
is shown.
ings are indicated.

164. Working draw-
163. The working ings of details show
dimensions on the ele- .the design and as
FIG. 118. Chimney and Fire-place Construction.

PLAN DRAWING 87
much construction as may be necessary, the latter, how- 167. Specifications set forth the conditions of erection
ever, usually being left to the judgment of the builder. and payment, quality of labor and materials to be em-
Details being drawn to a larger scale than the plans ployed, kinds of materials, proportions of ingredients for
"
measurements may be found by scaling," and all but concrete and plaster, and all other information which
the most important dimensions are, therefore, omitted. cannot be shown to advantage on the drawings. In fact
For this purpose details are often drawn to a scale of the specifications not only supplement the drawings, but
1" = 1 ft. The carpenter's ordinary "two-foot" rule has as far as practicable supplant them altogether. In many
one edge with inches divided into twelfths for the purpose cases buildings have been erected from no other draw-
of scaling details. Other scales used for details are f", ings than the floor plans, giving only the sizes of the rooms,
3", and 12". and one or two elevations, the balance of the information
165. In order to fully understand what has been said being contained wholly in the specifications.
in the preceding paragraphs the pupil should make a care- 168. Common measurements in building construction are
ful study of Plates XXII to XXIX inclusive, which show given below to assist the pupil in plan drawing:
a complete set of working plans, elevations, and details, Base |"x8"or 10".
of a suburban residence. Photographs of the completed Battens, I" to Ii"x2" to 3".
structure are also shown and the pupil should compare Chimney flues, 8"x8", 8"xl2", 12"xl2"; inside,
these carefully with the drawings, line by line. allow 1" extra each way for figuring chimney size.
This will enable him to see how the builder's translation 6" wide, \" thick at the butt, \" thick
Clapboards,
compares with the architect's composition, or, in other at other end and 4'-0" long. They should not exceed
words the relation of expression in design to construction 6" in width, for otherwise they are likely to warp.
in material. Corner boards, |"X4" to 6".
166. In many cases the use of standard materials and Corner boards are put on vertically at all angles
construction obviates the necessity of preparing complete of the building for the siding or clapboards to butt
working drawings, that is, the drawings are not figured, against.
or the details are omitted altogether. Doors, closet 2'-6"x6'-6".
In addition to the drawings it is customary to furnish Inside 2'-8"x6'-8", 2'-10"x6'-10".
the builder with information in writing called specifications. Outside 3' X 7'.
WORKING FLOOR PLANS PLATE XXII.
88
WORKING FLOOR PLANS PLATE XXIII.
j
<
o
89
WORKING PLANS. ELEVATION PLATE XXIV.
60
a
I
O
o
n
.,
WORKING PLANS. ELEVATIONS PLATE XXV.
r
0'
a
I.
~&~&~ TfT\ V,+ .61 ;V 'Hl.ll I
"
.9.8 iff
1
e B
.. '
l?r
u
10
WORKING PLANS. DETAILS PLATE XXVI.
I
J2
]
d
o
I K
I il
j i
a '
oo
i
I
1 L.
* W
92
WORKING PLANS. DETAILS PLATE XXVII.
[OH
o
"33
.a
I
E-
I
j
<
d
i
PHOTOGRAPHS OF INTERIOR DETAILS PLATE XXVIII.
94
WORKING PLANS. DETAILS PLATE XXIX.
l-i M n
Floors Under f"x6". Windows, 5'x2'-6"; height from floor 2'.
"
Finish |" to |"xli" to 169. It is customary to double the studs," that is,
Height from grade 3^'. place two together, around door and window openings.
Furring strips, f" to f"x2". There are two methods for laying out the studding, as
Girders 6" or 8"x8" to 12". follows:
Grounds, 2"xf" for two coats of plaster. First Method. Double the studs at the sides of doors
2"xf" for three coats of plaster. and windows first, then space the studs 16" on centers.
Headers and trimmers, 4"xdepth of beam. Second Method. The studs are spaced uniformly 16"
Height of ceilings, 9' first floor, 8' second floor. on centers, after which the door and window openings are
Joists, 2"x8" to 12", 16" o.c. (on centers). sawed out and the studs are framed.
Laths, |"XH"X4'; \" apart, break every tenth 170. Plumbing and Sanitation. In the erection of a
lath. building of any considerable size, drawings are required
" "
Plaster, f two coats, f three coats. for the installation of the plumbing, heating, ventilating,
Plate 4"x4"or4"x6". and lighting. For a smaller building these can be com-
Posts 4"X4", 4"X6", 4"X8". prehended in the specifications, the locations only of
Rafters 2"x6" to 12"; 18" or 20" c.c. (center to fixtures, outlets, etc., being shown on the drawings. The
center). relative locations of sanitary fixtures is an important
Shingles, exposed 4^" on roof, 5" on wall. matter as affecting the cost of installation. Fixtures on
Siding, 6" wide; \" thick tapering to \"; exposed 5". the same floor should be adjacent, if possible, and those
Siding should not exceed 6" in width. It is about on the upper floors should be arranged directly over those
5" thicker than the dimensions stated for clapboards, below, that the same and drains may be
risers, vents,
and comes in lengths of from 10 to 16 ft. Rebated siding utilized. This will be clearly understood by referring to
" "
gives a tight joint and insures accurate alignment. the plumbing section shown on Plate XXX.
Sill 4"X6", 6"X6", 6"X8". 171. Materials of Construction. Buildings are con-
Studs 2"X4", 16" o.c. structed of wood, brick, stone, hollow tile, concrete, and
Stairs rise7" to 7|"; tread 9" to 10". metal. These materials are used singly or in combination,
Walls, 6" thick, inside; 7" outside. except that wood is used nearly always to a greater or less
PLATE XXX.
A- Soil Line B- Main C- Main

Waste Vent
D- Branch E- Branch F- Rain

Waste Vent Water
Pipes Leaders
G- Removable H- Cap I- Fresh

Screw- Air Inlet
Caps
J House K- House L- House-

Trap Sewer Drain
M- Branch X- Screw- P- Area

Soil Pipe Cap Drains
T- Mouth of V- Water W- Branch

House Seal Soil
Drain Pipe
extent. The selection of materials will depend largely it is probable that even the discrepancy in first cost will
upon their first cost and other local conditions. The soon disappear.
The many advantages and concrete over other
present tendency is toward the use of the more substantial
172. of tile
and permanent kinds of materials, especially hollow tile forms of construction are apparent; their durability and
and concrete. The first cost of these materials is usually
EXTERIOR PLASTERx JfTH I'RJRRING ermpe-e'oM cENTsr

------.--.-.------
j-'.f -., V^SHEATHINC
I
NNTERIOR PLASTER
PLAIN PLASTERED WAUL.
5- HALF-TtMBER-REBATED
\ EXTERIOR PLASTER
N INTERIOR PLASTER
HALF-TIMBERED WALL
Fin. 119. Detail of Construction for Stucco Finish.
FIG. 120. Showing Effect in Stucco Finish Timber, Tile, or Concrete may
in excess of that for timber, but if the items of repair, be used.
painting, and durability are taken into account, the

balance will be likely to fall on the other side. fireproof quality are virtues of exceedingly great value.
With the increasing cost of timber on the one hand, Buildings in the country lend themselves with peculiar
and the improving and perfecting of the methods of manu- fitness to this form of construction, as their situation
facturing and handling tile and concrete on the other, makes their permanence possible, and, in the lack of
ARCHITECTURAL SYMBOLS. II. MATERIALS PLATE XXXI.
BRICK STONE RUBBLE
ELEVAT ON
I SECTION
TERRA COTTA
TATH
BRICK
ELEVATION SECTION SECTIONS

CONCRETE M ETAL
ELEVATION 4 SECTION ELEVATION

I
SECTION
ROUGH LUMBER FINISHED LUMBER
x><x 1
SECTIONS SECTION
99
other protection, necessitates that the materials used metal lath nailed to furring strips
should be of fire-resisting properties. as indicated in Fig. 119. This
173. The conventional representation of materials is shown
style of finish when properly ap-
on Plate XXXI. There is no fixed standard for these and
plied is very durable, saves ex-
pense of painting, and is fire
TILE BLOCKS
FURRIMG
resisting.
value
treatment
come
as
deservedly
It also possesses a great
a medium
and has therefore be-
popular. The
for artistic
m
residence shown on Plates XXII
to XXIX is finished in stucco.
The possibilities of home build-
ing in stucco, tile, or concrete
construction are exemplified in
Fig. 120. Note how simple charm

and elegance are secured by the
omission of all ornate and super-
fluous details. nn
175. The general features in
the details of construction in tile
FIG. 121. Detail of Wall Construction in Hollow Tile. and concrete are very similar. In
Fig. 121 is shown a detail of wall
frequently the draftsman places on the drawing a " key " construction with the use of tile.
to the conventions used.
A building of the construction
174. Stucco is the namegiven to a method of finishing detailed in Fig. 121 cannot be
exterior walls. In place of the siding or shingles two or characterized as fireproof, except
three coats of specially prepared
plaster are spread over as to its walls. The walls, of
FIG. 122. Detail of Win-

dow-sill, Jamb and Lintel
in Hollow Tile.
PLAN DRAWING 101
course, give the superior insulating value of tile construc- 176. Details of wall sections are shown on Plate XXXII.
tion, insuring a warm, dry interior in winter and a cool Note the method of anchoring the roof plate to the tile,
house in summer. They also permit the plastering to also the method of carrying the wooden joists on the roof
plate and of bolting them to the roof timbers.
In Fig. 122 are shown details of a window-sill, jamb,
and lintel.
FIG. 124. Hollow Wall Forma.
177. Details of doors and windows, and a typical wall

Fio. 123. A Simple Form for a Column.
section as applied to monolithic concrete, are shown on
be applied directly to the tile wall without the use of Plate XXXIII.
furring or lathing, thus effecting a further economy, It will be observed that the wall section shows the
" "
except perhaps in the case of the inside of the exterior forms still in place. The space occupied by the con-
wall as shown. crete corresponds to that of the tile in the detail shown
DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION IN HOLLOW TILE PLATE XXXII.
102
DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION IN MONOLITHIC CONCRETE PLATE XXXIII.
RON REINFORCING BARS ROOF

OVER OPENINGS-
.WIND BREAK -WIND BREAK IRON BOLT WITH WASHER3
CHICKEN WIRE
HEAD SECTION H EAO AN D
JAM B SECTION
IOP RAIL
.WIND BREAK RErNFORCTNO BVffiS TO

EXTEND ENTIRELY AROUND
JAMB SE-CTION BUILDING ATTH1S- HEIGHT
WEIGHT
.WOOD SILL
.CEMENT SILL
MIDDLE RAIL
SILL. SECTION BOTTOM RAIL

J BOA-RD9
SILL SECTION
ill GROUND Uft&
EOUNDATION
WINDOW DET DOOR DETAIL TYPICAL WALL SECTION SMQWINS REINFORCEMENT
103
" "
above. It isadvisable, however, in using this form of 178. When concrete is cast," or poured," a mold
" "
construction for a dwelling house, to fur out on the or form is required to give it shape and hold it until it
inside, thus creating a space between the outer wall and
plaster and preventing the condensation of moisture on

the latter with its serious consequences. The outside wall
FIG. 125. Cellar Wall Forms.
is sometimes waterproofed to prevent the penetration of

moisture through the wall from the outside. This may
FIG. V2C. Wall Forms.
also be prevented, wholly or in part, by constructing a
hollow wall, but this is more expensive. For most build- hardens or sets. A
simple form is shown in Fig. 123.
the dwelling house,
ings except a monolithic wall, with Fig. 124 illustrates the type of construction which requires
nothing else, will answer all purposes. an inside form, as well as an outside. In Fig. 125 is shown
PLAN DRAWING 105
a simple design for cellar or foundation walls. Note that Circular forms are required for cylindrical constructions,
the forms are lifted to allow the concrete to flow out and such as a cistern, cess-pool, or tank.
form a spread footing. 179. In drawing plans the student must begin with a very
Fig. 126 shows a design of wall forms for building a simple problem. His first aim should be to learn the
solid wall of any height. The form sections are each made methods and conventions employed and how to express
2 feet high and the length depends upon the length of them in the characteristic lines of this class of draft-
boards at hand. A 2-foot section made of 1-inch boards ing.
10 feet long weighs 55 pounds. Such a form can there- The student is advised to avoid very much expression
" "
fore be handled easily by one man. The cleats are made of individuality on the aesthetic side until the sense
to lap over the top of the form 1 to 2 inches, in order has been cultivated and good taste acquired. It is better
to catch the next section placed on top of the one just to conform strictly to a proved practice at first and grad-
filled with concrete. Notice, also, that the cleat at one ually develop individuality. To the observing student
end projects beyond the form bracing so as to catch the it will soon be apparent that good taste and refinement
next section and hold it in place. Bolts for holding the are best through simplicity, proportion, and
expressed
forms together are better than wires, which cut into the harmony rather than by means of embellishment or strik-
cleats and spring the forms apart. ing details.
CHAPTER VIII
PLOT AND MAP DRAWING
180. Topographical drawing is the representation on paper Plotting is the delineation or representation of a survey.
of a limited area or tract of land, including the boundaries, 183. The direction of the magnetic needle is known
divisions, roads, buildings, and such natural features as as the magnetic meridian N
streams, lakes, swamps, and trees. It is also made to and the acute angle that
include the form of the surface, showing the depressions a line makes with it is
and elevations. called its magnetic bearing.
181. The instruments and materials used in topographical See Fig. 127. Such angles
drawing are substantially the same as for other kinds. are designated thus: N. 30
The scales, however, are graduated differently; the inch E., and are read north thirty
isdivided into 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 80 and 100 parts. degrees east; which means
Drawings are often made to a scale of 200 feet or more that the line bears to the
u
to the inch, and in such cases, the standard graduation is east 30 from the magnetic
used and multiplied mentally by ten or other convenient meridian.
factor. Cross-section paper having ten divisions to the The bearing and length
inch is frequently used in this work. of a line are called its
182. A topographical map is made from data which course. Sometimes one side
are usually obtained from a survey that includes: (a) of a plot is chosen as an
the length and directions of the boundaries; (6) elevations arbitrary reference line
and depressions; and (c) a description of the natural without regard to either the
and artificial features. magnetic or true meridian. FIG. 127.
106
PLOT AND MAP DRAWING 107
Bearings computed thus are known as false bearings. Fig. 128. The interior angles of the polygon are supple-
184. The total angle which a course makes with the ments of the deflection angles. For a polygon of n sides
meridian is called the azimuth. This angle may be we know that the sum of the interior angles = (n 2) 180.
acute or obtuse and may be read from the north or south, We also know that a deflection angle +its supplement
= 180, and the total =nx 180; therefore the sum of the
deflection angles = (nX 180) -(n-2) 180. Thus a check
may be had upon the field work.
A survey may be plotted from the deflection angles,
as well as from the bearings and azimuths.
186. The record of a survey is made usually in a form
similar to the following:
RECORD OF A SURVEY
Course.
FIG. 128. Plot of a Survey.
clockwise in both cases; but in a given survey it must

be read from either north or south only.
185. The deflection angle is the angle formed
by the
prolongation of a side and the one next succeeding. See
The diagram or outline of a plot is the simplest form
of topographical drawing.
187. In order to stake out, or survey, a plot of ground

it is necessary to use a compass in some form, and a chain
or tape. An instrument known as a transit is generally
"
used for running the lines," i.e., to determine the
angles. A transit is a kind of telescope set in a frame

and mounted on a tripod. See Fig. 129. It is arranged
to swing both horizontally and vertically and is provided
with levels and adjusting screws. A magnetic needle

mounted below the telescope indicates the magnetic
meridian, and scales show the degrees of deviation, hori-
zontally and vertically, that the axis of the telescope makes
with the horizontal and meridian.
188. The transit is set up at one corner of the plot,
designated the point of beginning, which is usually denoted

"
by a monument " or other form of marker. See A,
Fig. 128. After the instrument is leveled and adjusted,
the bearing of the first course is taken from the meridian
or reference line and a rod or range pole is sighted on the
course. With the tape or chain the given distance is laid
off and point B is established. If B is too far distant or
if the course is curved, intermediate points are staked.
The transit is then removed and set up at B, after which
"
a back sight " is taken on A. The instrument is then
turned through the required degrees of the bearing or deflec-
tion angle and the course to point C is sighted and laid off.
FKJ. !29. A Transit.

The same order of procedure is followed for the remain- in the East line of said Lot Number One made by the inter-
(1)
reached and section of the center line of the East and West Road with the
ing courses until the point of beginning is
checked. instead of the deflection angle, the azimuth East line of said Lot and which point is Thirty-eight (38) rods
If,
makes with the merid- north from the South-east corner of said Lot Number One (1),
the total angle which the course
ian were used, the result would be the same.
J3 CHAINS sn
189. Greater accuracy may be obtained, when neces-
sary, by employing other and more elaborate methods,

involving the use of trigonometric computations, but as
nearly all cases within the scope of this treatise may be
covered by the simpler method given above, the others
are omitted. The order of drafting a plot on paper is
precisely the same as that of surveying it.
190. The deed to a property usually contains a descrip-
tion which defines the boundaries, and frequently it is

desirable to make a map from the data contained therein.
The following description is an abstract from the deed to
a farm, and the diagram of the plot in accordance there-
with is shown in Fig. 130.
"
All that Tract or Parcel of Land, situate in the Town of
Newstead, County of Erie, and State of New York, which on
a or survey of divers' tracts of land in said county made FIG. 130. Diagram of a Plot from a Title Abstract.
map for
the Holland Land Company by Joseph Ellicott, Surveyor, is
distinguished asTownship Number Twelve (12) in the Fifth (5) running thence North Twenty-seven chains; thence West Thirty-
Range of said Township. And on another map or survey made three chains and Fifty links to the East line of land now or for-
as aforesaid of said Township into Sections and Lots is dis- merly owned by Charles R. Philips; thence South Twenty-
tinguished as part of lots Numbers One (1) and Three (3) in the eight chains and Fifty links to the center of the East and West
Thirteenth Section of said Township. Beginning at a point Road; thence East along the center line of East and West Road
Thirty-three chains and Forty-five links, more or less, to the
place of beginning. Containing Ninety-one acres and fifteen
rods of land be the same more or less."
191. A map of a plot should contain all the information

essential to establish the legal title to the property, as
follows, see Fig. 131 :
(a) The bearing and length of each boundary.

(6) The number of acres in the parcel.
(c) The location and description of all markers or
monuments.
(d) The designation of all important natural features,
such as streams, lakes, etc.
(e) The designation of all important artificial features,
such as highway, railroad, etc., also political

boundaries.
(/ ) The names of abutting property owners.

(g) The magnetic meridian (north point).
(h) Title and certification.
192. The physical features of a tract

be represented may
to advantage by arbitrary symbols or conventions which
are usually more or less suggestive of the part represented.
This will be clearly understood by referring to Plate
XXXIV and noting the conventions as indicated, which
are those most frequently used.
Cla,rem,on.t Park Tract
In applying the conventions to a map it is necessary
to use good judgment in selecting the scale to which they ~PLOT
OF SURVEYOR
are to be rendered. They should be drawn neither too I hereby ae-rlify thai the 6ETO/V FALLS TRACT
above plot is correct. CITY OF MTVERNON
WESTCHESTEF? CO. N.Y.
Surveyor. Drawn by H.C. June. 11.1115
FIG. 131. Certified Map of a Plot.

TOPOGRAPHICAL CONVENTIONS PLATE XXXIV.
I I ! I I I I I I I I 1 I I I
SINGLE TRACK STATE LINE
DOUBLE. TRACK RAILROAD COUNTY LINE MUD FLAT
ELECTRIC RAILWAY TOW N SH I P LINE
STONE FENCE LAKES AND PONDS

CITY OR VILLAGE LINE
CONTOU RS
-X X X X I I
WOOD BRICK STONE

WIRE FENCE 3 U LDI
I NGS
/wwvwvwx
FENC RAI L E FRESH MARSH SALT MARSH
PICKET FENCE
DECIDUOUS TREES CULTIVATED LAND
xi,' -J*
EM BAN K M ENT >'<
*
~s\ y- ^ /v
PROPERTY LINE
NOT FENCED '
'''^RWOa*.
X->v i yc
XB.M.
BEN C H MAR K. CLEARED LAND EVERGREEN TREES ORCHARD
111
TYPICAL TOPOGRAPHICAL MAP PLATE XXXV.
112
A PROFILE AND CONTOUR MAP PLATE XXXVI.
p so'
+ 25.3
PROFI L.E ON PP'
HOR. SCALE |'=4O FT,
VERTlSCALE l"= 2 O FT.
large nor too small;good proportion must obtain that no A section or profile is a representation of the differences
one feature be unduly prominent. Conventions are ren- in level on a line made by the intersection of a vertical
dered in India plane with
ink and also the surface of
in color. the earth.
A map of a See Plate
tract rendered XXXVI.
in topograph- The scale
ical conven- used for ver-

tions is shown tical distances
on Plate on a profile
XXXV. is usually
193. A level greater than
surface is one for the hori-
that is paral- zontal and

lel with the the result is
surface of still called an

water, and a exaggerated
line in such a profile.
surface is a 194. The

level line. elevation of a
The differ- place is its dis-
ence of level tance above

FIG. 132. A Level.
between two an assumed
places is the distance in feet, measured vertically, that horizontal plane, called the datum plane. The position
one place is above the other, and the process of measuring of the datum plane is fixed with reference to some
this distance is known as leveling. permanent object called a bench mark. All distances above
the datum plane are +, and below are ,

zontal distances between stations are measured with a
but in order to avoid negative heights, the chain or tape.
datum plane or base line is often assumed A level of the ordinary type used by surveyors is shown
at such a distance below the B.M. that all in Fig. 132. Fairly accurate results may also be obtained
the points of the section shall be above it.
The level of the sea is largely used as
an established datum plane for compa-

rative reference. Thus a place designated
as "El. 123.4" is 123.4 feet above the sea
level or datum plane, and "El. -23.0" in-
FIG. 135. Running a Level.
dicates that the place is 23.0 feet below the
datum.
by using the transit as a level. A leveling rod is shown
Stations are points at which the eleva-
in Fig. 133.
tions are measured. They are usually taken
196. To determine the difference in level between two
at 100-foot intervals along the base line
points the instrument up as shown in Fig. 134. The
is set
leveling rod is set at A and the height of A' is noted,

and in like manner BB' is measured. The difference
between AA' and BB' is the difference in level between
A and B.
197. The method of obtaining the necessary field notes
for making a profile is indicated in Fig. 135. The stakes

FIG. 134. Method of Determining Difference in Level.
are set at 0, etc. The level is set at a con-
1, 2, 3, up
and are designated 0, 1, 2, 3, etc. A point venient point and readings are taken on the B.M. and
"
between stations is described thus, Sta. stations. Po is the distance of the datum plane to the
4+25.3." B.M. and if to this be added the distance oA the result
195. Elevations are determined by means will give the height of instrument (H.I.) from the datum
FIG. 133. A
Leveling Rod. of the level and leveling rod and the hori- plane to the line of sight (AB). It is evident that if the
rod readings are subtracted from H.I. in each case the
result must be the elevation (EL).
198. When it is necessary to change the position of

the level a convenient point is located for a turning point
(t.p.). The point on which the last sight is taken before

changing the position of the instrument, and the first
sight from the new position, is called a turning point.
Readings are taken as before and the process is continued
until a sufficient number of lines have been run to secure
the required data.
" "
The record of the work is kept in a field book as
follows :
LEVEL NOTES
Station.
Sta.
lines represent the intersection of several parallel hori-

zontal with the earth's surface and collectively
planes
constitute a contour map. See Plate XXXVI.
It is evident that the more rapid the rise in the ground
or change in level, the nearer the lines will approach to
each other, but it should be noted that they do not cross.
If they come
together it
31 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 K
indicates a
vertical sur-
face. The ele-
vation of a
given contour
is designated
on the map by
placing the ref-
erence number
within a break
in the line.
202. To secure data for a contour
map, several lines
of levels have to be run. With the notes and data in hand,
the map is made by locating or plotting the points on
co-ordinate paper and drawing lines freehand through the
given points.
The method of recording the data on co-ordinate paper
is shown in Fig. 136.
By joining all points of the same elevation a series of
line of roadways and similar forms of construction. Grade 206. The amounts of cut and fill are determined by
lines are established on the basis of the rise or fall per drawing a base line upon which the stations are laid off.
hundred feet of length and are denoted by the term " per At each station a section is taken, similar to (a) and (c)
cent." A grade of +1.5 would indicate a rise of 1| feet
in 100 feet of its length, and 3.0 would mean a fall of
3 feet in the same distance.
FIG. 137. View of Country near Whitehall, N. Y. Scale lie5
Contour Interval 100 ft

Dalllm Umfajt^rtt Ifrcl
205. Cut and fill are terms denoting the excavation and
FIG. 138. Topography of Whitehall and Vicinity.
filling in required on road building and similar construc-
tion. This is shown in Fig. 139. 4
The slope of the sides, or batter, is determined by the Fig. 139. The earth between any two sections forms a
angle of repose of the given material. It is expressed by a solid called a prismoid the volume of which be deter-
may
ratio, as 2 :
1, 1| :
1, etc. mined by the prismoidal formula, as follows:
Let Ai =the area of one section, or end;

X|a
A2 = the area of other end;
A m = the area of mid-section;
h = the perpendicular distance between ends.
Then V= (A+4A m +A 2 ) = volume in cu.yds.

6X27
The areas of the sections may be found usually by

dividing them into triangles, and trapezoids.
For approximate results the formula may be written,
(a) SECTION ON E-F SECTION ON

= h
(c) X-Y
v
= ,
.
1C yards '
27 2 FIG. 139. Representation of Cut and Fill.

CHAPTER IX
PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION AND SKETCHING
207. In Chapter II, paragraph 47, it was explained of this book to give a complete treatment of this subject;
that an object may be represented by several kinds of only the fundamental principles in their simplest form
drawings, in mechanical drawing the method of ortho- and application be given!
will
graphic projection, explained in Chapter III, is

generally If a thin piece of card-board or tin is held up before
employed, but it is sometimes necessary to make a pic- the eye as shown in Fig. 140, mnop, a ray of light is pro-
jected from each corner to the point of sight. A pane of
glass held between the eye and the object, as ABCD, would
be pierced by these rays at the points m'n'o'p'. The figure
formed by joining these points has the same appearance
to the eye as the original object, if held in the same relative
position, and is called a perspective.
The artist represents the object in perspective by sketch-

ing each line as it appears to the eye.
209. A perspective projection may be obtained as
FJO. 140.- A Perspective Projection.
described in paragraph 208, but this isnot a practical
torial drawing of an object. For this purpose either per- drafting-room method. Mechanical perspective may be
spective or isometric drawing may be used. The former considered as a problem in projection and as related to
represents the object more truly, but the latter is made orthographic projection. This relation will be apparent
much more quickly. (Compare Figs. 18 and 19.) Both by referring to Fig. 141.
methods are explained in the following paragraphs. The object isbehind and touching the transparent
208. Mechanical Perspective. It is beyond the scope vertical plane V and the eye of the observer is at E. The
120
PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION AND SKETCHING 121
outline of the perspective is determined by the projecting secting GL at O//. Now O# must be the H projection
rays or lines, from the corners of the object to the eye, of the point where the line aE pierces V, therefore, its~V
intersecting V. The perspective, therefore, is a repre-

sentation cf the object and the eye of the observer upon V.
210. The method of mechanical perspective is first to
find the orthographic projections of the object upon V

and H, then to find the intersections of lines from points
on the object to the eye with V. These are points where
the lines pierce V, and, joined together, form the per-
spective.
The object shown in Fig. 141 is placed purposely with
its front face in V so as to make the problem as simple as
possible. The top view, therefore, has one edge in GL;

also it is seen that the front view in orthographic projection
coincides with the same view in perspective. The eye,
E, of the observer is taken at a point in front of V and in

H, its V projection is therefore in GL, at E K and its H
,
projection is below GL, at E#. This must be so, because

E is in front of V.
It should be noted that EH is situated in H extended
in front of V.
211. A ray of light passing in space from a to E, Fig.
141, would pierce V at some point O. Therefore, to obtain
the perspective of a point, as A, the method would be Fia. 141. Showing Relation of Perspective to Orthographic Projection.
to determine the projections of its ray of light and thus

determine where the ray pierces V. This may be done projection will be in a vertical line below OH . Draw E vd v ,
as follows: Draw //#, the H projection of aE, inter- the V projection of aE; the intersection of the vertical
line with E Fdv gives o v , which is the perspective of the the perspective. The resulting perspective, however, is
point a. smaller than before. See Fig. 142.

The position of the front view relative to GL is im-
portant, as determining the perspective of the top; the
nearer it is placed to GL the smaller the top will be in per-
spective. If placed above GL, the bottom would be shown.
213. If the eye is placed below H instead of in it, the
method is no different, but the perspective is slightly altered
as shown in Fig. 143. It is easily seen that the perspective
changes as the position of the eye changes.

Thus far this subject has been discussed not only as
a problem in orthographic projection, but also in the
same terminology. It has characteristic terms, however,
which will now be defined and hereafter employed, although
it will still be regarded as a problem in orthographic
projection.
214. The picture plane (PP) is the plane on which
the perspective is drawn; this may be the same as V.
The horizon line (HL) is a horizontal line on the level
with the eye and lying in the picture plane; it is the

intersection of the horizon plane with the picture plane.
The horizon plane and H
may or may not be the same.
FIG. 142. Perspective of Object with its Front Face back of V. See Fig. 143.
The point of sight is the position of the eye; it is
212. If the object is placed with its front face back of always somewhere within the horizon plane. It is desig-
V, the method of procedure is the same, provided it is nated as E or S, and its projections are E F and E H or ,
parallel to V, but more lines are required to determine SF and Sa .

PICTOKIAL REPRESENTATION AND SKETCHING 123
A good location for the point of sight should be selected, with one of its faces or edges in the picture plane; this
as the character of the perspective depends upon it. It simplifies the problem, because all measurements must be
is usually taken about 10" or 12" in front of the picture made in the picture plane.
plane, or the reading distance from the eye. In the illus-

tration shown in this book this distance is much less on
account of the limitations of the page, and the perspectives
"
are accordingly steep."
215. A vanishing point (V) is a point toward which all
parallel lines converge in perspective. This point in all

HORIZON LINE
cases thus far shown has been EF .
All horizontal lines vanish in the horizon and lines that
are parallel in the object vanish to the same point.

Lines that are parallel to the PP are not drawn to a
vanishing point in the perspective, because the conver-

gence is exceedingly small within the limits of the picture.
Lines that are perpendicular to PP converge toward E v .
Horizontal lines that are oblique to PP converge toward

points on either side of Er , designated as vanishing points
Vi and V2 . See Fig. 144.
216. The vanishing point for a horizontal group of lines is
found by drawing through the horizontal projection of
the point of sight (E H ) a line parallel to the horizontal
projections (top view) of the group, as shown in Fig. 144.

If the lines make an angle of 45
with PP, the vanishing FIG. 143. Perspective of Object with Eye placed below H.
points will be equidistant from Ep- and at a distance from
it equal to EÊ//. The use made of the front view is only that of ob-
217. It is customary to place the object to be drawn taining the vertical heights or measurements, therefore
FIG. 144. Perspective with Parallel Lines converging to Vanishing Points.
the side view would serve the same purpose; thus the 218. From the principles stated in the foregoing par-
front view may be omitted and the space kept free for graphs and exemplified in Fig. 144, the order to be followed
the perspective. See Fig. 145. in making a perspective may be summarized as follows:
Fia. 145. Perspective drawn with aid of Side View instead of Front View.
(a) Draw HL (214); (c) Draw the side view (210, 217);
(6) Draw the top view (210, 217); (d) Locate the point of sight (210, 214) ;
(e) Determine the vanishing points (215, 216); it is possible to bring the drawing within a smaller com-
(/) Draw aEH etc. (210, 211);
, pass, but for this method, other devices and special cases.
(0) Draw vertical lines b, c, etc. (211);
(h) Draw horizontals d, e, f (217);
(1) Draw lines to vanishing points from intersections
of vertical with horizontal lines (215) ;
(j) Note that h is determined by drawing gv 2 (217) ;
(k) Complete the perspective by joining points.

219. The perspective of a circle is an ellipse. The
method of drawing it is to circumscribe a square about
the circle, draw diameters and diagonals, and find the
perspectives of their points of intersection with the cir-
cumference of the circle, as shown in Fig. 146. Any number

of diameters may be drawn, thus increasing the number
of points that determine the curve and
securing greater
accuracy. Through the point thus found the circumference
of the ellipse is drawn.
The above method used for finding the per-

is also
spective of irregular lines and those not having a given

vanishing point, as hi, Fig. 145.
The perspective of an irregular solid may be obtained
by drawing it inclosed within a cube or prism.
220. To
secure the best results in drawing perspectives
FIG. 146. Method of Obtaining Perspective of a Circle.
by the methods given in the preceding paragraphs, it is
necessary to use a drawing board and paper of ample the student is referred to texts covering a complete treat-
dimensions; this is feasible, however, within reason. ment of the subject. The object here has been to furnish
By means of using what are termed " measuring points " a method for the solution of simple problems.
221. Isometric Drawing. The pictorial representation pictorial effect. It looks distorted when compared with the
of an object by the perspective method requires considerable perspective, but it is more quickly made and may be scaled.
G L
ISOMETRIC VIEW
FIG. 147. Isometric Drawing of Building Details. Fio. 148. Drawn in Isometric Projection.
Object
time and labor, and although it shows the object as it for construction are usually made
Drawings in projection,
appears to the eye, the lines cannot be directly measured. but isometric serves a useful purpose, particularly in con-
The isometric drawing is sometimes used to obtain a nection with building details. See Fig. 147.
Within its scope isometric drawing serves many useful ing is slightly larger. The latter is designated isometric
purposes; it is particularly helpful in assisting the student drawing.
and non-technical person to visualize and interpret the The method of isometric drawing is best exemplified
drawing in orthographic projection. in the representation of a cube.
222. The theory of isometric drawing is based upon a 224. The isometric of a cube is shown in Fig. 149.
special case of orthographic projection and is known as The edges of the cube, AB, BC, and BD, represent its
isometric projection. The principles will be briefly stated height, breadth, and depth, and on the cube these edges
here, as the application does not depend upon their dem- meet in the point B at right angles to each other. In
onstration.
(a) The object to be represented is placed so that it
has all its faces oblique to the planes of projection and in
a position such that its edges projected on V make angles

of 30 or 90 with GL. See Fig. 148.
(6) In the position indicated in (a), all the edges are
foreshortened in the same proportion, and all the faces
project into one view. A (a)
FIG. 149. Isometric FIG. 150. Isometric FIG. 152. Isometric
(c) The ratio of the foreshortened projection to the
Drawing of the Cube. Drawing of the Circle. Drawing of the Cylinder.
actual length of line is 81 : 100.
223. From
the preceding paragraph it is evident that, isometric they are drawn at angles of 120 with each other,
to an isometric projection, the edges of the
construct one of them being vertical.
object which are parallel lines are drawn at angles of 30 The lines AB, BC, and BD are called isometric axes
81- and lines parallel to them are known as isometric lines.
and 90 with GL, and made of their true length.
1L)U In making an isometric drawing observe the following:
81 (a) Measurements are made to scale and are laid off
It is easily seen that to draw lines measured of
luu on the axes or isometric lines only.
their true length would require a special scale. To avoid (6) Lines of the object which are vertical are drawn
this the standard scale is used, although the resulting draw- drawn
vertical; parallel lines are parallel.
(c) Invisible edges usually are omitted. determining the location of points in isometric and join-
(d) Shade the lines dividing the surfaces which are ing them.
illuminated from those in shadow; assume the light to Lines that are not parallel to the isometric axes are
come from the left at an angle of 45. known as non-isometric lines. They are easily determined
(e) The isometric of a circle is an ellipse and may be as shown in Fig. 151.
The isometric of a cylinder is determined as shown
FIG. 153. An Isometric from below.
FIG. 151. Isometric of a Pyramid, showing how Xon-isometric Lines are in Fig. 152. Note that the elements of the inscribed
Obtained.
cylinder aredrawn tangent to the ellipses.
drawn by trammels or any usual method, but ordinarily Angles cannot be drawn full size in isometric. They
the approximate method will suffice. This is shown in must be laid off by points measured on isometric lines.
Fig. 150. 226. Reversed axes are frequently used, as shown on
225. The principles of isometric stated above will cover Plate XVIII. If taken in the normal direction the con-
be drawn by struction would appear as in Fig. 153. Thus the view
all ordinary cases. Irregular figures may
can be made to appear as if looked at from above or below so that its long axis is parallel to the plane of projection.
as desired. This will be understood by comparing Figs. 155 and 156,
Occasionally an isometric drawing is made as shown which are drawings of the same object made to the same scale.
in Fig. 154 in order to show related
parts that are joined obliquely.

A section or broken end should be
drawn in isometric as shown in the
various illustrations.
227. Oblique projection is a form of
representation in which one face of the FIG. 156. Same as Fig. 155 but hav-
ing long Face Parallel to the Plane
object is shown parallel to the plane of FIG. 155. Oblique Projection. of Projection.
projection. The faces which are per-

pendicular to the plane of projection 229. Cabinet drawing is a form of oblique projection
FIG. 154. Isometric
are represented by lines drawn usually having the faces which are perpendicular to the plane
showingRelated Parts.
at 30. See Fig. 155. of projection represented by lines drawn usually at 45
This form of drawing is similar to isometric and has and measured one-half their true length. See Fig. 157.
the advantage of having one face of the object drawn in The object of this drawing is
its true shape and size. On the other hand the distorted to overcome as far as possible the
appearance of an isometric is intensified in the oblique effect of excessive distortion and

drawing; compare Fig. 155 with Fig. 148. still retain the advantage of rep-
Measurements are laid off on the oblique lines full size resenting one face without fore-
the same as in isometric. shortening.

particularly advantageous to draw one face
228. It is In oblique projection, circles FIG. 157. A Cabinet
Drawing.
of the object in its true shape and size if it has considerable and irregular outlines are deter-
detail, or if it is irregular in form. Such a face should mined by locating points and drawing the required lines
always be taken parallel to the plane of projection. through them in a manner similar to that described for
It is also important, if possible, to arrange the drawing isometric drawing in paragraphs 224 (e) and 225.
PLATE XXXVII.
131
230. Shade Lines and Line Shading. A pictorial effect
is attained to some extent by the employment of shade
lines and line shading as shown on Plate XXXVII. The
purpose of this drawing is to give a clear idea of the -de-
tailed construction and operation of the apparatus. To
i-l-lj l-f-
8
INCH FRONT AXLE END
[B
;HM\ !*
PICTORIAL REPEESENTATION AND SKETCHING 133
FIG. 159. A Working Sketch.

is valuable, as the methods of the latter are employed in 235. The order of sketching may be stated as follows :
this work. 1. Study the object and decide which views are re-
234. The method followed " " Block out the space for each view by points
in making the working sketch quired.
is essentially that of the working drawing, therefore the views must be properly related.
principles of the latter should be understood and ap- 2. Draw center lines.
plied. 3. Draw the outlines of the characteristic view, then
The object to be shown should be represented in its of the others.
natural position and not drawn to scale. All distances 4. Draw the large details, then the smaller ones.
should be estimated and no measurements taken until the 5. Draw the extension and dimension lines. Remember
drawing is finished. that the length, breadth, thickness, and location of each
The object should be drawn in good proportion, and if detailmust be shown.
it is symmetrical, the sketch should show it. 6. Take measurements and enter them.
The use of ruled, or cross-section, paper is advised for 7. Place on the notes, finish
marks, date, name of part,
sketching. See Fig. 159. and machine to which it belongs.
CHAPTER X
BLUE PRINTING
236. In the commercial drafting room the original B. Potassium ferricyanide, 1 oz., dissolved in water,
drawings are usually made on buff detail paper in pencil. 6 ozs.

A tracing in ink is made on transparent paper or cloth These solutions are kept separate in a dark room until
and from the tracing any number of " prints " may be used.
made. The method of making a tracing was explained Mix A and B in equal quantities and apply evenly to
in paragraph 42. the surface of the paper with a camel' s-hair brush. After
The original drawings and tracings are kept on file the solution has set, hang the paper up to dry.
in the drafting room
the tracings in a fire-proof vault, 238. The commercial papers are designated as slow,
"
the prints only being sent out on the job." rapid, and extra rapid, according to the time required for
The blue-print process is used most extensively to pro- printing, which depends upon the formula used in pre-
duce shop prints. It has the advantage of being simple paring the solution. The formula given above is for the
and inexpensive. ordinary or slow-printing paper.
A blue print is made by exposing a sensitized paper For a rapid-printing paper the following formula may
to the light in contact with the tracing or negative, and be used:
" "
afterward washing or fixing it in a bath. It is a chemical A. Ammonia citrate of iron (green crystals), If ozs.,
process from start to finish. dissolved in water, 6 ozs.
"
237. Blue-print paper prepared by coating or
is sen- B. Potassium ferricyanide, 5 oz., dissolved in water,
"
sitizing the surface of a good white paper with a solution 6 ozs.
which made and applied as follows
is : Take equal volumes of A and B.
" "
A. Ammonia citrate of iron (red crystals), 1 oz., dis- For an extra rapid or so-called electric solution
solved in water, 6 ozs. the following is a formula:
135
A. Tartaric acid, 1| ozs. Water, 6| ozs. Ferric chlor- When blue-print paper is thus obtainable, it does not
ide solution (sp.gr. 1.45), 1 oz. Liq. ammonia (.880), pay to make it.
3 ozs., added slowly to neutralize. Blue-print paper must be handled and stored in a dry
B. Potassium ferricyanide, 1 oz. Water, 4| ozs. place and exposed only to an orange or a ruby light. It
Take equal volumes of A and B. will spoil in a white light and it deteriorates rapidly with
The extra rapid or electric solution deteriorates
very moisture.
quickly and is therefore not recommended for general 240. Blue prints are made, first, by exposing the tracing
Fio. 161. A Printing Frame on a Track.

Fio. 160. A Printing Frame.
in a printing frame as shown in Fig. 160. The tracing is
use. A good quality of rapid paper will usually meet all laid on the glass down, and the paper is placed
face, ink side
the essential requirements as to speed in printing. with its face (sensitive side) on the tracing. A pad of
239. In the preparation of commercial papers, the solu- felt is laid on the paper to press it evenly against the
tion is applied to the surface of the paper by a machine. tracing, and the frame is then closed.
A continuous roll of paper is drawn through the machine, The frame next brought out of the darkened room
is
coated, dried, and re-rolled. It is then cut up and wrapped into the sunlight and placed with the glass toward the
in 10- and 50-yard rolls, made in widths from 30" to 54". light, selecting a spot that is free from shadows.
BLUE PRINTING 137
the ferric salt to ferrous salt,

The length of exposure will depend upon the degree
of sensitiveness of the paper, its freshness, and the strength which combines with the ferri-
of the light, A fresh rapid paper in the bright sunlight cyanide and precipitates Turn-
of summer mid-day will print in one minute from an ink bull's blue, thus forming a new
tracing on cloth. A slow paper on a dull winter's day compound which is permanent.
will require ten minutes or even longer. Tracings on The opaque lines of the drawing
cloth print faster than tracings on paper, and old prints prevent the light from pene-
faster than fresh blue-print paper. All the factors must trating and, as no action takes
be considered, then determine the time exactly by trial. place, the original chemicals are
washed out, leaving the white .
lines on a blue ground.

A pale blue color indicates
that the print did not have
sufficient exposure. If the lines
of the print are not clear and
white, it was overexposed. If
FIG. 162 A Washing Tray.
overexposed long enough the
For making large prints a heavy frame mounted on a print will reverse, that is, the
track is often used. See Fig. 161. lines will be blue and the ground
241. The next step is to wash the exposed print in a a light gray.
242. Poor prints may be in-
tray of cold water for about ten to fifteen minutes; running
water is preferable. It is then hung up to dry. See Fig. tensified by immersing them in
162. a bath made as follows:
Caution: Do not handle the tracing or unexposed paper with moist

Bichromate of potassium, 5|
hands. Water a tracing and finger marks will spot the paper.
will ruin ozs. Common salt, 4 ozs.
FIG. 163. Electric Blue-Printing
Water, 1 gal.
After washing, the print should have a dark-blue color Machine Vertical Type.
with clear white lines. The effect of the light is to reduce Add one cupful of the above
solution to a tray full of water, mix thoroughly, then im- 243. Electric printing machines are used extensively.
merse the prints. The prints must be thoroughly rinsed The vertical type shown an arc lamp with
in Fig. 163 has
with clear water before hanging up to dry. a vertical feed. The tracing and the paper are wrapped
around the glass cylinder. The exposure is regulated by
the time allowed for the lamp to travel the length of the
cylinder.
A machine of the horizontal type is shown in Fig.
164. It has a mercury-vapor lamp which is placed inside a
revolving glass cylinder; the lamp is stationary. Machines

of this type are adapted to continuous printing, a roll of
paper with the tracings being fed into it steadily.
A continuous washing, drying, and ironing machine
is shown in Fig. 165. The machine illustrated in Fig. 166
is an electric printing, washing, and drying machine.

The tracings and a continuous paper are fed into
roll of
the machine; the prints are delivered at the end of the
dryer automatically wound in a loose roll while the tracings

are returned to the operator. This machine has a capac-
ity of 100 lineal yards of blue prints per hour.

244. Alterations or corrections may be made on a blue
print by using an alkaline solution, such as washing soda,
caustic potash, or strong ammonia, which bleaches out the

blue. After drying, the ink may be applied, or, if preferred,
a few drops of carmine ink may be added to the solution

FIG. 164. Electric Blue-Printing Machine Horizontal Type.
and the changes made with a pen dipped into the tinted
Water that is alkaline will weaken the prints. Such solution.

water should be neutralized with a little citric acid. 245. Prints are made also by other methods and are
PLATE XXXVIII.
Itegular Blue Print from Tracing of Original Shown in Fig. 113. Blue Line Print from Van Dyke Negative.
Van Dyke Negative from Same Tracing as Above. Brown Line Print from Van Dyke Negative.
139
" " " "
known as black prints, brown prints, etc. The by a preparation which will greatly facilitate printing, as
Van Dyke print, which is of dark-brown color, is used ex- follows :
tensively. The process, however, involves an extra bath White wax, 2 ozs. Alcohol (absolute), 15 ozs. Ether, 1 oz.
treatment, which is a disadvantage. Van Dyke paper is Dissolve, and let stand in a closed jar until it settles,
" "
often used for making negatives from which prints
having a blue line on a white background may be made
from regular blue-print paper in the usual manner.
FIG. 165. A Continuous Washing, Drying and Ironing Machine. FIG. 166. A Continuous Electric Printing, Washing and Drying Machine. .
The negative is printed from a tracing which is placed then pour off the clear solution into a tight bottle ready
" "
face up in the frame instead of down. A positive for use. Place the drawing to be transparentized upon a
print in blue or brown is made from the negative in the sheet of blotting paper or newspaper and apply the solu-
same way. XXXVIII.
See Plate tion with a cloth or waste, wiping off the surplus.
246.
Drawings made on bond paper or other papers Paraffin dissolved in benzine may also be used for this
not sufficiently transparent to print weH may be treated purpose.
BLUE PRINTING 141
247. A typewritten sheet be blue printed by using

may has advantages where not more than 20 or 25 copies are
a black ribbon on the typewriter and placing a sheet of desired. The original is prepared with colored ink on white
carbon paper back of having the latter reversed from
it, paper. A special ink is required, but it may be had in
the usual manner, so that it will print on the back as well various colors, any or all of which may be used on the
as on the front. A light bond or tracing paper should original at the same time. This is a great advantage, as
be used for this purpose. it is often desirable to differentiate lines by colors.
Two or three good copies of small drawings may be The original then placed on a gelatine pad which
is
made quickly by laying together alternate sheets of thin absorbs the ink and transfers it to the paper to be printed.
white paper and carbon paper, placing the original on The directions supplied with the various types of hek-
top and tracing the lines with a 6H pencil. tographs on the market furnish the details necessary for
248. The hektograph process for reproducing drawings their successful operation.
INDEX
BECTION
Accuracy 45 Blue-prints, alterations of 244
testing for 5 Board, drawing 2
Angle, deflection 185 Bolt, parts of 130
Arrangement of views 48 Bolts, standard 131
Assembly drawing 34-104 Bond paper 19
Auxiliary lines 27 Bow-set 11
plane 61 Brown-prints 245
view 62 Building, construction of 156-160
Axis of revolution 58 Building construction, common measurements 168
Azimuth 184
Cabinet drawing 229
Bad practice 46 Care of instruments 16
Bearing 183 Checking a drawing 149
Bench mark 194 Cloth, tracing 42
Bill of material 36 Colored inks 27
Black-prints 245 Compass 8
Blue-printing: Compass, beam 9
Brown prints 245 Concrete 172, 175
Exposing 240 Concrete forms 178
Intensifying 242 Construction of a building 156-1 60
Typewriting 247 Construction, materials of 171-173
Washing 241 Constructions, geometrical 44
Van Dyke prints 246 Contour map 201-203
machines 243 Contrasts 28
Blue-print paper 237 Conventional lines 27, 108, 109
Blue-print paper, coating of 239 pulleys and gears 147
Blue-print process 236 section 121
Blue-print solutions 237-238 sections . . 146
143
144 INDEX
SECTION SECTION
Conventional threads 127 Drawing, pictorial 47
Conventions 103, 154 plans 179
topographical 192 preparation for 34

Course 183 projection 47, 54
Cross-section paper 19 representative 47
Curve, irregular 6 scale 104, 105
Curves, mathematical 50 topographical 180
Cut and fill 205 working 100
Drawings, detail 152, 176, 177
Datum plane 194 execution of 102
Deflection angle 185 kinds of 47, 150
Describing 132-140 working 161-164
Detail drawing 34j 104
Element 71
drawings 152, 176, 177
Details 37 Elevation 151
86 def 194
Development of frustrum 85,
of cone and frustrum Erasers 22
90, 91, 92
on intersecting solids 93-99 Erasure 40
principles of 80
Fill, cut and 205
of prism and cylinder 83
Final drawing 38
of pyramid and frustrum 88, 89
Forms, concrete 178
of a surface, def 79
by triangulation 98
Gears, conventional 147
Dimensioning 110, 115, 132-140
Geometrical constructions 44
Dividers 10
Geometry 49
Drafting technic 45
Gradient 204
Drawing, assembly 34, 104
Ground line 53
board 2
checking 149 248
Hektograph process
detail 34, 104 129
Hole, tapped
final 38 Holes 136-138
inks 24 Horizon def 214
line,
isometric 47 Horizontal lines 33
layout 35
paper 17 Identification marks 34
perspective 47, 153 Inclined lines . . 33
INDEX 145
SECTION
Indexing 36 Lines, auxiliary 27
Ink, colored 24, 27 conventional 27, 108,409
drawing 24 horizontal 33
Inking 39 inclined 33
Instruments 1,181 projection 55
care of 16 vertical 33
Intersection, line of 70
of surfaces 68-78 Map, contour 201-203
Intersections: of a plot 191
method of auxiliary plane 75 topographical 182
method of elements 73 Marks, identification 34
Irregular curve 6 Material, bill of 36
Isometric axes 224 Materials 1, 181
drawing 47, 221 Materials of construction 171-173
lines 224 Measurements, building construction 168
principles of 224 Mechanical drawing, object of 26
projection, theory of 222
Neatness 45
Kinds of drawings 47, 150 Nut 129
Kinds of working drawings 104
Object of mechanical drawing 26
Layout of drawings 35 Oblique projection 227
Lettering 29, 155 Orthographic projection 51
freehand 31 def 52
Letters, forming 29 Outlines of views 35
slanting 30
small 30 Paper, bond 19
spacing 30 cross-section . 19
Level notes 198, 199 drawing 17
Leveling, def 193 Patterns 68
method of 195-199 Penciling 32
Line grade 204 Pencil pointer 25
ground 53 Pencils 20
of intersection 70 Pen-holder 25
shading 230 point 25
true length of 65 Pen, ruling 12
146 INDEX
Pen-wiper 25 Protractor 15
Perspective of circle : 219 Pulleys conventional 147

def 208
drawing 47, 153 Representative drawing 47
projection 209 Revolution, axis of 58
mechanical, method of 210, 218 Ruling pen 12
Pictorial drawing 47
Picture plane, def 214 Sanitation 170
Plan, drawing 179 Scale 7
Plane, auxiliary 61 Scale drawing 104, 105

Planes of projection 53 Scales, Standard 106
Plans, def 150 Scheming sheet 34
Plot 186 Screw threads 124-129
map of 191 representation of 126
Plotting, def 182 Section 116-122, 151, 193
Plotting 189 conventional 121
from title abstract
'
190 location of 118
Plumbing 170 plumbing 163
Point of sight, def 214 selection of 119
Pointer, pencil 25 Sections 141-146
Practice, bad 46 conventional 146
Preparation for drawing 34 Shade lines 230
Principles of development 80 Sheet, scheming 34
Principles of projection 56, 58 Sketch 104
Prismoidal formula 206 Sketching 231
Profile 193, 200, 203 method of 234
Projection 51 order of 235
drawing 47,54 Solids, development of 79-99
isometric, theory of 222 Specifications 167
lines 55 Standard scales 106
oblique 227 thread 125
orthographic 51 Stations 194
orthographic, def 52 Stucco 174
planes of 53 Surfaces, intersection of 68-78

perspective 209 Survey, method of 187-189
principles 56, 58 record of 186
INDEX 147
SECTION B1CTION
Tacks, thumb 25 Triangulation, development by 98

Tapers, dimensioning 139 T-square -
3
Tapped hole 129 True length of line 65
Technic, drafting 45 Typewriting, blue-printing 247
Thread, conventional 127
form 125 Van Dyke prints 245
screw 124-129 Vanishing point, def 215
standard 125 finding 216
Thumbtacks 25 Vertical lines 33
Tile 172, 175 View, auxiliary 62
Titles 36, 148 unchanged 59
Topographical conventions 192 Views 34
drawing, def 180 Views, arrangement 48
features 203 outlines of 35
map 182 selection of 107
Traces 53, 55
Tracing 41 Working drawing 100
cloth 42 drawings 161-164
Tracings 18 kinds of 104
Transit 187 sketch 104
Transparentizing 246 method of 234
Triangles 4 order of . . 235
I
02131
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE
STAMPED BELOW
AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS
WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN
THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY
WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH
DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY
OVERDUE.
JAN 2 193
APR 12 1940
1
' v
LD 21-100m-8,'34
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY

Mechanical Drafting

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Mechanical Drafting

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UC-NRLF

CHARLES B. HOWE, M.E.

THE SCIENTIFIC PRESS

acquiring a knowledge of and skill in drafting rather than use of instruments.

MATERIALS AND INSTRUMENTS GEOMETRY OF DRAWING

Definition, purpose, execution, kinds Scale drawing,

Orthographic projection Application and definition of CHAPTER VI

CHAPTER VII principles and problems explained Isometric drawing:

TRIANGULAR BOXWOOD SCALE J-.lJLlJLL.iill

OR|. j. -H.f-,1.ll,2,3,4!N.TOTHEFOOT,TV IN.

INDIA INK ERASING SHIELD

MATERIALS AND INSTRUMENTS

quality, style and size of

For drawing vertical lines, the triangle is placed against the

FIG. 3. Proving the Triangles.

6. The irregular curve is used for drawing lines which

usually determined by a series of points through which a

made smooth by applying

FIG. 5. Using the Scale.

graduations will become indistinct. The accuracy of the

ments of the set. It is essential that the condition and use

side. Too much ink will result in a blot.

FIG. 7. Using the Dividers. 13. When in use on the paper as

compass pen also.

When the nibs of the pen become worn they must be

resharpened. This requires experience, and competent

FIG. 9. Using the Pen.

15. The protractor is used for laying off, or measuring,

Keep all instruments clean. They should be rubbed lined tracing.

shades. Good drawing paper is tough, strong, and will

bottles with a quill filler attached to the cork. A good

drawing, tools, and hands. of it.

A pen-holder of medium large diameter, preferably with A pen-wiper of linen

various forms the line may be regarded as constituting the

Auxiliary lines are of a lesser width and include all except

28. To facilitate the reading of the drawing it should

portions are determined by the space which the boundaries,

FIG. 14. Effect of Varying FIG. 15. Effect of Increasing Space

should be very nearly equal. In a similar manner, by vary-

A B COETGH/JKL MNOP Q ABCDEFGHUKLMNOPQR

obcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz the height of capitals.

recommended. rectangles are drawn and indicate the approximate

observation. ing. A well-balanced effect adds to the appearance of a

(a) Main Center Lines. (6) Principal Outlines.

(<) Details. (d) Dimensions, Notes, etc. ;

ing-in. ascertain the fault and apply the remedy.

drawing should be considered as temporary in character. line is of the proper width.

44. Geometrical constructions are drawn by means of

the T square and triangles as far as possible. Angles of

NOTE: FIRST POSITION OF TRIANGLE IS SHOWN BY DOTTED LINES.

parallels, and tangents, and in locating centers and joining

FIG. 17. Perspective Drawing

46. It is bad practice

48. The arrangement of views for a projection drawing following paragraphs.

drawing a perpendicular, parallel, or tangent, are accom-

tion, such as bisecting a line, or drawing a circle through

applications of mathematical geometry and should be studied

problems to which they relate.

FIG. 22. Projections of Object upon three Planes.

object is placed in such a position that its faces are parallel

object as it really is and not as it appears. or foreshortened.

line. The object as shown in Fig. 22 is represented as being

FIG. 23. Projections of Object upon three Planes Object removed.