Human exploration of the Moon and Mars

March 24, 2004 - These are exciting times for space exploration. For the first time in a generation, human
missions beyond Earth orbit are being seriously considered by space agencies on both sides of the Atlantic.
Europe has initiated the Aurora programme, with the ultimate aim of landing people on Mars by 2033, while
the U.S. has recently redirected its human space activities towards a return to the Moon.

On Friday 2 April, Dr. Ian Crawford, a planetary scientist based at Birkbeck College, London, will be
explaining to the RAS National Astronomy Meeting, held at the Open University in Milton Keynes, that there
are indeed strong scientific reasons for sending people back to the Moon and on to Mars.

These arguments are further developed in an article published in the April issue of the Royal Astronomical
Society's journal Astronomy & Geophysics, which is timed to coincide with the meeting.

"The reasons for exploring the Moon and Mars are both very strong, but rather different," said Dr. Crawford.
"The importance of the Moon results from its extremely ancient surface, which preserves a record of early
Solar System history that is not preserved anywhere else. On the other hand, the main reason for wanting to
explore Mars is to search for past or present life on the planet, which is probably one of the most important
scientific questions of our time."

Given that strong scientific cases exist for a human return to the Moon and for sending people on to Mars,
Dr. Crawford argues that the two should be combined in a self-consistent, international strategy for Solar
System exploration.

Europe's Aurora programme could be a major part of such a strategy. The UK will shortly have to decide
whether or not to participate in the human spaceflight aspects of Aurora, and Dr. Crawford believes that we
should seize this unique opportunity to play a leading role in these exciting endeavours.

Given the difficulties of sending people to Mars, Dr. Crawford argues that it would be wiser, initially, to
concentrate human spaceflight activities on the Moon. This would not only teach us much about the Moon
and its history, but also help pave the way for later human missions to Mars by developing the necessary
technology and expertise. However, the robotic exploration of Mars could, and should, continue in parallel
with a manned lunar programme.

"By pursuing parallel programmes to build up a human spaceflight capability on the Moon and to advance
robotic Mars exploration, there is a realistic chance that we will have developed both the human spaceflight
expertise and the detailed knowledge of the Martian environment to make human missions to the Red
Planet both scientifically worthwhile and technically feasible before the middle of this century," said Dr.
Crawford.

Royal Astronomical Society (RAS)

First Convention of Lunar Explorers"

March 02, 2001 - ESA Press Release N°11-2001

Will the Moon be the ultimate travel destination? Can we harness energy from the Moon? How and when
can we build a lunar base or a lunar village? Will it be possible to transform that barren landscape 384 000
km away into a thriving hub of scientific research and industrialization? These and other questions will be
discussed during the first Convention of Lunar Explorers (LUNEX) in Paris, at the Palais de la Découverte
from 8 to 10 March.

The first LUNEX Convention will bring together lunar explorers from all backgrounds, including
professionals, amateur space enthusiasts and interested visitors from the public. During the Convention
numerous oral presentations will prompt detailed discussions on all aspects of future lunar exploration: the
Moon as a geology laboratory or an astronomical platform; the knowledge of lunar geography needed to
land and move on the surface; the implications of finding water-ice on the Moon and whether this might be
detected by forthcoming missions; the architecture of lunar habitats; what would be needed in the future for
the Moon to support life; cultural and social aspects; and the scientific motivation for returning to the Moon.
The Convention will also be the main public event in 2001 at which SMART-1 is presented. SMART-1, due
to be launched in 2002 will test solar electric propulsion and other innovative approaches for future deep
space probes. It is the first European satellite to be sent towards the Moon. Visitors to the Palais de la
Découverte will be able to view a model of SMART-1.
On 9 March, at 09:00, the media is invited to hear about the LUNEX objectives and activities and to learn
about the European Space Agency’s SMART-1 mission within the broader context of ESA’s Planetary
Exploration Programme.

Background information on LUNEX

The Lunar Explorers Society (LUNEX) is an international organization created by 200 founder members in
July 2000. LUNEX was founded at the end of the 4th Conference on Exploration and Utilisation of the Moon
(ICEUM4), organised by ESA and the International Lunar Exploration Working Group (ILEWG). Its aim is to
promote the exploration of the Moon for the benefit of humanity, bridging the gap between space agencies
and the general public to promote planetary exploration and space. The Lunar Explorers Society invites all
interested individuals to become members.

Background information on SMART-1

SMART-1 is the first of ESA’s SMART (Small Mission for Advanced Research and Technology) missions
under the Horizon 2000 Scientific Programme. SMART-1 will be launched in October 2002 on board an
Ariane-5 rocket as an auxiliary payload. The mission’s primary objective is to flight-test solar electric primary
propulsion on a Moon voyage, preparing crucial new technology for ESA’s Bepi-Colombo mission to
Mercury. Other new technologies for spacecraft and instruments will also be tested. It will be the first time
that Europe sends a spacecraft to the Moon. Besides relying on solar electric primary propulsion to leave the
Earth and reach the Moon, the spacecraft will also carry out a complete programme of scientific
observations in lunar orbit. During the cruise phase to reach the Moon, the instruments will be tested by
observing the Earth and celestial targets.

European Space Agency (ESA)

SMART-1's bridge to the future exploration of the Moon

March 12, 2007 - ESA's SMART-1 moon mission has become a bridge to the future of lunar science and
exploration.

"SMART-1 data are helping to choose future landing sites for robotic and possible manned missions, and its
instruments are upgraded and being flown again on the next generation of lunar satellites," says Bernard
Foing, ESA SMART-1 Project scientist. "Even its spectacular impact campaign is helping NASA to plan their
own moon crash."

SMART-1's mission lasted from launch on 27 September 2003, to its controlled impact on the Moon on 3
September 2006. During that time, the mission's innovative approach to technology and science created
new solutions to old problems that are now being carried forward to the next generation of lunar missions, in
line with the recommendations of the International Lunar Exploration Working Group (ILEWG).

The miniature camera, AMIE, weighed just 2 kilograms yet the images it returned are being used to choose
possible landing sites for future missions. The choice of landing sites depends upon criteria such as the
scientific importance of the area, the ease of landing and operation and, if it is to become a human base, the
availability of lunar resources. SMART-1 has imaged Apollo and Luna landing sites, and potential possible
landing sites for humans at the lunar poles.

To follow up the technological breakthroughs of SMART-1, ESA is providing three instruments for the Indian
Moon mission Chandrayaan-1. Two are direct descendents from SMART-1: the infrared spectrometer, SIR2,
and the X-ray spectrometer, C1XS. The third (SARA) is a precursor to an instrument that will fly on ESA's
Bepi-Colombo mission to Mercury.

ESA and European scientists are also collaborating with the Japanese, who are currently preparing the large
lunar spacecraft, Selene, which will launch this year carrying two subsatellites and 300 kilograms of
sophisticated instruments.

During SMART-1's mission, ESA provided the Chinese with details of the spacecraft's position and
transmission frequencies, so that the Chinese could test their tracking stations and ground operations by
following it. This was part of their preparation for Chang'E 1, an orbiter due to be launched in October 2007.

SMART-1 experts are collaborating with NASA to prepare for Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) that will
provide new imaging, radar and other key measurements needed for future exploration of the Moon. LRO is
due to be launched at the end of 2008. ESA is sharing the experience of SMART-1's impact campaign to
help prepare the Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS), which will be launched with
LRO. The LCROSS shepherd spacecraft will watch the spent upper-stage of its rocket crash into a dark
lunar crater, hopefully releasing water vapour and thus proving that ice exists on the lunar surface.

"Having flown SMART-1, we have now established collaborations with other countries that will help to take
us into the future of lunar exploration," says Foing.

Bernard Foing explained SMART-1's legacy to the Symposium: "Why the Moon?" at the International Space
University at Strasbourg, France, on 22 February 2007.

European Space Agency

www.brightsurf.com/search

European meeting in Athens fuels future space exploration missions to Mars, Moon

June 01, 2007 - A European Science Foundation (ESF)-led workshop sponsored by the European Space
Agency (ESA) has enabled 88 scientists from 11 European countries to agree on science goals for future
Europe's planetary exploration programme; providing the continent with an ambitious roadmap to examine
Mars and the Moon.

The meeting, which was held on 15-16 May 2007 in Athens, defined the science rationale of this
programme, dubbed "Emergence and co-evolution of life with its planetary environments."

The scientists identified three target bodies to be visited by a number of international missions in the
timeframe 2013-2035: the planet Mars, the Moon, and Near-Earth Objects, which are asteroids orbiting the
Sun within reach of the Earth. The planet Mars qualifies as a place where life may have evolved in the past
and is thus a good candidate for missions searching for signs of extinct, or even extant, life.

The exploration programme, also known as "Aurora" in early versions of this ambitious plan, will focus on
planetary bodies that can ultimately be reached by humans, although the first steps of the 30-year
programme can only be robotic. An ultimate goal is for European astronauts to participate in the first
international mission that will land humans on the planet Mars. In their recommendations to ESA the Athens
workshop participants indicated that Mars should be the focus of the European exploration endeavour, with
a driving set of missions called "Mars Sample Return", a set of robotic missions aimed at returning pieces of
Martian surface and sub-surface for detailed analysis on Earth.

Although Mars Sample Return can realistically only be an international cooperative mission it was stressed
that Europe should remain a major actor in its definition, taking bold initiatives to develop, and improve upon,
key technologies relevant to planetary exploration, such as deep drilling techniques, radio-isotopic devices
to produce energy on the Martian surface, or the development of a European facility for receiving and
analysing extraterrestrial samples.

Research on humans in space environment which are currently carried out on Earth or in the International
Space Station must be strengthened. Beyond these activities, opportunities to further that necessary
research portfolio may arise in the context of an international lunar exploration programme. The workshop
participants indeed agreed that the Moon should be used as a component of a robust European exploration
programme.

Finally the Athens workshop participants emphasised that international cooperation among space agencies
engaged in planetary exploration should be a major feature of this programme, materialised by concrete joint
ventures between the relevant partners, i.e. Europe, U.S., Russia, Japan, China and India.

European Science Foundation

Exploration of the Moon

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Apollo 12 lunar module prepares to descend towards the surface of the Moon.
NASA photo.

The exploration of the Moon by physical means began when Luna 2, a space probe
launched by the Soviet Union, impacted the surface of the Moon on September 14, 1959.
Prior to that the only available means of exploration had been observation. The invention
of the optical telescope brought about the first leap in the quality of lunar observations.
Galileo Galilei is generally credited as the first person to use a telescope for astronomical
purposes. He made his own telescope in 1609, and used it to observe mountains and
craters on the lunar surface.

In 1969 Project Apollo first successfully landed people on the Moon, and they returned
rocks, placed scientific experiments and returned data that pointed to the Moon being of
somewhat similar composition to the Earth.
Contents
[hide]

• 1 Early history
• 2 Space race
• 3 Recent exploration
• 4 Future plans
• 5 See also
• 6 References

• 7 External links

[edit] Early history

Further information: Selenography

In the philosophy of Aristotle, the heavens, starting at the Moon, were the realm of
perfection, the sublunary region was the realm of change and corruption, and any
resemblance between these regions was strictly ruled out. Aristotle himself suggested that
the Moon partook perhaps of some contamination from the realm of corruption.[1] In his
little book On the Face in the Moon's Orb, Plutarch expressed rather different views on
the relationship between the Moon and Earth. He suggested that the Moon had deep
recesses in which the light of the Sun did not reach and that the spots are nothing but the
shadows of rivers or deep chasms. He also entertained the possibility that the Moon was
inhabited. It had been suggested already in antiquity that the Moon was a perfect mirror
and that its markings were reflections of earthly features, but this explanation was easily
dismissed because the face of the Moon never changes as it moves about the Earth.[1] The
explanation that finally became standard was that there were variations of "density" in the
Moon that caused this otherwise perfectly spherical body to appear the way it does.[1] The
perfection of the Moon, and therefore the heavens, was thus preserved.

The medieval followers of Aristotle, in the Islamic world and then in Christian Europe,
tried to make sense of the lunar spots in Aristotelian terms.[1] Thomas Harriot, as well as
Galilei, drew the first telescopic representation of the Moon and observed it for several
years. His drawings, however, remained unpublished.[1] The first map of the Moon was
made by the Belgian cosmographer and astronomer Michael Florent van Langren in
1645.[1] Two years later a much more influential effort was published by Johannes
Hevelius. In 1647 Hevelius published Selenographia, the first treatise entirely devoted to
the Moon. Hevelius's nomenclature, although used in Protestant countries until the
eighteenth century, was replaced by the system published in 1651 by the Jesuit
astronomer Giovanni Battista Riccioli, who gave the large naked-eye spots the names of
seas and the telescopic spots (now called craters) the name of philosophers and
astronomers.[1] In 1753 Croatian astronomer Roger Joseph Boscovich discovered the
absence of atmosphere on the Moon. In 1824 Franz von Gruithuisen explained the
formation of craters as a result of meteorite strikes.[2]
[edit] Space race
Main article: Space race

Lunokhod 1

The Cold War-inspired space race between the Soviet Union and the United States of
America accelerated with a focus on the Moon. This included many scientifically
important firsts, such as the first photographs of the until then unseen far side of the
moon in 1959 by the Soviet Union, and culminated with the landing of the first humans
on the moon in 1969, widely seen around the world as one of the pivotal events of the
20th century, and indeed of human history in general.

Landing map of Apollo, Surveyor and Luna missions.

Apollo 17 astronaut Harrison Schmitt standing next to a boulder at Taurus-Littrow during
the third EVA (extravehicular activity). NASA photo.

The first man-made object to reach the Moon was the unmanned Soviet probe Luna 2,
which made a hard landing on September 14, 1959, at 21:02:24 Z. The far side of the
Moon was first photographed on October 7, 1959 by the Soviet probe Luna 3. In an effort
to compete with these Soviet successes, U.S. President John F. Kennedy proposed the
national goal of landing a man on the Moon. Speaking to a Joint Session of Congress on
May 25, 1961, he said

"First, I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is
out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to the earth. No single space project
in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important for the long-range
exploration of space."[3]

The Soviets nonetheless remained in the lead for some time. Luna 9 was the first probe to
soft land on the Moon and transmit pictures from the Lunar surface on February 3, 1966.
It was proven that a lunar lander would not sink into a thick layer of dust, as had been
feared. The first artificial satellite of the Moon was the Soviet probe Luna 10 (launched
March 31, 1966). One of the main impediments to human exploration of the Moon was
development of adequate heat shield technology to permit atmospheric re-entry without
completely burning up a manned spacecraft. The U.S. gained early supremacy in this
field through NASA research in thermogravimetric experiments in hypersonic wind
tunnels.

On December 24, 1968, the crew of Apollo 8, Frank Borman, James Lovell, and William
Anders became the first human beings to see the far side of the Moon with their own eyes
(as opposed to seeing it on a photograph). Humans first landed on the Moon on July 20,
1969. The first man to walk on the lunar surface was Neil Armstrong, commander of the
U.S. mission Apollo 11. The first robot lunar rover to land on the Moon was the Soviet
vessel Lunokhod 1 on November 17, 1970 as part of the Lunokhod program. The last
man to stand on the Moon was Eugene Cernan, who as part of the mission Apollo 17
walked on the Moon in December 1972. See also: A full list of lunar Apollo astronauts.

Moon rock samples were brought back to Earth by three Luna missions (Luna 16, 20, and
24) and the Apollo missions 11 through 17 (excepting Apollo 13, which aborted its
planned lunar landing).

From the mid-1960's to the mid-1970's there were 65 moon landings (with 10 in 1971
alone), but after Luna 24 in 1976 they suddenly stopped. The Soviet Union started
focusing on Venus and space stations and the U.S. on Mars and beyond.

[edit] Recent exploration

In 1990 Japan visited the moon with the Hiten spacecraft, becoming the third country to
orbit the moon. The spacecraft released the Hagormo probe into lunar orbit, but the
transmitter failed, thereby preventing further scientific use of the mission. In September
2007, the SELENE spacecraft was launched, with the objectives "to obtain scientific data
of the lunar origin and evolution and to develop the technology for the future lunar
exploration", according to the JAXA official website.[4]

NASA launched the Clementine mission in 1994, and Lunar Prospector in 1998.

In 1998, HGS-1, a commercial satellite from Hong Kong, China, performed two flybys of
the moon in order to change orbital inclination.

The European Space Agency launched a small, low-cost lunar orbital probe called
SMART 1 on September 27, 2003. SMART 1's primary goal was to take three-
dimensional X-ray and infrared imagery of the lunar surface. SMART 1 entered lunar
orbit on November 15, 2004 and continued to make observations until September 3,
2006, when it was intentionally crashed into the lunar surface in order to study the impact
plume.[5]

The People's Republic of China has begun the Chang'e program for exploring the Moon
and is investigating the prospect of lunar mining, specifically looking for the isotope
helium-3 for use as an energy source on Earth.[6] China launched the Chang'e 1 robotic
lunar orbiter on 2007-10-24.

[edit] Future plans

See also: List of future lunar missions

India's Chandrayaan-1.

Chang'e 1 spacecraft

On 2004-01-14, US President George W. Bush announced the Vision for Space

Exploration, a plan leading to new manned lunar missions by 2020. NASA's plan to
accomplish that goal was announced on March 19, 2005,[7] and was promptly dubbed
"Apollo 2.0" by critics. A preliminary unmanned mission, the Lunar Reconnaissance
Orbiter, is scheduled for launch in 2008. LRO will take high resolution imagery of the
moon's surface and will carry the Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite
(LCROSS), which will investigate the possible existence of water in Shackleton crater.

China plans to land a rover on the moon in 2012, and to conduct a sample return mission
in 2017. China has entered into an agreement to work with Russia to eventually land
astronauts on the moon before 2020.[8]

Japan has rescheduled LUNAR-A possibly before 2010.[9] Japanese Space Agency
(JAXA) plans a manned lunar landing around 2020 that would lead to a manned lunar
base by 2030; however, there is no budget yet for this project.[10]

India expects to launch Chandrayaan, an unmanned lunar orbiter, by April 2008. The
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) also plans to undertake a totally indigenous
manned space exploration in the next decade by planning to send a person to space by
2014 and to have a person walk on the moon by 2020.[11]

Russia also announced to resume its previously frozen project Luna-Glob, an unmanned
lander and orbiter, which is slated to launch in 2012.[12]

Germany also announced in March 2007 that it will launch a national lunar orbiter, LEO
in 2012.[13]

In August 2007, NASA stated that all future missions and explorations of the moon will
be done entirely using the metric system. This was done to improve cooperation with
space agencies of other countries which already use the metric system.[14]

On September 13, 2007, the X Prize Foundation, in concert with Google, Inc., announced
the Google Lunar X Prize. This contest requires competitors "to land a privately funded
robotic rover on the Moon that is capable of completing several mission objectives,
including roaming the lunar surface for at least 500 meters and sending video, images and
data back to the Earth."[15]

Chandrayaan-1 Lunar Orbiter

NSSDC ID: CHANDRYN1

Description

Chandrayaan-1 is an Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) mission designed to

orbit the Moon over a two year period with the objectives of upgrading and testing India's
technological capabilities in space and returning scientific information on the lunar
surface. The spacecraft bus is roughly a 1.5 meter cube with a dry weight of 523 kg. It is
based on the Kalpansat meteorological satellite. It will also carry a 30 kg probe designed
to be released from the spacecraft and penetrate the lunar surface. Power is provided by a
solar array which generates 750 W and charges lithium ion batteries. A bipropellant
propulsion system is used to transfer Chandrayaan-1 into lunar orbit and maintain
attitude. The spacecraft is 3-axis stabilized using attitude control thrusters and reaction
wheels. Knowledge is provided by star sensors, accelerometers, and an inertial reference
unit. Telecommand communications will be in S-band and science data transmission in
X-band.

The scientific payload has a mass of 55 kg and contains three Indian instruments. The
Terrain Mapping Camera (TMC) has 5 meter resolution and a 40 km swath in the
panchromatic band and will be used to produce a high-resolution map of the Moon. The
Hyper Spectral Imager (HySI) will perform mineralogical mapping in the 400-900 nm
band with a spectral resolution of 15 nm and a spatial resolution of 80 m. The Lunar
Laser Ranging Instrument (LLRI) will determine the surface topography. A fourth
instrument, an X-ray flourescence spectrometer, will have three components: an Imaging
X-ray Spectrometer (CIXS) covering 1 - 10 keV with a ground resolution of 10 km, a
High Energy X-ray/gamma ray spectromenter (HEX) for 10 - 200 keV measurements
with ground resolution of about 20 km, and a Solar X-ray Monitor (SXM) to detect solar
flux in the 2 - 10 keV range. CIXS will be used to map the abundance of Si, Al, Mg, Ca,
Fe, and Ti at the surface, the HEX will measure U, Th, 210Pb, 222Rn degassing, and
other radioactive elements, and the SXM will monitor the solar flux to normalize the
results of CIXS and HEX. The Sub-keV Atom Reflecting Analyzer (SARA) will map
composition using low energy neutral atoms sputtered from the surface. The Moon
Mineralogy Mapper (M3) is an imaging spectrometer designed to map the surface
mineral composition. A near-infrared spectrometer (SIR-2) will also map the mineral
composition using an infrared grating spectrometer. The Miniature Synthetic Aperture
Radar (Mini-SAR) will perform radar scattering and imaging investigations at the poles
in a search for water ice. A Bulgarian instrument, the Radiation Dose Monitor (RADOM-
7), will also fly on the mission.

The spacecraft is scheduled to be launched on a PSLV C5 (Polar Satellite Launch

Vehicle) from the Satish Dhawan Space Center in Sriharikota on the southeast coast of
India on 9 April 2008. The launch window is open for the next two days. The PSLV will
inject Chandrayaan-1 into a 240 x 36000 km geosynchronous transfer orbit. After a 5.5
day lunar transfer trajectory the spacecraft will be captured into an initial 1000 km near
circular orbit which will be lowered to a 200 km checkout orbit and finally into a 100 km
circular polar orbit. It will stay in orbit and return data for at least two years.
Chandrayaan is Hindi for "Moon Craft". Total cost of the mission is estimated at INR 3.8
billion ($83 million U.S.).

Alternate Names

• Chandrayan-1

Facts in Brief

Launch Date: 2008-04-09

Launch Vehicle: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle C5
Launch Site: Sriharikota, India
Mass: 523.0 kg
Nominal Power: 750.0 W

Discipline

• Planetary Science

Additional Information

• Launch/Orbital information for Chandrayaan-1 Lunar Orbiter

• PDMP information for Chandrayaan-1 Lunar Orbiter

Experiments on Chandrayaan-1 Lunar Orbiter

Data collections from Chandrayaan-1 Lunar Orbiter

Questions or comments about this spacecraft can be directed to: Dr. David R. Williams.
This is a list of government agencies engaged in activities related to outer space and
space exploration.

Human spaceflight countries

Space launch capability countries

Satellite operators

[edit] International space agencies

[edit] United Nations - Office for Outer Space Affairs

The United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (OOSA) is an organization of the
General Assembly charged with implementing the Assembly's space-related policies. It is
located in the United Nations Office in Vienna. The Office implements the Programme
on Space Applications and maintains the Register of Objects Launched into Outer Space.
The Office also provides support to developing nations in using space technology for
economic development.

[edit] European Space Agency

The European Space Agency (ESA), established in 1975, is an inter-governmental

organisation dedicated to exploration of space with currently 17 member states (Austria,
Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the
Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom).
According to its website, “By coordinating the financial and intellectual resources of its
members, [ESA] can undertake programmes and activities far beyond the scope of any
single European country.” Its headquarters are in Paris, France. ESA has a staff
(excluding sub-contractors and national space agencies) of about 1,900 with a budget of 3
billion euros in 2005.
] National space agencies
Argentina

The Argentine Space Agency (CONAE), founded in 1996, is oriented to the development
of Earth Observing satellites. It has developed several satellite missions including SAC-
A, the failed mission SAC-B and the currently operating SAC-C

[Australia

The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation has divisions for
Astronomy & Space Facilities, Astrophysics, Radio Astronomy, and Space Engineering.

[Austria

The Austrian Space Agency was founded in 1977 and later joined the ESA in 1987.

Bangladesh

The Bangladesh Space Research and Remote Sensing Organization was established in
1980.

Belgium

The Belgian Institute for Space Aeronomy was created in 1964.

• Website

Brazil

The Brazilian Space Agency, founded in 1994, directs one of the youngest space
programs. Brazil's space program is the most advanced in South America. It suffered a
major setback in 2003 due to a rocket explosion that killed several technicians. They had
their first success on October 23, 2004 with a VSV-30, or Brazilian Exploration Vehicle,
launched on a sub-orbital mission. The agency's primary launch site is at Alcântara.

Bulgaria

The Bulgarian Aerospace Agency was established in 1969. For the moment it operates
mainly in cooperation with the Space agencies of several developing countries, providing
high-tech components and know-how. The Bulgarian Aerospace agency is now working
with the Indian agency on the Chandrayaan satellite.
Canada

The Canadian Space Agency (CSA or, in French, the ASC) is the government agency
responsible for Canada's space program.

It was established in March 1989 by the Canadian Space Agency Act and sanctioned in
December 1990. The agency is led by a president, who reports to the Minister of
Industry.

China

See People's Republic of China or Republic of China (Taiwan) entries below for
information on the respective countries.

Colombia

See Colombian Space Commission, established in 2006.

Czech Republic

About Czech Space Office

Czech Space Office is a non-profit association. It was created in November 2003. The
bodies of the association are the Management Board, the Supervisory Board and the
Managing Director.

The main acitvities of the Czech Space Office are:

- information and advisory centre on the space activities including international

cooperation,
- contact point for communication with ESA,
- national contact point for Galileo,
- Czech Republic representation in the International Astronautical Federation (IAF),
- providing input information for the Czech professional institutions and experts as well
as for foreign organisations interested in space activities in the Czech Republic,
- supporting development of the space science,
- facilitation of the space industry development and implementation of space applications,
- education and student activities

Denmark

The Danish National Space Center was established on January 1, 2005. It came about as a
result of combining the Danish Space Research Institute with the geodesy part of the
National Survey and Cadastre of Denmark.
France

. The Centre National d'Études Spatiales (CNES) is the French government space
agency (administratively, a "public establishment of industrial and commercial
character"). Its headquarters are located in central Paris. It operates out of the Guiana
Space Centre, but also has payloads launched from other space centres operated by other
countries. CNES formerly was responsible for the training of French astronauts, however
the last of them were transferred to the European Space Agency in 2001

Germany

. The German Aerospace Centre (DLR) (German: Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und
Raumfahrt e.V.) is the national research center for aviation and space flight of the Federal
Republic of Germany and the German Space Agency. DLR is a member in the
Helmholtz Association.

Its extensive research and development projects are included in national and international
cooperative programs. In addition to its research projects, the DLR is the assigned space
agency of Germany bestowing headquarters of German space flight activities and its
associates. DLR administers the space budget of the German government, which totals
some €846 million ($1.242 billion).

Greece

See Institute for Space Applications and Remote Sensing (ISARS).

• Website

Hungary

See Hungarian Space Office. The Hungarian Space Office is the national space agency
of the Republic of Hungary. It was established by the Hungarian government in 1992.
The current director is Előd Both (1997-present
India

India's Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle

The Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) was established on August 15, 1969
under the Department of Atomic Energy of the Government of India. It became a
government organisation in April 1, 1975. Soon after ISRO Launched India's first
satellite ARYABHATA[1]]] (named after the early Astronomer of Gupta Dynasty) on
April 19th, it manages all of India's space activities and has a well developed space
programme. Indian space programmes are driven by vision of Dr Vikram Sarabhai who is
considered the father of Indian Space Programme.

ISRO has capability to build and launch satellites up to 2000 kg into polar and
geostationary orbit. It has 2 major satellite launch vehicles called PSLV (Polar satellite
launch vehicle) and GSLV (Geosynchronous satellite Launch Vehicle). Most of ISRO's
programs are geared towards nation building, though there are a few efforts in scientific
research and space exploration. ISRO has started the work on its first Unmanned Lunar
program called Chandrayaan-1 (Moon-Ship-1) which is slated to be launched in April
2008.

Indonesia

See National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (LAPAN).

Iran

The Iranian Space Agency (ISA), is a governmental organization and the president of this
organization is one of the deputies of the ministry of communication and information
technology. ISA is established to do research, design and implementation in the field of
space technology ; remote sensing and development of national and international space
technology and communication networks. ISA performs the approvals of the Iran Space
Council (ISC), which is established in order to peacefully use space technology and
science and the above atmosphere space to develop the culture, technology, science, and
finance of the country. The head of ISC is the president of the Islamic Republic of Iran.

Israel

See Israeli Space Agency.

Italy

The Italian Space Agency was established in 1988.

Japan

The Japan Aerospace eXploration Agency (JAXA) is Japan's aerospace agency. It was
formed October 1, 2003, by the merger of the National Space Development Agency of
Japan (NASDA), the National Aerospace Laboratory of Japan (NAL) and the Institute of
Space and Astronautical Science (ISAS).[1]

Malaysia

Angkasa was established in 2002.

Mexico

The Mexican Space Agency (As of 2007 pending approval in the Mexican Senate).

Netherlands

See Netherlands Institute for Space Research (SRON).

Nigeria

The National Space Research and Development Agency (NASRDA) was established in
1998.
North Korea

See North Korean Space Agency

Norway

See Norwegian Space Centre.

] Pakistan

See Pakistan Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission (SUPARCO).

People's Republic of China

The China National Space Administration is the civilian agency in the People's Republic
of China that is responsible for national space policy. The agency was created in 1993
when the Ministry of Aerospace Industry was split in two, with the other part being the
China Aerospace Corp. China became only the third country on Earth to send a human
into space independently on October 15, 2003 when Yang Liwei piloted the Shenzhou V
mission, accomplishing 14 orbits before returning to Earth the next day.

On October 12, 2005 China sent its second manned spacecraft into space, the Shenzhou
VI. The Shenzhou VI carries 2 astronauts and it stayed in space for 5 days. The China
National Space Administration agency allowed most television stations in China to
broadcast the blast-off.

Peru

See Peru Space Agency (CONIDA).

• Website

Poland

See Space Research Centre, part of the Polish Academy of Sciences.

• Website

Portugal

See Portuguese Spacial Company

• website
Republic of China (Taiwan)

See National Space Organization.

] Romania

See Romanian Space Agency.

Russia

The Russian Federal Space Agency (RKA, Roskosmos) (in Russian: Федеральное
космическое агенство), is the government agency responsible for Russia's space science
program. It was formed after the breakup of the Soviet Union and the dissolution of the
Soviet space program.

Spain

See Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial.

South Korea

The Korea Aerospace Research Institute (KARI) was established in 1981.

South Africa

See The South African Space Portal http://www.space.gov.za/ See Satellite Applications
Centre CSIR-SAC http://www.csir.co.za/SAC/ See SunSpace http://www.sunspace.co.za/
see Institute of Satellite and Software Applications http://www.issa.org.za/

Sweden

See Swedish National Space Board.

Switzerland

See Swiss Space Office.

Thailand

The Geo-Informatics and Space Technology Development Agency (GISTDA) was

established 2 November 2002.

• Website
Ukraine

The National Space Agency of Ukraine (NSAU) is the Ukrainian government agency
responsible for space policy and programs, established in 1992. It oversees Ukraine's
national and commercial space research, construction, and launch programs. Launches
are conducted at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan, Russia, and on the Sea
Launch platform.

United Kingdom

See British National Space Centre.

United States

On July 29, 1958, President Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act
of 1958 establishing the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). When
it began operations on October 1, 1958, NASA consisted mainly of the four laboratories
and some 8,000 employees of the government's 46-year-old research agency for
aeronautics, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). However,
within little more than a decade the United States, through NASA, placed the first human,
Neil Armstrong, on the moon.

The United States also produced the first non-governmental spaceflight when Mike
Melvill piloted Scaled Composites' SpaceShipOne on its first flight past the edge of space
on June 21, 2004

Defunct space agencies

Soviet Union

See Soviet space program.

Richest space agencies

The budgets listed are the official budgets from the different space agencies' homepages.
Note that the Chinese budget of $500 million is from official figures by Luo Ge, vice
administrator of the China National Space Administration. The budget is not normalized
to the expenses of space research in each country/region, i.e. higher budget does not
mean more activity or better performance in space exploration.

Country Agency Budget

United States NASA $16 billion

ESA (European Space Agency) $4.260 billion

France CNES (French space agency) $2.49 billion

JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration

Japan $2.0 billion
Agency)

Russia RKA (Russian Federal Space Agency) $1.4 billion

Germany DLR (German Aerospace Center) $1.242 billion

Italy ASI (Italian Space Agency) $978 million

India ISRO (Indian Space Research Organization) $815 million

CNSA (Chinese National Space

China $500 million
Administration)

United Kingdom BNSC (British National Space Centre) $414 million [2]

Canada CSA (Canadian Space Agency) $321 million

$250-300
Ukraine NSAU (National Space Agency of Ukraine)
million

Belgium Belgian science policy and space policy $230 million

Spain CDTI (Spanish space agency $175 million

 SRON (Netherlands Institute for Space
Netherlands $160 million
Research)

South Korea KARI (Korea Aerospace Research Institute) $150 million

Brazil AEB (Brazilian Space Agency) $120 million

Switzerland SSO (Swiss Space Office) $110 million

Sweden SNSB (Swedish National Space Board) $100 million

[edit] See also

[show]
v•d•e

Public sector space agencies

Human launch Launch Operate

capability capability satellites
People's Republic ESA European Argentina Indonesia South Korea
of China Space Agency Brazil Iran Spain
Russian India Canada Italy Republic of
Federation Israel France Malaysia China
Soviet Japan Germany Pakistan United
Union (defunct) Ukraine Kingdom
United States

www.hq.nasa.gov/office/hqlibrary/pathfinders

Ken Button is the

director of the Center
for Aerospace Policy
Research, which has
been studying current
space exploration
programs."
Photo by Evan Cantwell
Nobel Prize winner Joshua Lederberg

Lederberg was 33 when he won the Nobel for Physiology or Medicine. The new
understanding of bacterial genetics led to the knowledge of how bacteria becomes
resistant to antibiotics.An academic prodigy, Lederberg graduated from Stuyvesant High
School in Manhattan at age 15 and received his bachelor's degree from Columbia College
in 1944 at age 19.Lederberg attended medical school at the College of Physicians and
Surgeons at Columbia for two years before transferring to Yale University, where he
helped pioneer the field of bacterial genetics. He received his doctorate in 1947.
Lederberg taught as well as held administrative posts at the University of Wisconsin,
Stanford University and Rockefeller.Lederberg advised nine U.S. presidents. His
fascination with space exploration led to his advising NASA on many subjects, including
how to avoid contaminating its space probes with terrestrial microbes.
In 2006, he received the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest U.S. civil award.
Lederberg also wrote a syndicated weekly newspaper column called ''Science and Man''
on the impact of scientific progress on society.

Nobel Prize Winner to Speak on Origins, Future of Universe

HAMPTON, Va. -- "It is one of the greatest discoveries of the century. I would call it the greatest. It increases our
knowledge of our place in the universe," said Per Carlson, chairman of the Nobel committee for physics, about the
work of Nobel Prize winners George Smoot and John Mather on NASA's Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE).
"They have not proven the Big Bang theory, but they give it very strong support."

NASA's first Nobel Prize winner, John Mather, will speak on the history and future of the universe in a colloquium

Mather's many roles include serving as the senior astrophysicist in the Observational Cosmology Laboratory at
NASA Goddard, the chief scientist for the Science Mission Directorate at NASA Headquarters and the senior
project scientist for the James Webb Space Telescope. This telescope, scheduled to launch in 2013, will be the
largest telescope mirror ever placed in space. Prior to his current positions, Mather was the principal investigator
for the Far IR Absolute Spectrophotometer (FIRAS) on COBE. His work on COBE, which measured the spectrum
of the heat radiation from the Big Bang, won him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2006.

FRANCES BAGENAL (Chair) is a professor in the Department of Astrophysical and Planetary Sciences
and the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics at the University of Colorado at Boulder. The main
theme of her research has been the synthesis of data analysis and theory in the study of space plasmas,
especially in the fields of planetary magnetospheres and, more recently, the solar corona. Dr. Bagenal is a
co-investigator on the Voyager Plasma Science (PLS) experiment and has worked with colleagues at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology in analyzing plasma data obtained in the magnetospheres of
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. She is an interdisciplinary scientist on the Galileo project,
specializing in a study of the Io plasma torus in the magnetosphere of Jupiter using both in situ plasma
measurements and spectroscopic remote sensing observations. She has been a member of the NRC Space
Studies Board, the Committee on Planetary and Lunar Exploration, and the Committee on International
Space Programs. She also served as a member of the Solar and Space Physics Survey Panel on Education
and Society.

CLAUDIA J. ALEXANDER is a space plasma physicist at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. She does research
on comets and on the exosphere of Jupiter’s moon Ganymede. She serves as both the project scientist
and the project manager of the NASA contribution to the International Rosetta Mission, and she has
recently served as the project manager of the Galileo Mission (until its demise). She began her research
career with a study of the thermal history of Ganymede while an undergraduate at the University of
California, Berkeley. She continued research at the University of California, Los Angeles on the solar wind
and the solar wind interaction with Venus. She completed a Ph.D. in space plasma physics (gas kinetic
theory) at the University of Michigan in 1993, where she wrote a numerical model of the process of
expansion of gases from a comet nucleus. Dr. Alexander also has community interests. She contributes to
a NASA sponsored, Internet-based, public science learning tool entitled “Windows to the Universe.”

JAMES L. BURCH is vice president of the Southwest Research Institute Instrumentation and Space
Research Division. As an investigator in a number of spaceflight experiments, Dr. Burch has achieved a
prominent reputation in the fields of upper-atmosphere geophysics and space plasma physics. In 1996 he
was selected as the principal investigator for the NASA Imager for Magnetopause-to-Aurora Global
Exploration investigation, which provided the first-ever global images of key regions of Earth’s
magnetosphere as they respond to variations in the solar wind. Dr. Burch was elected a fellow of the
American Geophysical Union. He has served as chair of the SSB Committee on Solar and Space
There are some who question the relevance of space activities
in a developing nation. To us, there is no ambiguity of
purpose.
We do not have the fantasy of competing with the
economically advanced nations in the exploration of the moon
or the planets or manned space-flight.
But we are convinced that if we are to play a meaningful role
nationally, and in the community of nations, we must be
second to none in the application of advanced technologies to
the real problems of man and society."

Vikram Ambalal Sarabhai

• VIKRAM SARABHAI (1919 - 1971)

Vikram Ambalal Sarabhai, considered the "Father of the

Indian space programme", was born into a privileged family in
Ahmedabad on 12 August 1919.

His early education took place at a private school run on

Montessori lines which encouraged scientific curiosity and
creativity. Further educated at the Gujarat College in his
home town, he distinguished himself in the study of science
and was amongst only a handful of his fellow nationals who
were awarded places to pursue their studies abroad. In 1937,
he left for England and studied Physics at St John's College,
Cambridge where he received his undergraduate tripods
degree in 1940.

With the Second World War now taking place in Europe, he

returned home and at the Indian Institute of Science in
Bangalore became a research scholar on the effects of cosmic
rays. Here he was under the under the tutelage of Nobel
laureate, Dr C. V. Raman. His enthusiasm for studies of the
Sun led him to set up observatories in Bangalore, Poona and
in the Himalayas. Once the war was over, he returned to
England briefly and was awarded a PhD. by Cambridge
University for the pioneering work he had undertaken in his
chosen field.

In 1947, alongside a meteorologist, K. R. Ramanathan, he

helped to establish the Physical Research Laboratory. It
their particular problems based on an evaluation of their resources.

At the age of 52, Sarabhai passed away in his sleep on 31 December

1971.

Sarabhai first initiated the manufacturing and launch of an Indian

Satellite and posthumously, Aryabhata I was launched into orbit in
1975 from the Soviet Union's Cosmodrome at Baikanur.

During 1975-1976, India launched the Satellite Instructional Television

Experiment (SITE), which was the result of negotiation between
Sarabhai and NASA.

The Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre, a research institute specialising in

solid and liquid propellants for rockets located in the southern Indian
city of Trivandrum is named in his memory

• Wing Commander Rakesh Sharma (retd) (born January 13, 1949 in Patiala,
Punjab, India) was the first Indian and 138th man to visit space.

Born in Patiala Punjab joined the Indian Air Force and progress rapidly through the
ranks. Rakesh Sharma, then squadron leader and pilot with the Indian Air Force
embarked on the historic mission in 1984 as part of a joint space program between the
Indian Space Research Organisation and the Soviet Intercosmos space program and spent
eight days in space aboard the Salyut 7 space station. Launched along with two other
Soviet cosmonauts aboard Soyuz T-11 on the 2 April 1984, was 35-year-old Rakesh
Sharma. During the flight, Squadron Leader Sharma conducted multi-spectral
photography of northern India in anticipation of the construction of hydroelectric power
stations in the Himalayas. In a famous conversation, he was asked by the then Prime
Minister Indira Gandhi how India looked from the space and he replied, Saare Jahan Se
Achcha, (better than the whole world).

He was conferred with the honour of Hero of Soviet Union upon his return from space.
The Government of India conferred its highest gallantry award(during peace time), the
Ashoka Chakra on him and the other two Russian members of his mission.

Squadron Leader Sharma and his backup, Wing Commander Ravish Malhotra, also
prepared an elaborate series of zero-gravity Yoga exercises which the former had
practised aboard the Salyut 7. Retired with the rank of Wing Commander, Rakesh
Sharma joined Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) as a test pilot. He was based at the
Aircraft & Systems Testing Establishment (ASTE) in Bangalore and worked on the
indigenous Light Combat Aircraft program.

Rakesh Sharma has now retired from active employment.

In November 2006 he took part in India's top scientists gathering [1] organized by ISRO
which gave the green signal to an Indian manned space mission.

Dr. Krishnaswamy Kasturirangan is a space scientist who headed the Indian Space
Research Organization (ISRO) until 2003 and is now an M. P. (nominated to Rajya
Sabha). He is also the Director of the National Institute of Advanced Studies, Bangalore,
since April 2004. He is a recipient of the three civilian awards from the Government of
India, the Padma Shri (1982), Padma Bhushan (1992) and Padma Vibhushan (2000). Dr.
Kasturirangan was responsible for directing the Indian Space programme for over 9
years, as Chairman of ISRO and the Space Commission and as Secretary to the
Government of India in the Department of Space, before laying down office on 27
August 2003. He was earlier the Director of ISRO Satellite Centre, overseeing the
development of new generation spacecraft, the Indian National Satellite (INSAT-2) and
the Indian Remote Sensing Satellites (IRS-1A and 1B) as well as scientific satellites. He
was also the Project Director for India's first two experimental earth observation
satellites, Bhaskara-I and II.

The Indian space programme achieved major milestones under his stewardship, including
the operationalisation of the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and the first
successful flight testing of the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV). His
tenure in office also saw the successful design, development and launch of the Remote
Sensing satellites, IRS-1C and 1D and the ocean observation satellites IRS-P3/P4.

Satish Dhawan (25 September 1920–3 January 2002) was an Indian rocket scientist who
was born in Srinagar, India and educated in India and the United States. He is considered
by the Indian scientific community to be the father of experimental fluid dynamics
research in India and one of the most eminent researchers in the field of turbulence and
boundary layers. He succeeded Vikram Sarabhai, the founder of the Indian space
programme, as Chairman of the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) in 1972. He
was also the Chairman of the Space Commission and Secretary to the Government of
India in the Department of Space. In the decade following his appointment he directed
the Indian space programme through a period of extraordinary growth and spectacular
achievement.

Even while he was the head of the Indian space programme, he devoted substantial
efforts towards boundary layer research. His most important contributions are presented
in the seminal book Boundary Layer Theory by Hermann Schlichting. He was a popular
professor at the Indian Institute of Science, (IISc) located in Bangalore. He is credited for
setting up the first supersonic wind tunnel in India at IISc. He also pioneered research on
relaminarization of separated boundary layer flows, three-dimensional boundary layers
and trisonic flows.

Dhawan carried out pioneering experiments in rural education, remote sensing and
satellite communications. His efforts led to operational systems like INSAT- a
telecommunications satellite, IRS - the Indian Remote Sensing satellite and the Polar
Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) that placed India in the league of space faring nations.

Following his death in 2002, the Indian satellite launch centre at Sriharikota, Andhra
Pradesh, located about 100 km north of Chennai in South India was renamed as the
Satish Dhawan Space Centre.

• Professor Jayant Vishnu Narlikar (born July 19,1938) (Marathi: पा. जयंत िवषणू
नारळीकर) is an eminent Indian astrophysicist. Narlikar is considered a leading
expert and defender of the steady state cosmology. His work on conformal gravity
theory with Sir Fred Hoyle, called Hoyle-Narlikar theory, demonstrated a
synthesis can be achieved between Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity and
Mach's principle. India’s second highest civilian honour, Padma Vibhushan, was
awarded to him for his work. Prof. Narlikar was the founder director of the Inter-
University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA) at Pune, India

space.newscientist.com

echo.gmu.edu/taxonomy

www.iafastro.com

Salient Features of the Indian Space Research Programme

Fabrication of satellites and Development of launch vehicles (or rockets) to put these
satellites into earth's orbit-- Thus, the first aim of the Indian space programme was to
develop expertise in planning, designing, and fabricating space satellites for various
purposes. At the same time, the second aim of the Indian space programme has been to
develop all the necessary technologies, facilities and skills for making suitable launch
vehicles (or rockets) which could carry the satellites into outer space and put them in pre-
determined orbits around the earth.

Another salient feature of the Indian space programme is that the lack in progress in its
one area is not allowed to delay the progress of its other areas. For example, if India is
able to fabricate a satellite then it does not wait for the development of indigenous launch
vehicle for putting it into space. The launching of Indian satellite is carried out in
collaboration with one of the advanced nations by using their launch vehicle (or rocket).
In this way there is no interruption in the Indian space research programme.

Aryabhatta Satellite

This was the first satellite launched by India. This satellite was named after the famous
Indian mathematician " Aryabhatta." In fact, India entered the space age on 19th April
1975 when the first satellite called " Aryabhatta" designed and fabricated in India was
launched from the erstwhile Soviet Union (USSR). This satellite was purely experimental
in nature. Aryabhatta satellite enabled Indian scientists to develop the skills and facilities
for fabricating satellites and monitoring their performance in orbit around the earth. It
also helped in establishing the ground facilities for communicating with the orbiting
satellite, tracking its course and passing on commands to it for carrying out various tasks.
The launching of Aryabhatta satellite also provided an opportunity to Indian scientists to
conduct some experiments in the field of X-ray astronomy, solar physics and
meteorology.

Bhaskara Satellites

Than the second satellite ascends…Bhaskara-l satellite was launched by India next on 7th
June 1979 from the former Soviet Union (USSR). The purpose of launching this satellite
was to develop expertise in collecting data on natural resources through the remote-
sensing technique. In fact, ground water surveys, forest surveys and geological surveys
were conducted through Bhaskara-l satellite and it provided valuable data about these
natural resources Of our country up to March 1981.The second satellite of this series,
Bhaskara-2, was launched from the erstwhile Soviet Union on 20th November 1981. This
satellite functioned successfully for more than two years. This satellite was similar to
Bhaskara-1 but some improvements had been made in it. The success of Bhaskara series
of satellites gave our scientists the necessary competence and confidence to design and
fabricate the yet another fully operational remote sensing satellite for the first time!!

Indian Remote-sensing Satellite (IRS)

The first Indian remote-sensing satellite, IRS-IA, was launched on 17th March 1988
whereas the second Indian remote sensing satellite, IRS-IB, was launched on 29th August
1991. Both these satellites were launched from the erstwhile Soviet Union (or USSR).
The second remote-sensing satellite, IRS-IB, is still working and it is providing valuable
data about the various natural resources of our country (Please note that IRS = Indian
Remote-sensing Satellite). Before we go further, we should know the meaning of the
term "geostationary orbit". If the relative position of a revolving satellite with respect to a
fixed station on the earth does not change with time, then the orbit of the satellite is called
geostationary. In other words, we can say that the period of revolution of a geostationary
satellite in its orbit around the earth is the same as the period of rotation of earth on its
axis, that is, 24 hours. The earth completes one rotation on its axis in 24 hours and the
satellite put in geostationary orbit also takes 24 hours to complete one revolution around
the earth.

Ariane Passenger Pay-load Experiment (APPLE)

APPLE is a communication satellite launched by India on 19th June 1981. APPLE was
an experimental satellite which was fabricated by Indian Scientists to gain experience in
the use of satellites for communication purposes (APPLE = Ariane Passenger Pay-Load
Experiment). The APPLE satellite was launched with the help of European space agency
from the Kourou launching facility in French Guyana area of South America. APPLE
was the first Indian satellite put in geostationary orbit.

Indian National Satellites (INSAT)

In 1977, the Indian Space Research Organisation thought of using satellites for
commercial purposes. The satellites to be fabricated and launched under this scheme
were named "INSAT' which means "Indian National Satellite". The satellites to be
launched in the INSAT series were supposed to carry out three independent tasks:

(i) Tele-communications (like long distance telephone calls)

(ii) Television and Radio broadcasting, and

(iii) Meteorological observations (Weather-related observations)

The construction, testing and launching of the first satellite of the INSAT series was
given to an American firm "Ford Aerospace Corporation". But the entire ground support
facilities and systems required by these satellites were developed and fabricated in India.
Four satellites have been launched so far under the INSAT series. These are INSAT-IA;
INSAT- IB; INSAT-IC and INSAT-ID. The first satellite of this series INSAT-IA was
launched on 4th September 1982 but it failed in its mission. The second satellite of this
series called INSAT-IB was launched successfully on 30th August 1983 with the help of
US space-shuttle. This satellite functioned extremely well for more than five years and It
IS still functioning. The successful launchmg of INSAT-IB satellite has paved the way
for revolutionisin, telecommunications, television and radio broadcasting and weather
forecasting in India.

The INSAT-IC satellite was launched to replace INSAT-IB, but it was unsuccessful. The
fourth satellite of this series, INSAT-ID was put into a geostationary orbit around the
earth in June 1990 and it is functioning normally. The first Indian built satellite of the
INSAT series called INSAT-2A was launched successfully on 23- July 1992. This
satellite was launched from Kourou in French Guyana with the help of Ariane Rooket,
The lNSAT-2B satellite was launched on 23rd July 1993 and INSAT-2C Satellite was
launched on 7th December 1995. Both these satellites have been successful in their
mission.

The First Indian Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV_3)

All the satellites disused so far were launched in collaboration with some of the advanced
countries by utilizing their launch vehicles (or rockets). But the work on developing
India's own satellite launch vehicle was also going on simultaneously. The first Indian
satellite
launch vehicle was SLV-3 which was launched in August 1979 but it was unsuccessful
(SLV = Satellite Launch Vehicle). The first success in the launching of an indigenously
developed Indian satellite was achieved on 18th July 1980. The launch vehicle for
carrying this satellite was a four-stage rocket SLV-3 which put a 35 kg satellite named
Rohini into an orbit around the earth. The orbit of Rohini satellite had an apogee of 900
km and a perigee of 300 km. The main Purpose of launching this Rohini satellite was to
test the working of the fourth stage of the SLV-3 1aunch vehicle (or rocket). A total of
four satellites were launched in Rohini series. The launching of third Rohini satellite was
however unsuccessful but the fourth Rohini satellite was launched successfully on 17th
April l983.

Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV)

After launching the Rohini series `Stretched Rohini Satellites were developed (SROSS)
in a series.The historic event of launching an Indian satellite in an Indian launch vehicle
took place on 10th July 1992 when SROSS- 3 satellite was launched into space with the
help of ASLV- D3 launch vehicle. And then followed Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle and
geostationary Satellite Launch Vehicle.

sify.com