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ABSTRACT
The Role of Materials in the Development of the modern industry is getting
overwhelming importance .This is because 40% of the total cost of product is used for
material. As technology becomes more and more sophisticated, the material used
should also be more efficient and is expected to have more performance efficiency and
reliability. Composite materials, plastics and ceramics have been dominant emerging
materials. The demand for new material for special engineering application is
increasing due to recent advances in space crafts, structural, automobile, IT and a host
of other industries.
The Modern need focuses on cheaper and flexible materials which perform in
stringent conditions of high temperature and pressure, in highly corrosive environment,
with higher strength but low weight, with wear resistance and longer durability. This
gives ample scope for fabrication of newer composites.
The laminates prepared by varying the weights of woven fabrics and Epoxy;
resin content has varied from 35% to 50% and were subjected to experiments to
determine mechanical properties and Non Destructive Evaluation. Data has been
tabulated and analyzed.
The properties evaluated from these tests have been systematically analyzed to
study the behavior and variation of properties with respect to its composition. This has
enabled us to derive to certain conclusions. With this study, we can conclude that
composites can successfully replace certain conventional metals in some structural and
aerospace applications.
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 COMPOSITE MATERIAL
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Composite materials are materials made from two or more constituent materials with
significantly different physical or chemical properties which remain separate and
distinct on a macroscopic level within the finished structure.
The advantages of composites are that they usually the best quality of their
constituents and often some qualities that neither constituents possesses. The properties
that can be improved by forming a composite material include:
The production of composite material is booming all over the world, i.e. the output
is increasing at a high rate every year. Although the cost of composite materials is
higher than standard materials, this is offset by the substantial advantages their
properties afford users such as light weight and resistance.
The control of the product life cycle from design to recycling, and the improved
characterization of the products and their performance are the requisites for considering
the substantial development programs.
The most primitive composite materials comprised straw and mud in the form
of bricks for building construction. The most advanced examples perform routinely on
spacecraft in demanding environments. The most visible application paves our
roadways in the form of either steel and aggregate reinforced Portland cement or
asphalt concrete. Those composite closest to our personal hygiene form our shower
stalls and bath tubs made of fiberglass. Solid surface, imitation granite and cultured
marble sinks and countertops are widely used.
Fig 1.1 Stress strain curves for fiber matrix and composites
1.2 OBJECTIVE
1.3 HISTORY
Although composite materials had been known in various forms throughout the
history of mankind, the history of modern composites probably began in 1937 when
salesmen from the Owens Corning Fiberglass Company began to sell fiberglass to
interested parties around the United States. Fiberglass had been made, almost by
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accident in 1930, when an engineer became intrigued by a fiber that was formed during
the process of applying lettering to a glass milk bottle.
The Owens Corning Fiberglass Company was formed in 1935 by Owens-
Illinois and Corning Glass Works to capitalize on this new fibrous material. A Japanese
company (Nitto Boseki) had also made fiberglass and was attempting to market the
fibers in Japan and the United States. The initial products for this finely drawn molten
glass were used as insulation (glass wool) but structural products soon followed.
The fiberglass salesmen realized that the aircraft industry was, in particular, a
likely customer for this new type of material because the many small and vigorous
aircraft companies seemed to be creating new aircraft designs and innovative concepts
in manufacturing almost daily with many of these innovations requiring new materials.
One company, Douglas Aircraft, bought the first roll of fiberglass shipped to the
west coast because they believed that the fiberglass would help them solve a production
problem. They had a bottleneck in the making of metal molds for their sheet metal
forming process (called hydro press forming). Each changed aircraft design needed
new molds and metal molds were expensive and had long lead times. Douglas
engineers tried using cast plastic molds, but they could not withstand the forces of the
forging process. Maybe if the plastic molds were reinforced with fiberglass they would
be strong enough to allow at least a few parts to be made so that the new designs could
be quickly verified. If the parts proved to be acceptable, then metal dies could be made
for full production runs. In collaboration with Owens Corning Fiberglass, dies were
made using the new fiberglass material and phenolic resin (the only resin available at
the time).
What a success! Reinforced plastic dies for prototype parts became the standard. Other
applications in cooling for aircraft soon followed. Many of the tools (jigs and fixtures)
for forming and holding aircraft sections and assemblies needed to be strong, thin and
highly shaped, often with compound curves. Metals did not easily meet all of these
criteria and so fiberglass reinforced phenolic tooling became the preferred material for
many of these aircraft manufacturing applications.
lauroyl peroxide in 1937, and many other peroxides following not too long afterward.
Higher performance resin systems also became available about this time with the
invention of epoxies in 1938. The materials and the applications seemed to be
converging at the same time.
The pace of composite development, already fast, was accelerated during World
War II. Not only were even more aircraft being developed and, therefore, composites
more widely used in tooling, but the use of composites for structural and semi-
structural parts was being explored and then adopted. For instance, in the frantic days
of the war, among the last parts on an aircraft to be designed were the ducts. Since all
the other systems were already fixed, the ducts were required to go around the other
systems, often resulting in ducts that were convoluted, twisting, turning, and placed in
the most difficult to access locations. Metal ducts just couldn’t easily be made in these
“horrible” shapes. Composites seemed to be the answer. The composites were hand
layup on plaster mandrels which were made in the required shape. Then, after the resin
had cured, the plaster mandrels were broken out of the composite parts. Literally
thousands of such ducts were made in numerous manufacturing plants clustered around
the aircraft manufacturing/assembly facilities.
Other early WWII applications included engine nacelles, which lightened the A-
20 airplane and radomes (domes to protect aircraft radar antennas) which gave both
structural strength and radar transparency. Phenolic-reinforced paper was used to make
a structural wing box beam for the PT-19 airplane at about this time. Plastic airplane
seats using combed and carded cotton fibers impregnated with urea and polyester were
also made on an Air Force contract during the early war years. Non-aircraft
applications included cotton-phenolic ship bearings, asbestos4 phenolic switchgears,
cotton/asbestos-phenolic brake linings, cotton-acetate bayonet scabbards, and
thousands of others.
The early war period also marked the first production of a fiberglass reinforced
boat molded by Basons Industries. However, when molding the boat, no mold release
or parting agent was used and the part could not be extracted from the mold. After all
attempts to separate the part from the mold had failed, the entire assembly was rolled
into the Bronx River.
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At about this time (1942), the government became concerned that supplies of
metals for aircraft may not be available and so they instructed the engineers at Wright
Patterson Air Force Base to survey all of the manufacturers of composite parts in the
United States and try to determine the current best practices in composite manufacture.
Wright Patterson personnel were also to remote the use of composites by developing
design rules, by encouraging the development of new composite materials and
applications, and by using their own expertise for the development of new and bold
composite applications. Perhaps the boldest applications of all were the development of
aircraft wings for the AT-6 and the BT-15, two training airplanes. A total of six wing
sets were made, installed on aircraft, and successfully flown. In spite of the success of
this project, aircraft structural parts were not made again for 50 years. Even more
amazing, after the 50 year hiatus, the method of making the parts was nearly identical
to the method employed at Wright Patterson Air Force Base in 1942.
and tested. This car was reasonably successful and led to the development of the
Corvette in 1953 which was made using fiberglass performs which were impregnated
with resin and molded in matched metal dies. Eventually the dominant molding method
for automobile parts was compression molding of sheet molding compound (SMC) or
bulk molding compound (BMC). Premix materials of these types were developed as
early as 1948 by the Galstic Corporation. One automotive innovation that deserves
special mention is the auto/plane development led by Convair Aircraft Company.
Convair reasoned that the many returning wartime pilots would like to continue with
their flying, but would also like to combine it with family vacations. Hence, Convair
made an automobile with an all-composite body (for weight savings) that would allow
a special wing assembly to be attached. The wings would be available for rent at
various airports, thus permitting the driver to rent a wing assembly at one airport, fly to
the vacation site, turn in the wing assembly, and drive away. Prototypes were made and
successfully demonstrated. What a boon they would be today in Los Angeles, although
the skies might be more hazardous than the roads!
Some of the products made during the post-war era have now emerged as major
markets for composite materials. These include tubs and shower assemblies, non-
corrosive pipes, appliance parts, trays, storage containers, and furniture. Other
composite products have also been successful, although not quite as well known or
spectacular. For instance, sets for entertainment groups and stage productions,
especially those that travelled like the Ice Follies, were made of composites. In the
movie “Captain from Castile” the armor and helmets of the Spanish soldiers were made
of composites and painted to resemble metal. The headdresses of the Aztecs were also
molded composites.
Several innovative manufacturing methods were also developed in the late
1940's and early 1950's including pultrusion (by Goldsworthy), vacuum bag molding,
and large-scale filament winding.
1.3.4 AEROSPACE
The push for aerospace dominance that began in the 1950's and really picked up
speed in the 1960's was a new impetus for composite development. Richard Young of
the W. M. Kellogg Company began using filament winding for making small rocket
motors. This technology was purchased by Hercules and was the basis for the large-
scale rocket motor business which was at the heart of the space race. By 1962 the need
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for highly accurate filament winding machines became apparent to Larry Ashton, an
engineer at Hercules, who founded Engineering Technology to produce these
machines. (Engineering Technology was started from an initial stake of money the
founders obtained from selling their blood to a blood bank. That’s giving it all for the
company!)
In 1961 a patent was issued to A. Shindo for experimentally producing the first
carbon (graphite) fiber but Courtalds Limited of the United Kingdom was the first to
produce commercially viable carbon fibers several years later. With these fibers, part
stiffness to weight was improved and even more applications in aerospace were
introduced. Perhaps the crowning jewel of this period (1978) was the development of
the first fully filament wound aircraft fuselage, the Beech Starship, by Ashton. The
plane was successfully flown, but was not commercialized using the filament wound
technology. Many people still believe that the filament winding technology is the best
method to produce small aircraft fuselages.
products where performance is critical. Some of these products are very new, but isn’t
it interesting that construction is still a major market for composites, just as it was in
1500 B.C. when the Egyptians and Israelites were using straw to reinforce mud bricks.
The microstructure of the composite provides a basis for classifying them for
purpose of study, processing and analysis. Two materials can be combined only by two
ways:
Natural composite
These are composite materials, which exist in nature .wood, bone, muscle, skin,
shell powder of the beetle nut and coconut, wheat rice coconut, wheat rice coffee and
fibers of sisal, coir, jute, etc are the examples of natural composites. The nature fibers
such as sisal, jute, coir etc provide strength to the composite through high transfer
efficiency between the matrix and the fiber. These natural fibers generally used as
reinforcement and they improve the toughness and flexural strength of the composite
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materials also they have a cellular structure and they can impart sound dampening
properties to the composite. Another advantage of reinforcing these lingo cellulose
materials in polymer matrix is that these composites have a wood like texture and can
be used as substitute for wood.
These composites are the new family of composites created by man. Man made
composite offer considerable freedom in the design and hence, they are of greater use.
More than 200 families of composites have been made by man for his use. Man made
composites can be further classified into two groups
1. Those in which the constituents are separately made and then combined
into composites.
2. Those in which the insert in the form of fiber are grown within the matrix.
The eutectic metallic composite and self-reinforced polymer is examples
of latter category of composites.
Composites have several properties and characteristics feature that make them
stand above all other conventional material both in performance efficiency and in the
manufacturing adaptability. Some of the attributes are given below.
1.6.1 Fibers
1.6.2 Resins
The use of particular resin will determine the properties and range of conditions
over which the Fiber reinforced polymer materials can be used. Resins are
commercially available in a variety of forms, as powder, flakes, granules, water
emulsions and latexes, solutions in organic solvents and in liquid form covering a wide
range of viscosities.
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Properties of resins vary greatly and determine the conditions under which
fabricating or molding a particular mixture can be done. For example, many resins
generate volatiles during curing. As such, high molding pressures are necessary to
prevent by-products from forming gas pockets in the product.Resins that can be used at
low pressures are most often preferred for FRP molding. Molding equipment at low
pressure is less costly and simpler in design.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
Johns Manville's Engineered Products Group in Denver has introduced
Comfil-G, a family of commingled yarns consisting of continuous glass and PET
filaments. Another Comfil-G product with glass and polypropylene filaments will be
introduced this year.
• Johns Manville says the glass/PET product can be used to produce lightweight
plastic molds with improved tensile strength
• It can also be used for pultrusion, hot-press forming, winding, and braiding.
have shown that the delamination resistance of these materials is comparable to that
exhibited by relatively tough systems such as carbon fiber reinforced PEEK.
interlaminar fracture toughness in the laminates with slow cooling rates was much
lower than in the case where a quasi-quenched condition was applied.
Characterization of thermoplastic poly(ethyleneterephthalate)-glass fibre composites,
crystallization study By Catherine Gauthier , Laboratoire d'Etudes des Matériaux
Plastiques et des Biomatériaux, Université Claude Bernard,France.
They investigated the influence of glass fibers on crystallization kinetics and on
matrix morphology for poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET)/glass fibre composites. The
following parameters are also considered: fusion-crystallization conditions, thermal
stability and the addition of nucleating agents in the matrix (talc or sodium benzoate). It
clearly appears that the influence of those additives on the crystallization of PET is
predominant compared to the effect of stiffening fibres. Moreover, the application of
shear stresses at the PET/glass fiber interface promotes the growth of a different
crystalline superstructure.
CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS USED
CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS USED
The most common and inexpensive fiber used is glass fiber, usually for the
reinforcement of polymer matrices. Typical composition of glass fibers is 50-60% SiO2,
and other oxides of Al, Ca, Mg, Na, etc.Glass fibers are produced by melting the raw
materials in a reservoir and feeding into a series of platinum bushings. Each of which
has several hundred holes in its base. The glass flows under gravity and line filaments
are drawn mechanically downwards as the glass extrudes from the holes. The fibers are
wound onto a drum at speeds of several thousand meters per minute. Control of the
fiber diameter is achieved by adjusting the head of the glass in the tank, the viscosity of
the glass (dependent on composition and temperature), the diameter of the holes and
the winding speed .
Properties Values
Typical compositions of three types of glass popular for composites are given.
The most commonly used E-glass (E for electrical), draws well and has good strength,
stiffness, electrical and weathering properties. In some cases, C-glass (C for corrosion)
is preferred, having better resistance to corrosion than E-glass, but lower strength.
Finally, S-glass (S for strength) is more expensive than E-glass, but has a higher
strength, Young’s modulus and temperature resistance. The strength and modulus are
determined primarily by the atomic structure. Silica-based glasses consist primarily of
covalently bonded tetrahedron, with silicon at the centre and oxygen at the corners.
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Addition of alkali and alkaline earth metals such as K, Na and Ca tends to lower the
stiffness and strength, but improves the formability. The strength depends on
processing conditions and test environment. Freshly drawn E-glass fibers, provided
they are handled very carefully to avoid surface damage, have strength of 3.5 GPa and
the variation in strength is almost zero. The strength falls in humid air, owing to the
adsorption of water on the surface.
A major factor determining the strength is the damage which fibers sustain when they
rub against each other during processing operation. To minimize this damage, glass
fibers are usually treated with a size at an early stage in manufacture. This is a thin
coating applied to the fibers by spraying with water containing an emulsified polymer.
a) Chopped Strands
b) Continuous Yarn
c) Roving
d) Fabric Sheets
constitue E glass S C
nts glass glass
Sio2 54 64 65
Al2o3 15 25 4
Cao 17 <0.1 14
Mgo 4.5 10 3
B2o3 8 - 5
• Strong
• Quick drying
• Wrinkle resistant
• Mildew resistant
• Abrasion resistant
• Easily washed
Properties of polyester fibers are strongly affected by fiber structure. The fiber
structure, which has a strong influence on the applicability of the fiber, depends heavily
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on the process parameters of fiber formation such as spinning speed (threadlike stress),
hot drawing (stretching), stress relaxation and heat setting (stabilization) speed.
As the stress in the spinning threadlike is increased by higher wind-up speed, the PET
molecules are extended, resulting in better as-spun uniformity, lower elongation and
higher strength, greater orientation and high crystallinity. Hot drawing accomplishes
the same effect and allows even higher degrees of orientation and crystallinity.
Relaxation is the releasing of strains and stresses of the extended molecules, which
results in reduced shrinkage in drawn fibers. Heat stabilization is the treatment to "set"
the molecular structure, enabling the fibers to resist further dimensional changes. Final
fiber structure depends considerably on the temperature, rate of stretching; draw ratio
(degree of stretch), relaxation ratio and heat setting condition. The crystalline and
noncrystalline orientation and the percentage of crystallinity can be adjusted
significantly in response to these process parameters.
moduli, but relatively low elongations. Partially oriented yarn (POY) and spun filament
yarns, exhibit low strength but very high elongation (curve E). When exposing PET
fiber to repeated compression (for example, repeated bending), so-called kink bands
start to form, finally resulting in breakage of the kink band into a crack. It has been
shown in that the compressibility stability of PET is superior to that of nylons.
Epoxies generally out-perform most other resin types in terms of mechanical properties
and resistance to environmental degradation, which leads to their almost exclusive use
in aircraft components. As a laminating resin their increased adhesive properties and
resistance to water degradation make these resins ideal for use in applications such as
boat building. Here epoxies are widely used as a primary construction material for
high-performance boats or as a secondary application to sheath a hull or replace water-
degraded polyester resins and gel coats.
The term 'epoxy' refers to a chemical group consisting of an oxygen atom bonded to
two carbon atoms that are already bonded in some way. The simplest epoxy is a three-
member ring structure known by the term 'alpha-epoxy' or '1,2-epoxy'. The idealised
chemical structure is shown in the figure below and is the most easily identified
characteristic of any more complex epoxy molecule.
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Usually identifiable by their characteristic amber or brown coloring, epoxy resins have
a number of useful properties. Both the liquid resin and the curing agents form low
viscosity easily processed systems.
Epoxy resins are easily and quickly cured at any temperature from 5°C to 150°C,
depending on the choice of curing agent. One of the most advantageous properties of
epoxies is their low shrinkage during cure which minimizes fabric 'print-through' and
internal stresses. High adhesive strength and high mechanical properties are also
enhanced by high electrical insulation and good chemical resistance. Epoxies find uses
as adhesives, caulking compounds, casting compounds, sealants, varnishes and paints,
as well as laminating resins for a variety of industrial applications.
Epoxy resins are formed from a long chain molecular structure similar to vinylester
with reactive sites at either end. In the epoxy resin, however, these reactive sites are
formed by epoxy groups instead of ester groups. The absence of ester groups means
that the epoxy resin has particularly good water resistance. The epoxy molecule also
contains two ring groups at its centre which are able to absorb both mechanical and
thermal stresses better than linear groups and therefore give the epoxy resin very good
stiffness, toughness and heat resistant properties.
The figure below shows the idealised chemical structure of a typical epoxy. Note the
absence of the ester groups within the molecular chain.
Epoxies differ from polyester resins in that they are cured by a 'hardener' rather than a
catalyst. The hardener, often an amine, is used to cure the epoxy by an 'addition
reaction' where both materials take place in the chemical reaction.
The chemistry of this reaction means that there are usually two epoxy sites binding to
each amine site. This forms a complex three-dimensional molecular structure.
Since the amine molecules 'co-react' with the epoxy molecules in a fixed ratio, it is
essential that the correct mix ratio is obtained between resin and hardener to ensure that
a complete reaction takes place. If amine and epoxy are not mixed in the correct ratios,
unreacted resin or hardener will remain within the matrix which will affect the final
properties after cure. To assist with the accurate mixing of the resin and hardener,
manufacturers usually formulate the components to give a simple mix ratio which is
easily achieved by measuring out by weight or volume.
Due to the very low shrinkage .ARALDITE LY556 /glass fibro laminates
are dimensionally stable and practically free from internal stress
3.5.1 Plain or taffeta: The wrap and fill yarns cross alternately .The weave
provides fabric stability and firmness with least yarn slippage .Strength is
provided equally in two directions (if yarn size and count are equal in both
directions) and resin penetration into the weave is adequate .
3.5.2Basket:This is similar to plain weave expect that two or more wrap yarns
are woven as one over and under two or more fills yarns .This weave has
somewhat better and pliability than plain weaves
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3.5.3 Twill: Figure shows a 3*1 twill ,but others such as 21, 282 etc .. are
possible .this has better drape than plain or basket weaves but is more difficult
to wet .
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3.5.4 Leno:The wrap yarns are twisted around each other ,locking the filler
yarns in the place.
3.5.5 Long-shaft satin:This weave gives good drape and stretch in all
directions but is less open than other weaves .It is used for countoured surfaces
such as radar randomes.
The fabric weaved was plain weave with glass fibre as warp
and PET as a weft .The proportion of glass and PET are in the ratio of 66:34 by weight
.The fabric has a mass per unit area of 260 gsm (grams per square meter) with the
overall fabric width of 1270 mm and length of 7 meters.the thickness of fabric is
0.40mm.The schematic photograph of woven fabric is shown in the figure .
Glass
fiber
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PET
CHAPTER 4
FABRICATION PROCESS
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CHAPTER 4
FABRICATION PROCESS
In order to meet the market need, researchers and industries are developing a
great number of manufacturing techniques. The costs of production, as a considerable
part of total costs, usually determine which will be followed for a product. Different
processes usually take either low capital investment with high labor, or high capital
investment with low labour.Each of the fabrication processes has charecterstics that
define the type of products be produced.
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• Resin infusion
• Spray-up
• Filament-Winding
• Pultrusion
• Autoclave
• Mixing bowl
• Weighing machine
• Stirrer
• Brush
• Hand gloves
• Roller
• Waste cotton
• Plastic sheets
• Vacuum pump
4.5 Procedure to prepare laminates:
• Glass and PET is woven in the form of cloth is cut into laminates of size
315mm*315mm.
• The surface is cleaned to make sure there is no oil, dirt etc., and a gel coat is
applied so that the laminate peels off from the surface easily
• Fiber laminates are piled to required thickness one above the other by applying
resin mixture in between the laminates.
• A vent is inserted through the bag to remove air using vacuum pump.
• After 20 minutes bag is removed and composite product is kept for post curing
operation for 2 hours at 100°C
4.6 Precuring:
The curing process transforms the resin into a plastic or rubber by cross-linking
process. The cross linking process forms a molecule with a larger molecular weight
resulting in a material with a higher melting point. During the reaction, when the
molecular weight has increased to a point so that the melting point is higher than the
surrounding ambient temperature, the material forms into a solid material. Room
temperature curing has been done with hardener added as initiator
After 20 minutes bag is removed and composite product is kept for post curing
operation for 2 hours at 100 °C in heating chamber.
4.9 CALCULATIONS:
Here, we need to find the table value of the density of the fabrics and the resin
to be used in the fabrication. Weight fraction is the percentage of the resin and
the percentage of the fabrics
= 0.66*2.6+0.34*1.37
= 2.1818g/cc
=1.80g/cc
= 1.180 * 32 * 32 * 0.4
= 483.328 g
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Volume of the laminate is the product of the dimensions of the laminate. Here
32*32 is the area while 0.4is the thickness.
= 483.328 * 0.4
=193.33 g
=19.3
= 483.328 *0.6
= 289.99 g
= 289.99/22.30
≈13 plies.
Before doing the fabrication : need to find the weight of one ply. And to find
the number of plies you need to divide mass of Woven fabrics by mass of 1
ply.
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Amount of resin has to taken 15 to 20 grams more than the calculated amount as
there will always be some amount of resin will be remaining in bowl,loss while
applying and flow losses.
CHAPTER 5
Experimental methods
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CHAPTER 5
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
TESTS CARRIED.
1. Surface Hardness
1. Tensile strength
2. Flextural Strength
Scope:
Density is the mass per unit volume of a material. It is expressed in kg/m3.
• Mettler Balance
Test Procedure:
The specimen is weighed in air and then weighed when immersed in distilled
water at 23°C using a sinker and wire to hold the specimen completely submerged as
required. Density and Specific Gravity are calculated using the following data obtained
form the experiment.
Calculations:
Specific gravity = a / [(a + w)-b]
a = mass of specimen in air.
b = mass of specimen and sinker (if used) in water.
W = mass of totally immersed sinker if used and partially immersed wire.
The aim of this experiment is to find out the SHORE D (ASTM D2240)
hardness number of the composite laminate.
Theory:
Shore Hardness, using either the Shore A or Shore D scale, is the preferred
method for rubbers/elastomers and is also commonly used for 'softer' plastics such as
polyolefins, fluoropolymers, and vinyls. The Shore A scale is used for 'softer' rubbers
while the Shore D scale is used for 'harder' ones. The shore A Hardness is the relative
hardness of elastic materials such as rubber or soft plastics can be determined with an
instrument called a Shore A durometer. If the indenter completely penetrates the
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Test Procedure:
This test method is designed to produce tensile property data for control and
specification of composite materials. These data are useful for qualitative
characterization, engineering design and R&D purposes.
Apparatus:
Specimen size:
Procedure:
• Measure the width and thickness of specimens with a suitable micrometer to the
nearest 0.02 mm at several points along their narrow sections within the gauge
boundaries. Record the minimum value of cross sectional area so determined.
• Set the grip separation speed of the machine; place the specimen straightly in
the grips.
• Tighten the grips evenly and firmly to the extent necessary to prevent slippage
of the specimen during test and not to the point where the specimen would be
crushed.
Formula used
To determine the flexural strength and flexural modulus using three point bending
test.
Apparatus:
Procedure:
• Stop the test after the samples fail completely or before the fractured
sample touches the base of the 3-point bend fixture.
100mm
Formula used
Where,
P=Breaking load, N
l=Span length, mm
d=Depth, mm
b=Width, mm
Where,
y=slope of the tangent of the initial straight line portion of the load deformation curve.
= dy/dx
Short Beam Shear is used to determine interlaminar shear strength of parallel fibers. It
is applicable to all types of parallel fiber reinforced plastics and composites. The data can be
used for research and development purposes concerned with interply strength, or prove useful
in comparing composite materials.
Apparatus:
Specimen Size:
Procedure:
The thickness and width of the test specimen are measured before conditioning. The
specimen is placed on a horizontal shear test fixture so that the fibers are parallel to the loading
nose. The loading nose is then used to flex the specimen at a speed of .05 inches per minute
until breakage. The force is then recorded. Calculations are performed to determine shear
strength.
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Scope:
”Heat distortion temperature is defined as the temperature at which a standard test bar
deflects a specified distance under a load”. It is used to determine short-term heat resistance. It
distinguishes between materials that are able to sustain light loads at high temperatures and
those that lose their rigidity over a narrow temperature range.
Equipment Used:
HDT tester,
Immersion Bath
Thermometer
Weights
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Test Procedure:
The bars are placed under the deflection measuring device. A load of 0.45 MPa
or 1.80 MPa is placed on each specimen. The specimens are then lowered into a
silicone oil bath where the temperature is raised at 2° C per minute until they deflect
0.25 mm for ASTM, 0.32 mm for ISO flat wise, and 0.34 mm for ISO edgewise. The
temperature at the specified load and deflection is given.
DMA:
Scope:
The viscoelastic nature of polymers is well known and is unique in the field of
material properties. The term is used to describe the time-dependent mechanical
properties of polymers, which in limiting cases can behave either as elastic solids or as
viscous fluids. Knowledge of the viscoelastic behavior of polymers and its relation to
molecular structure is essential to an understanding of both processing and end-use
properties.
Measurement:
1. Both displacement and force are measured by amplitude and phase shift.
Parameters:
Hybrid Composite
• Force
• Frequency
• Temperature
As described earlier, If the material is 100% elastic (energy stored) then phase shift=0.
If the materials is 100% viscous (energy loss) then phase shift= 90 0. If viscoelastic then
0< >900.
Specimen size:
The specimens are typically 56mm in length, 13mm in width and 3mm in thickness.
QMI Inc., USA make air-coupled ultrasonic test equipment was used in the
present study. Planar / focused narrow-band piezoelectric air-coupled ultrasonic
Hybrid Composite
transducer probes with center frequencies of 120 kHz and 400 kHz were used for the
measurements. These transducers were driven by their matching electronics provided
by the SONDA 007CX pulsar and receiver system. The dimensions of the piezoceramic
elements ranged from 3/4" to 1" diameter. The settings were maintained at 60 dB gain /
62 dB and 40 dB gain / 60.9 dB attenuation for ultra sonic frequencies of 120 and 400
kHz respectively.
CHAPTER 6
CHAPTER 6
1.881
1.846
1.73
1.721
1.712
1.802
The Specific Gravity and density of Laminates along with percentage of fiber is
shown in the table .The density values are in the range of 1.7 to 1.9. It can be
concluded that as the amount of fiber increases density is found increasing, this is
credited to high dense ,high modulus glass fiber.
Sample 1 2 3 4 5 Average
50:50 75 74 70 73 75 73.4
60:40 78 75 77 72 74 75.2
65:35 75 75 78 80 70 75.6
Sample 1 2 3
Deflection at Maximum
1.245 1.335 1.26
Load mm
Stress at Maximum
115.44 109.5 115.53
Load (MPa)
Percentage Strain at
2.49 2.67 2.52
Max. loadMaximum
Load
Tensile Modulus (MPa) 5840 5860 7670
Sample 1 2 3
Deflection at
1.435 1.33 0.725
Maximum Load (mm)
StressMaximum Load
248.38 265.39 294.49
(MPa)
Percentage Strain at
2.87 2.66 1.45
Max. loadMaximum
Tensile Modulus
Load
5430 6140 8420
(MPa)
Table 6.2.2 Tensile test result of composite specimens with different Fiber percentage
Sample 1 2 3
Specimen 1 2 3
Hybrid Composite
Specimen 1 2 3
Specimen 1 2 3
Mean Value of
Short Beam
Sample Short Beam
Strength in Mpa
Strength (MPa)
15.15
16.39
23.60
23.47
19.81
19.07
• The Measured Values of Flextural strength and Flextural Modulus are shown in
the table which surprisingly shown highest properties at 40% of the fiber
compositions. The short beam strength also shows the same results.
Deflection temperature at
Sample 1820Kpa
(oC)
65:35 118
60:40 124
50:50 116
Hybrid Composite
The heat deflection temperatures of hybrid composites are determined and the obtained
results are given in table. The HDT values of hybrid GF-PET composites lie in the
range of 116 to 125 degrees. And it is found Maximum at 60:40 Fiber: Resin
composition.
Table 6.8.1 : GLASS TRANSITION AND TAN DELTA VALUES FOR DIFFERENT
COMPOSITIONS.
65:35 3100
60:40 6400
50:50 4450
8000
65-35.001
60-40.001
50-50.002
6000
Storage Modulus (MPa)
4000
2000
0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Temperature (°C) Universal V4.3A TA Instruments
Table shows the mean transmission (as obtained from inbuilt WINSPECT
Software) of ultrasonic waves through glass fiber-PET composites scanned at 120 and
400 Hz frequencies. The percentage transmission can be read from the colour index
given separately for each of the frequencies.
frequencies. The other reason for the above behaviour may the effect of resolution
capability and the effective interaction with the materials at a particular frequency.
CHAPTER 7
GRAPHS OF VARIOUS RESULTS
Hybrid Composite
4000
Storage Modulus (MPa)
3000
2000
1000
0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Temperature (°C) Universal V4.3A TA Instruments
400
200
0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Temperature (°C) Universal V4.3A TA Instruments
101.03°C
0.4
Tan Delta
0.2
0.0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Temperature (°C) Universal V4.3A TA Instruments
4000
Storage Modulus (MPa)
3000
Tan Delta
2000
0.2 200
1000
0 0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Temperature (°C) Universal V4.3A TA Instruments
Fig 7.2.4 Overlay of Shear Modulus , Loss Modulus and tan delta
Hybrid Composite
6000
Storage Modulus (MPa)
4000
2000
0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Temperature (°C) Universal V4.3A TA Instruments
800
Loss Modulus (MPa)
600
400
200
0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Temperature (°C) Universal V4.3A TA Instruments
106.56°C
0.3
Tan Delta
0.2
0.1
0.0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Temperature (°C) Universal V4.3A TA Instruments
800
6000 0.3
Storage Modulus (MPa)
4000 0.2
400
2000 0.1
200
0 0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Temperature (°C) Universal V4.3A TA Instruments
Fig 7.2.8 Overlay of Shear Modulus , Loss Modulus and tan delta
Hybrid Composite
3000
Storage Modulus (MPa)
2000
1000
0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Temperature (°C) Universal V4.3A TA Instruments
300
Loss Modulus (MPa)
200
100
0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Temperature (°C) Universal V4.3A TA Instruments
107.63°C
0.3
Tan Delta
0.2
0.1
0.0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Temperature (°C) Universal V4.3A TA Instruments
0 0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Temperature (°C) Universal V4.3A TA Instrum ents
Fig 7.2.12 Overlay of Shear Modulus , Loss Modulus and tan delta
8000
65-35.001
60-40.001
50-50.002
6000
Storage Modulus (MPa)
4000
2000
0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Temperature (°C) Universal V4.3A TA Instruments
1000
65-35.001
60-40.001
50-50.002
800
Loss Modulus (MPa)
600
400
200
0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Temperature (°C) Universal V4.3A TA Instruments
0.6
65-35.001
60-40.001
50-50.002
101.03°C
0.4
106.56°C
107.63°C
Tan Delta
0.2
0.0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Temperature (°C) Universal V4.3A TA Instruments
Test Parameters : 120khz , 60db attenuation , 54db gain and : 400khz , 40db
attenuation , 55db gain
Test Parameters : 400khz , 60db attenuation , 55db gain and : 400khz , 40db
attenuation , 55db gain
CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSIONS
Hybrid Composite
CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSIONS
• The PET fiber can be reinforced to exhibit high Mechanical properties and can
• Considering the DMA test results, it is applicable for structural application with
a service temperature of up to 160°C
Bibliography
Websites:
• www.springer.com
• www.sciencediect.com
• www.elsecier.com
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composite_material
• http://info.lu.farmingdale.edu/depts/met/met205/composites.html
• http://composite.about.com/
• http://www.pcb007.com/pages/zone.cgi?a=48383&_pf_=1
• http://www.fibersource.com/f-tutor/polyester.htm
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyethylene_terephthalate
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiberglass
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoxy
• http://dir.indiamart.com/impcat/epoxy-hardeners.html
• http://www.ptli.com/testlopedia/tests/dma-d4440.asp
Hybrid Composite