05 - Electricity and Magnetism

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5.1 Electric charge

5.1.1 : There are two types of charge, positive and negative...and they are opposite.
Positive charges are attracted to negative charges, but like charges repel.
Conductors are capable of moving charge in the form of electricity, while insulators
will not allow charge to flow through them. Insulators are capable of storing charge
on their surface...Perspex or ebonite rods can become charged by rubbing them
against fur, though they acquire opposite charges (as I recall).

5.1.2 : Electric charge will be conserved, always...if one thing gains a positive
charge, then something else must become negative...fairly obvious.

5.1.3 : Electrostatic induction...This is why uncharged pieces of paper will 'jump' up

to a charged rod...because by holding a negative charge above it, the negative
charges in the paper are pushed down, while the positive charges are pulled up. This
creates an effective opposite charge on the paper (the same thing happens with
positive charged rods), which creates a force of attraction, and pulls the paper up.
The same principle can be applied to an electroscope...when a positively charged rod
is brought close to the top, negative charges in it are pushed down. This creates a
negative charge in both the gold leaf and the center shaft, and since the like charges
repel, the leaf jumps up. If the electroscope is then earthed, negative charges will
neutralize the top of the electroscope, giving it a total negative charge, and thus the
leaf stays up even once the rod is taken away.

5.1.4 : Inductively charge a metal ring attached to an insulated handle. Then use a
charge detector (sort of like a compass only in 3D) to see if there's any charge
changing it's direction...it doesn't ? good. This basically means that the inside of a
hollow charged surface will not have any net charge (and thus field).

5.1.5 : Realistic applications...

Lightning rods...they conduct lightning more easily than a building, so it goes down
them instead.

Fires in airplanes...if static charges build up during flight, then it could cause sparks
as the plan is being fueled...so we earth the first...the same goes for oil tankers.

5.2 Electric force, field and potential

5.2.1 : Coulomb's law ... F = (Q1Q2) / (4 x Pi x E0 x r2) ... The force is proportional to
both the charges, and there is an inverse square relationship between force and the
distance between them (which means it's only really a short range force). Charge is
measured is coulomb, which is a derived unit (and a hell of a lot of charge...electrons
are 1.6 x 10-19C)

5.2.2 : Electric field -- If an electric charge experiences an electric force then it is in

an electric field. The equation E = F/qallows the strength of an electric field, in NC-1,
to be found based on the force experienced by a given charge.
5.2.3 : Electric field lines go from positive to negative (it's like the old days of
conventional current, before the knew about electrons). These are relatively simple,
but really need diagrams to explain (anyone want to draw them ?). One important
point is that field lines always strike a surface at 90 degrees, so make sure to get
that right...in brief...

Isolated point charge...Lines go towards, or away from the point. Moving further
away, the lines are further apart, representing a weaker field than when they are
closer together.

Two like point charges...the two charges repel each other's field, and so on the far
side, it is like a single point charge, but in the center, there is an area of no charge.

Two opposite point charges...there is a line straight from one charge to another, then
the others come out as normal, but are bent towards the other point charge.

Pair of charged plates...I think we only have to deal with oppositely charged
plates...the lines run straight down or up as appropriate, but at the end, some curve
is introduced to account for the 90 degree thing as mentioned above.

These are field lines...equipotential lines run perpendicular to these, and mark areas
of equal potential.

5.2.4 : Potential difference (V) is defined as the work done by moving a positive
charge from one point to another in an electric field. The equation delta-V = delta-W/q,
allows the potential difference to be calculated.

5.3 Electric current

5.3.1 : Electric current is defined as the amount of charged passed divided by time.
It's unit is the ampere...It is usually used in relation to electric charge, where
electrons are flowing, often through a wire, though also through a vacuum (cathode
rays), or in relation to positive ions flowing through something.

5.3.2 : In a metal...electrons are free to move, although the atoms are held in a
reasonably strong, though mobile lattice. As electrons flow through a metal, they
'bump' into the metal atoms, explaining resistance, and the fact that metals may
heat up when electricity flows through them.

5.3.3 : emf -- electromotive force -- The voltage produced by a reaction in a battery

is called it's emf (it applies to any electrical current source, ie induced by a magnet
etc.). Some of the energy produced is wasted inside, and so a battery with an emf of
3V may only have a potential difference between it's terminals of 2.5V.

5.3.4 : Potential difference is defined as the energy dissipated per unit current
(measured in volts)...ie if the potential difference across a battery is 12v, this means
that each coulomb of charge will 'spend' 12 joules of energy going around the circuit.

5.3.5 : Resistance is defined based on potential difference and current as R = V/I...so

you can sub in any two values and get a third...resistance is measured in ohms.
5.3.6 : Factors affecting resistance...

Length...resistance increases with the length of the conductor.

Cross sectional area...resistance decreases as cross sectional area increases.

Type of conducting material...well it's just going to vary isn't it...metals tend to be
good conductors.

Temperature...as the temperature increases, the resistance also increases.

5.4 Electric circuits

5.4.1 : The circuit symbols are in the front of the data book, though I don't see
where transistors or logic gates come into things...still, it's all fairly obvious. Drawing
them is basically a matter of practice, not something I can really explain.

5.4.2 : Non ohmic conductors are those which don't follow ohm's law ( V = IR ) when
the temperature is not kept at a constant (and relatively low) degree.

5.4.3 : Electrons flow from the negative terminal to the positive, conventional
current flows from the positive to the negative. They go in opposite direction,
because conventional current was invented before they knew about electrons...Which
one you use doesn't really have any major effect on simple circuits.

5.4.4 : A resistor is something which turns electric energy into heat when electricity
runs through it (due to electrons 'bumping' into metal ions. Internal resistance refers
to the resistance inside the source (like the difference between emf and potential
diff).

5.4.5 : Circuits should first be divided into separate 'branches'...The total resistance
of each parallel branch is 1/Vt = 1/V1 + 1/V2 etc ... This then creates a simple series
circuit which can be solved with V = IR. In a series circuit, the current is constant
throughout the circuit, but the voltage is shared between the resistors. In parallel,
the current is split between each branch (relative to it's resistance) and the voltage
in each branch is equal to the voltage across the whole parallel branch. Once each
parallel bit has been calculated, and then the whole circuit has been done in series,
the information can be put back to calculate the current or voltage in each bit of the
parallel branch.

5.4.6 : work = charge x potential difference and charge = current x time. Thus,
subbing the second into the first, we get ... W = ItV. divide by t, and since power
equals work/time ... P = VI ... we can then sub in V = IR, giving P = I2R. or
rearranging to I=V/R, we get P = V2 / R ... These can all be applied as appropriate ...
Power is measured in watts (or joules per second), work in joules, time in sec, PD in
volts, current in amps and charge in coulomb.

5.4.7 : Ammeters should be used in series with the part of circuit you want the
current in, voltmeters in parallel, branched over the part you want the PD between.
5.4.8 : Electricity is generally sold in kilowatt-hours, which have a particular
price...Different devices draw different amounts of power, generally given as X
kilowatts...If it runs for 1 hour, then it uses X kilowatt-hours...if it runs for 2 hours
-> 2X and so on...

When current flows through an appliance, heat is produced, some appliances

(kettles, heaters) use this fact (I don't know why this is hare, but the syllabus points
it out...so now I did to).

5.4.9 : Fuses are short pieces of low melting point wire. There are place in a fuse
box, and complete the circuit, but if the current rises over a certain point, the heat
produced in the fuse (due to it's resistance) melts the fuse, and breaks the circuit.
Circuit breakers work on a similar principle, except they act much faster...Fuses are
used to prevent overheating in other areas, causing fires, while circuit breakers (aka
overload cut-out systems) are designed to prevent electrocution. Earth-leakage
detectors are designed to detect current escaping from the circuitry, and so also help
prevent electrocution.

5.5 Magnetic fields

5.5.1 : Magnetic fields flow in circles around a current carrying wire. If you point you
RIGHT HAND thumb in the direction the current is going, your fingers curl in the
direction of the field rotation...Nb, in diagrams, the symbol X is commonly used for a
current going into the page, and a dot for current coming out of the page...the same
convention is used for fields going into or out of the page.

5.5.2 : The magnetic field around a solenoid (coil of wire) runs through the center
and loops around and back to the other end (Diagram anyone ?). The polarity of
each end can be found by drawing the letter N (for north) and putting arrows on the
ends...thus, if the current is going around anticlockwise looking down from one end,
then a north pole will be at that end...otherwise it's a south pole. Field lines go from
the north pole to the south.

5.5.3 : Moving further away from a current-carrying wire, the equipotential lines get
further apart, because the field is getting weaker...when they are close together, the
field is stronger.

5.5.4 : The magnetic field produced by a solenoid depends on the current running
through it (increases with increases current), The number of turns of wire (increased
turns -> increased B field strength). The substance at the core of the field also has
an effect, though it depends on the core's nature.

5.5.5 : The force on a current carrying wire in a magnetic field can be found by again
using your RIGHT HAND...the palm is force, thumb is current and fingers (at right
angles to thumb) are field direction...You'll look like an idiot while working it out, but
who'll be laughing when you get a 7 :)

5.5.6 : When we have two long wires, the fields are just like single wires...this allows
us to work out which way the field from each wire is acting on the other, and so the
force...if you want to just remember it, when the current is running in the same
direction, attraction occurs and when it's opposite, repulsion occurs.
5.5.7 : The ampere is defined as the current which produces a force of 2 x 10-7 N of
force per meter of wire between two infinitely long wires 1 meter apart.

5.5.8 : F = lIB or force = length x current x magnetic field strength...This is used to

calculate the strength of the force on a wire of length l (meters) carrying current I
(amps) in a field of force B (teslas).

F = qvB or Force = charge (Coulomb) x velocity (m/s) x Field strength...This applies

to a single point charge moving through a magnetic field...To work out the direction,
we need to remember that we are working with conventional current here, and so for
a positive charge, the current will be in the direction it's moving, but a negative one
will be backwards. Other than that, the right hand thing still applies.

5.5.9 : A d.c. motor works basically on the principle that a force will be exerted on a
current carrying wire in a magnetic field. A coil of wire (sort of a square) is places in
a magnetic field, and allowed to rotate on it's axis so the coil can rotate in the field.
If a current is passed through, the coil will make one quarter turn, but then the force
will push it back, because the current is running in the opposite sense. As a result,
the ends of the coil are connected to brushes which run around the edge of a
commutator, reversing the current every half turn. (A commutator is sort of a ring,
where one half is the negative terminal, and the other is positive, so at it turns, the
current is reversed). The direction the coil turns can be found in the same way as for
a normal wire, remembering that conventional current runs from positive to
negative.

5.6 Electromagnetic induction

5.6.1 : First, a definition of magnetic flux ... Ø = BA, or magnetic flux = magnetic
field strength x area (in m2). Ø is measured in webbers.

When a conductor is moved through a magnetic field, it cuts through a given amount
of magnetic flux in a given time. The induced emf in the conductor = -delta-Ø/delta-t.
Thus EMF = -delta-Ø/delta-t ... this equation is in the data book, only they have a curly E
for emf. It should also be noted that this assume that the conductor is perpendicular
to the filed...only HL has to deal with when it's not.

The direction of this emf can be found using the left hand thing, if we know that the
force will be in the opposite direction to the motion, and the emf is in the same
direction as current.

5.6.2 : When a conductor is moved through a magnetic field, a current is induced in

it so as to produce a force to oppose the motion, this in known as Lenz's law....for
example, if a wire is moving to the left, then a force to the right will be produced.
Based on this, and the known field direction, we can find the direction of the current

5.6.3 : When a coil is rotated in a magnetic field (like the motor described above) an
emf will be produced...this will be an alternating current, as no commutator will be
used. The emf will be at a maximum when the coil is horizontal, and zero when it's
vertical (assuming the field goes horizontally), and so the graph will follow a sort of
sine curve...the initial direction can be found as above, and it reverses every time
the coil turns through vertical.
5.6.4 : Transformers operate based on this principle of induced current, but placing
to wire coils close together. On has an alternating current running through it, and so
this produces an alternating magnetic field. This causes a current to be induced in
the other coil, again an alternating current. The amount of power (P = VI) remains
constant, but the voltage and current change related to the number of turns in each
coil. The primary coil is the one with the current running through it, the secondary
coil is the one with the induced current. It needs to be noted that this works because
the alternating current causes a continual flux change, and thus induces an
alternating current.

5.6.5 : The current and voltage can be calculated using the equation Vp/Vs = np/ns =
Is/Ip ... this relates the number of loops (n) in the coils to the voltage and current in
both the primary and secondary. A step-up transformer is one which increases the
voltage (and do decreases current) while a step-down transformer is one which
decreases the voltage, and increases the current. Most transformers are around 99%
efficient, and this can be calculated with the equation efficiency = VsIs/VpIp. (or
Ps/Pp).

5.6.6 : Power is generally transmitted through power lines at high voltage and low
current. This is because the power loss is related to current, not voltage in the
equation PL = I2R ... Since we can't easily reduce the resistance in the wires,
reducing the current can reduce the power loss. Since Current = power/voltage, using a
big current, with a set power, will reduce the current, and so everything works out
nicely...if you have to work it out, sub the power and voltage into the above
equation, then sub the resulting current.

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