Mining and rock mass factors influencing hangingwall dilution

K. Forster & D. Milne

University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada

A. Pop
Cameco Corporation Rabbit Lake Mine Site, Collins Bay, Canada

ABSTRACT: Many factors simultaneously influence stability and dilution in open stopes. This makes it diffi-
cult to assess the effect of individual changes to the rock mass condition or mining activity. Hangingwall stability
is being studied at the Rabbit Lake Mine in Northern Saskatchewan. The influence of the rock mass condition,
overall stope geometry and mining factors such as cable support are considered in this paper. Detailed analysis of
3-D stope survey data is used to accurately reflect the degree of instability for a given opening geometry, stress
and rock mass condition. This stope survey data is coupled with detailed geology data to assess the influence
of changing rock mass conditions away from the opening surface. This paper outlines an approach for gaining
a better understanding of the factors influencing dilution based on detailed assessments of individual stopes,
rather than a statistical assessment of many factors from a large data base of case histories.

1 INTRODUCTION on dilution, detailed records and stope reconcilia-

A key aspect of longhole open stope design is the pre-
diction of the amount of overbreak or dilution that can
be expected. Dilution is influenced by many factors
controlled by both the mining and ground conditions.
Mining controlled factors include, among other things,
ground support, stope geometry, blasting method,
stope sequencing, undercutting and time. In order to
predict the dilution, some assumptions and generalities
are required to estimate the rock properties.
Underground openings in hard rock open stope
mining are often designed using a well established
procedure. Piteau (1973) states that the process begins
with separating the rock mass into structural domains
that are predicted to behave in a similar fashion or have
similar properties. In general, these structural domains
are relatively large, and they are based on lithological
contacts or major zones of jointing or shearing. This
generalized method is limited in that it was developed
for assessing the stability of the walls in large open pits,
and therefore was developed to analyze slope failures
that were often hundreds of metres in extent. It was
necessary to obtain average rock mass properties for
large structural domains. In underground mining, the
areas of concern are often only in the order of tens
of metres, and therefore averaging rock mass proper-
ties over large areas may be too simplistic and lead to
inaccurate prediction of stope behavior.
In order to attempt to estimate the influence of
both changing ground conditions and mining practice
tion work must be collected and interpreted. Quan-
tifying and interpreting these factors is often not
straightforward.
2 BACKGROUND
The Cameco Corporation Eagle Point mine is
located approximately 800 km north-east of Saska-
toon, Saskatchewan. The mine produces an average
of 600 tonnes of uranium ore per day using longhole,
open-stope mining methods.
2.1 Geology
Dishaw (2005) states that the uranium mineralization
at the Eagle Point mine is structurally controlled, and
typically occurs within the hangingwall of the Collins
Bay reverse fault within a basal unit of metasediment.
The host rock consists of both metamorphic rock and
intrusives, in particular biotite-quartz-feldspar gneiss,
quartz-feldspar gneiss, quartzite, calc-silicates and
pegmatite. The mineralization zone is typically less
than 1 m to 15 m thick, and consists of tabular veins
and lenses dipping from 50 to 85 degrees. Due to the
ore association with faulting, the ore is often contorted,
with a highly variable orientation.
Dishaw (2005) states that in addition to the urani-
nite ore, many other types of alteration assem-
blages are associated with the ore zone. Bleaching,

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clay or ‘argillization’, pyritization, hematization,
carbonate ± quartz veins, quartz veins, sericitization
and chloritization may be present in the ore zone in
various different combinations. The alteration is typi-
cally confined to within 5 metres in the hangingwall of
the ore zone, but can extend up to 20 metres into the
hangingwall of high-grade mineralization, localized
around multiple fault intersections.
2.2 Mining method
As mentioned, longhole open-stope mining methods
are used at the Eagle Point mine. Both narrow vein
stopes and massive stopes have been used to extract
the ore, depending on the width and spacing of the ore
veins. The overcuts and undercuts for the narrow vein
stopes are driven on geological control following sin-
gle, or closely spaced ore veins. The stopes are then
mined longitudinally with average strike lengths of 30
metres, and are generally less than 10 metres wide.
The overcuts and undercuts for the massive stopes are
driven on survey control through a series of ore veins
that are too numerous and closely spaced to mine indi-
vidually. The massive stopes are then mined either
longitudinally or transversely, with an average strike
length of 20 metres and widths generally less than
20 metres.
3 DILUTION PREDICTION
3.1 Background
A widely accepted method of estimating stope design
was developed by Potvin (1988). The dilution graph
has been modified from this method by Clark (1998)
and others, including Capes (2005) to accommodate
stopes in weak rock.
The stability graph is based upon two input param-
eters; the hydraulic radius, HR, and the modified
stability number, N . The hydraulic radius is defined
as the ratio of the area to the perimeter of a surface.
The modified stability number, N is given as:
where Q = rock tunneling quality index; A = stress
reduction factor; B = joint orientation factor; and
C = gravity adjustment factor.
Both the hydraulic radius and the modified stability
number are influenced by several factors that need to
be considered.
3.2 Difficulties in prediction method and analysis
The prediction of stope hangingwall behavior and anal-
ysis of actual stope dilution are very complex issues.
There are many factors that influence the input data
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Figure 1. Typical stope geometry showing undulating drifts
and hangingwall design.
and output results. Uranium mining has the added con-
straint of minimizing radiation exposure to workers.
The stopes are developed along the ore vein, with
very little to no access to the hangingwall rock. Once a
development round has been taken, it is shotcreted as
soon as possible to limit gamma radiation exposure to
the workers. This provides a limited time frame for per-
sonnel to inspect the rock mass and classify it appro-
priately. A method of supplementing the ore drift data
collected by the mine geologists is required to refine
the classification process for the purposes of design.
3.3 Hydraulic radius calculation
Although the modified stability graph is designed for
stope geometries, in reality stopes rarely fit the ideal
model. A typical stope design is shown in Figure 1.
The overcut and undercut drifts for the stope are not
perfectly straight, and there is a fold in the hangingwall
extent that is problematic in terms of stability.
The most influential factor in the calculation of the
hydraulic radius is how to account for support installed
in the drifts. Cable bolt support is typically installed
in most overcut and undercut drifts as shown in Fig-
ure 2. Cable support design methods exist which assess
the effectiveness of an even coverage of cables (Potvin
et al. 1989). This approach cannot be applied for hang-
ingwall design in cases where support is only installed
from sub-levels or an overcut and undercut drift
(Potvin & Milne 1992). Methods have been developed
for sub level support design for stope hangingwalls
with multiple sub-levels (Nickson 1992). There are
no design techniques for support design when support
is only installed from the stope overcut and under-
cut. Three options to account for this support in the
hydraulic radius calculation are shown in Figure 3.

Figure 2. Typical cross section of a stope showing the drift
outline, planned blast outline, cable bolts, results of the cavity
monitoring survey (CMS), and geological structures.
Figure 3. Three potential measurements to calculate the
hydraulic radius of the stope.
The first option is to assume the cable bolting will
not affect the interpretation of the opening geome-
try. The support installed is effectively ignored and
the drift openings and hangingwall are treated as one
continuous surface.
The second option is to assume the support installed
provides some stability, but not as much as solid,
undisturbed rock. This method assumes a hangingwall
height measured from the middle of the overcut to the
middle of the undercut.
The third option is to assume the cable bolting pro-
vides sufficient support to treat the drift as solid rock.
The hangingwall height is then assumed to be from
the bottom of the overcut to the top of the undercut.
This approach is taken by Hoek et al. (1995) where it
is suggested that cable support from stope sub-levels
will create a stable ‘buttress’ at each drift.
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Figure 4. Cross section depicting the two angles that may
potentially be used to calculate the gravity reduction factor, C.
3.4 Modified Stability Number (N’) calculation
There are many separate factors which contribute to
the calculation of the Modified Stability Number. The
first term, Q , includes rock quality designation, num-
ber of joint sets, joint roughness, joint alteration, and
joint water condition. As previously mentioned, there
is limited access and limited time to gather geotechni-
cal information for a stope. Data from diamond drill
core provides several of the Q factors, while others,
such as large scale roughness and joint water condition
may be gathered or inferred from geological mapping
and observations.
The joint orientation factor, B, may change as the dip
of the hangingwall changes. The B value may be aver-
aged for the entire mining lens, or it may be assessed
for an individually stope.
The gravity reduction factor, C, is another diffi-
cult parameter to quantify. As shown in Figure 4, the
angle used to calculate C depends on whether the
stope design angle is used, or the overall stope angle
as measured from the top of the overcut to the bot-
tom of the undercut. For stopes that have a larger lift
height, the difference in the angles is negligible. But for
stopes with shallow-dipping hangingwalls, or shorter
lift heights, the difference can be significant.
3.5 Other contributing factors
There are other factors that influence the amount of
stope dilution. It has been shown that the amount of
time a stope is left open can significantly influence the
amount of dilution that is produced (Wang et al. 2003).
The Cavity Monitoring Survey (CMS) has been
used to quantify the amount of stope dilution (Mah
1997). One drawback to relying on the CMS method
for measuring dilution is the presence of shadows,
which makes it difficult to accurately assess the
amount of hangingwall dilution.
Table 1. Correlation between the R1/R3 and A1/A7 geology Table 2. Hangingwall condition.
system and Q’ classification systems (Sutton 1998).
Stope 200-045 data Stability graph data
Rock stregnth
HW stress Hangingwall is relaxed
Alteration R1 R2 R3 condition A = 1.0
A1 N/A N/A 22 Orientation of Major jointing makes an angle of
A3 N/A 3.8 11 structure about 10◦ to the hangingwall
A5 1.2 2.5 8.3 B = 0.2
A7 0.4 2 3.8 Hangingwall Hangingwall dips at an average of 47◦
orientation C = 8 − 6 cos θ = 3.9
Hangingwall Stope strike length = 32 m
There is no direct method to adjust the stability num- geometry
ber N’ to account for discrete features such as faults, Stope up-dip Top of overcut to bottom of
shears or weak zones with a strong degree of alter- length undercut
ation (Potvin & Milne 1992). Work has been done to Length = 21 m
account for the influence of discrete features such as Centre of overcut to centre of
faults by quantifying the influence of these features undercut
on the induced stresses around openings (Suorineni Length = 18 m
Designed hangingwall
et al. 1999). There has been limited work validating
Length = 13.5 m
this approach through case histories.
Hydraulic Top of overcut to bottom of
Radius undercut
3.6 Current rock mechanics approach (32 m)(21 m)
HR = = 6.3 m
2(32 m + 21 m)
Rock mechanics data has been gathered predominantly Centre of overcut to centre of
by the geology staff at the mine. The primary goal undercut
of mapping by the geology staff has, of course, been (32 m)(18 m)
HR = = 5.8 m
focused on following the ore for stope development. 2(32 m + 18 m)
In 1997 a study was conducted by Sutton (1998) Designed hangingwall
to link stope stability to the rock strength / alteration (32 m)(13.5 m)
HR = = 4.7 m
assessment developed by the geology staff. Avail- 2(32 m + 13.5 m)
able exposures were assessed into the alteration and
strength categories and were also mapped for rock
mechanics classification purposes.
The mine currently uses the classification system 1997). The stope properties for Stability Number N’
based on the alteration and strength of the rock. The and Hydraulic Radius calculation are summarized in
R series consists of three separate categories of rock Table 2 (Potvin 1988). As an initial assessment, the
strength, with R1 being very weak rock, and R3 being drift mapping data in Figure 5 indicates an A5/R2
relatively strong rock. The A series consists of four alteration/strength rating, which suggests a Q’ value of
separate categories for alteration, with A1 being fresh 2.5 which allows for the following Stability Number
rock, to A7 being strongly altered. Sutton’s corre- calculation:
lation between the Q’ rock mechanics classification
system and the geology assessment of R1 to R3 and
A1 to A7 rock types is applied to stope stability and is
As shown in Figure 6, the modified stability graph
summarized in Table 1.
predicted more dilution than was measured using the
The hangingwall hydraulic radius for supported
cavity monitoring survey. Although the influence of
overcuts and undercuts is currently being assessed by
shadows caused by bends in the hangingwall for the
taking the up-dip extent of the stopes to the centre of
rings closer to the slot may have shown less dilution
the supported sub levels. The dip of the stope hang-
than actually occurred, it is believed that the aver-
ingwall is being taken as angle at an average of 47◦ .
age dilution for the stope was still not more than 0.5
metres. This indicates that the method and parameters
that were used to predict the dilution were pessimistic
4 SAMPLE CASE STUDY
in this particular case.
Upon inclusion of detailed core logging data as
4.1 Dilution prediction
shown in Figure 7, it appears that the stope sloughed
The dilution graph has been used for an initial interpre- to a geological contact that was not apparent in the
tation of the hangingwall dilution (Clark & Pakalnis geological drift mapping. The cross section shows

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Figure 5. Plan view showing stope 200-045 layout and geological mapping of the overcut and undercut drifts.

recorded in terms of percentage of individual alteration

products as well as a general, overall alteration. The
alteration may be found on joint surfaces as well as the
rock fabric may be altered throughout. The scale used
to denote alteration in core logging is based on 0 for
fresh rock, 1 for weakly altered rock, 2 for moderately
altered rock, and 3 for strongly altered rock.
It is suspected that the pegmatoid rock is less stable
at similar alterations and rock quality designation than
the gneiss. Work is ongoing to check this assumption.
Also, it is possible that the cable bolting had more
of an effect on the stability of the stope than was
accounted for in the design process. The assumption
that a cable supported overcut / undercut provides
as much support as a rock abutment seems overly
optimistic. Ignoring the cable support does not seem
realistic. Continued work in this area, with empha-
sis on the hangingwall profile from the CMS in the
vicinity of the cabled drifts, will be investigated with
additional case histories.
Figure 6. Modified stability graph showing the three calcu-
lated hydraulic radii and the predicted dilution.
5 CONCLUSIONS

the geological back mapping as well as one of the As discussed, there are many individual factors that
exploration drillholes. The lithology, rock quality des- can influence the hangingwall stability. The complex
ignation, and degree of alteration are shown on the sec- interaction of these factors makes it difficult to predict
tion. During the core logging process, the alteration is the hangingwall behavior. In addition to the factors that

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Figure 7. Stope cross-section showing where the hangingwall sloughed to a geological contact.
have been previously identified, there is the issue of
complex geology to be considered.
More research and analysis are required to better
quantify all of these factors. Further study is currently
being conducted to investigate the effects of complex
geology and develop a method of dilution prediction
from exploration core data.
REFERENCES
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