Professional Documents
Culture Documents
REPORT ON
GEOPHYSICAL FIELD TRAINING
AT
NATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE
HYDERABAD
Department Of Geophysics
Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra
Acknowledgement
I.
(Renu Yadav)
Contents
Chapter-1: Introduction
Chapter-2: Seismology
Chapter-3 : Magnetic Prospecting
Chapter-4 : Electrical Method
Chapter-5 : Gravity Method
Chapter-6 : Gas Hydrate
Chapter-7 : Magneto Tulluric Method
Chapter-8 : Hydrology
Chapter-9 : Paleomagnetism
Chapter-10 : Tsunami
Chapter-11 : Refraction Method
Chapter-12 : Tomography
References:
Introduction Chapter 1
1.1 Introduction to Geophysics
The term Geophysics, meaning the Physics of the Earth or the study of the
properties of the earth, is used comprehensively to include the different but interrelated
subjects covered in the Earth Sciences such as Meteorology, dealing with the phenomena
and properties of the atmosphere and other water covered portions ; Geodesy dealing
with the shape, size and other aspects of figure of the Earth’s magnetic and electrical
phenomena ; Seismology and Volcano logy , dealing with the phenomena of earthquakes
and volcanoves`
respectively. Another subject, Tectonophysics, dealing with the physical analyses of
stresses and strains etc. of the structures in the Earth and their relationship to crustal
structures, has been recognized in recent years as branch of Geophysics.
The branch of Geophysics devoted to the exploration of mineral deposits by
appropriate use of physics properties of the materials in the Earth is termed variously as
Applied Geophysics, Exploration Geophysics geophysical exploration, or Geophysical
Prospecting.
Depending on the physical properties on which they are based, the various methods in
vogue in geophysical prospecting may be classified under the following heads :
1. Electrical Methods,
2. magnetic Methods,
3. gravity Methods,
4. Seismic Methods, and
5. Radioactivity Methods.
In addition , the various technique of measurements in bore holes may be grouped under
Well Logging Methods.
The art of mineral exploration is fairly ancient. After learning the use of metals ,
man began searching for mineral deposits from which he could win the ores. He was not
content with taking what he discovered accidentally. The old time prospector was not
merely a man of adventure ; he had good powers of observation and was intelligent
enough to note the correlations between soil, vegetation , topography and rock formation
favorable for the occurrence of mineral deposits. Even where surface indications were
lacking, attempts have been make from a long time to gain knowledge of hidden mineral
deposits by using instrumental devices.
1.2 Purpose of Geophysical Field Training
The Geophysical Field training is very important and essential for the
students of Earth Science being a part of out degree course. In my point of view the main
purpose of geophysical field training is to provide a good practical exposure to us there
in field which we are studying in our curse about the various Geophysical Methods
applied in the exploration of subsurface.
Also from these kind of training develops our skills to work in a team. The
interaction with experienced Scientists gives good knowledge to us about subjects.
1.3 About the National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI) Hydrabad.
National Geophysical Research Institute (N.G.R.I) was established in 1962 at
Hyderabad, with the aim to be the premier geoscientific organization in India undertaking
world class research and development in Geophysics. Over the last decade the institute
has grown into a large research organization having highly skilled technical staff. It has
built up an enviable record of scientific excellence and technical competence in all the
crucial area of Earth sciences. This is demonstrated by the impressive output of original
publications, collaborations with major Earth Science Institutions around the world and
transfer of knowledge from basic research to its practical application.
Research and Development Programs :
The Institute undertakes basic and applied research in the field of solid earth
geophysics. Major research and development programmes of NGRI are regarding :
• Geophysical Exploration
• Lithosphere Structure
• Natural Hazard Assessments
• Assessment and Management of Ground Resources
• Geophysical Instrumentation
Major capability and Services
Expertise and capabilities are available in the areas of magneto telluric, controlled
sources seismic, gravity air borne geophysics and deep resistivity sounding to under
geophysical survey both on land and water for hydrocarbons and gas hydrates exploration
and for geophysical data interpretation. There are state of art laboratory facilities for
geochemical, geochronological, mineral physics and high pressure and temperature
studies.
National and International Affiliations
International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG)
International Association of Seismology and Physics of Earths Interior
International Association of Geomagnetic and Aeronomy (IAGA)
Third World Academy of Sciences (TWAS).
Seismology Chapter 2
2.1 Earthquake
Vibrations within the Earth caused by the rupture and sudden movement of rocks
that have been strained beyond their elastic limit.
2.2 Earthquake Seismology
The study of vibrations within the Earth caused by the sudden movement along
faults or other natural processes.
The study of earthquakes is important for scientific, social, and economic reasons.
Earthquakes attest to the fact that dynamic forces are operating within the Earth. Stress
builds up through time, storing strain energy; earthquakes represent sudden release of the
strain energy.
Plate tectonic theory relies heavily on observations from earthquakes. Most
tectonic activity occurs due to interaction between plates; the distribution of earthquakes
thus dramatically outlines lithospheric plate boundaries. Locations of earthquakes in three
dimensions reveal the depths of stresses built up as a result of plate interaction. There are
only shallow earthquakes at divergent and transform plate boundaries, but earthquakes
occur over a broad range from shallow to deep where plates converge.The type of
earthquake faulting shows relative motion between plates; rocks are generally subjected
to normal faulting at divergent plate boundaries, strike slip faulting at transform
boundaries , and reverse faulting ( with significant normal and strike slip faulting at
convergent boundaries.
Earthquakes also provide crucial data on the deep interior of the Earth , because
seismic waves travel through the entire earth and are recorded by a world wide network
of seismometers. Interpretations of the thickness, structure and composition of the crust,
mantle, and core can be made from the types and speeds of waves that travel through
each zone.
Earthquakes are important from a human and economic point of view. In some
years, Earthquakes kill thousands of people and cause damage totally billions of dollars.
It is useful to understand how Earthquakes occur , where they are likely to occur and
when they might occur. We can minimize earthquake effects by designing buildings that
will withstand Earthquakes and by not building in areas prone to intense shaking.
Fig(2.1) Elastic rebound . Figure can represent either map view of a strike slip fault,
or cross-sectional view of a dip – slip (normal or reverse ) fault.
a) Sequence of rocks in undeformed state b) Rocks initially behave elastically as
stress is applied c) Elastic limit of the rocks is reached. If failure occurs, stored
energy is released as an earthquake. The rebound to new positions across the fault,
as seismic waves radiate from the rupture zone (earthquake focus).
Fig( 2.2) Cross section of a rupture fault, illustrating terminology used to
describe the location and depth of and earthquake.
Seismic Waves
Seismic waves are mechanical vibrations that occur inside the Earth. Seismic waves are
the waves of energy caused by the sudden breaking of rock within the earth or an
explosion. They are the energy that travels through the earth and is recorded on
seismographs.
2.4 Types of Seismic Waves
There are several different kinds of seismic waves, and they all move in different
ways. The two types of waves are body waves and surface waves.
Body waves: travel through the interior of the Earth. They follow curved paths because
of the varying density and composition of the Earth’s interior.
This effect is similar to the refraction of light waves . Body waves transmit the
preliminary tremors of an earthquake but have little destructive effect. Body waves are
divided into two types : Primary (P-waves and secondary (S –waves).
Surface waves : are analogous to water waves and travel over the Earth’s surface.
Surface waves can only move along the surface of the planet like ripples on water. They
travel more slowly than body waves. Because of their low frequency, they are more likely
than body waves to stimulate resonance in buildings, and are therefore the most
destructive type of seismic wave. There are two types of surface waves: Rayleigh waves
and love waves.
P- waves :
P waves are longitudinal or compress ional waves, which means that the ground
is alternately compressed and dilated in the direction of propagation. These waves
generally travel twice as fast as S waves and can travel through any type of material. As
pressure waves they travel at the speed of sound. Typical speeds are 330 m /s in air, 1450
m/s in water and about 5000 m/s in granite.
P waves are compressional or longitudinal waves ; that is , the medium vibrates parallel
to the direction that the wave energy is traveling.
A P wave travels fastest and arrives first at a detector. For this reason, these waves are
called primary waves ( hence the letter “P” )_ A P wav e can travel through liquid and
gas.
P – wave velocity is given by :
Vp = [(K+4/3u)/p] ….(2.1)
Where , Vp is the velocity of the P- wave, K is the incompressibility of the
material , u is the rigidity of the material , and p is the density of the material.
S waves : S waves are transverse or shear waves, which mean that the ground is
displaced perpendicularly to the direction of propagation, alternately to one side and then
the other. S waves can travel only through solids , as fluids (liquids and gases) do not
support shear stresses. Their speed is about 58% of that of P waves in a given material.
As S wave is slower and arrives at the detector second. For this reason, S waves are
called secondary waves ( because they arrive second!). These waves are transverse
waves, In transverse waves, the medium vibrates perpendicularly to the direction of
energy travel.
S – wave velocity is given by :
Vs =
Where , Vs is the velocity of S – wave, Because liquids respond to changes in volume but
not shape, they will not transmit S waves.
Love Waves:
The first kind of surface wave is called a Love wave, named after A.E.H Love, a British
mathematician model for this kind of wave in 1911. It’s the fastest surface wave and
moves the ground from side to side.
Rayleigh Waves :
The other kind of surface wave is the Rayleigh wave, named for John William Strutt,
Lord Rayleigh, who mathematically predicted the existence of this kind of wave in 1885 .
A Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls across a lake or an ocean.
Because it rolls, it moves the ground up and down , and side to side in the same direction
that the wave is moving . Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is due to the
Rayleigh wave, which can be much larger than the other waves.
2.5 Seismographs and Seismograms :
Sensitive seismographs are the principal tool of scientists who study earthquakes.
Fundamentally, a seismograph is a simple pendulum. When the ground shakes, the base
and frame of the instrument move with it, but intertia keeps the pendulum bob in place. It
will then appear to move, relative to the shaking ground. As it moves it records the
pendulum displacements as they change with time , tracing out a record called a
seismogram. The record of an earthquake, a seismograph , as recorded by a seismometer,
will be a plot of vibrations versus time. On the seismograph, time is marked at regular
intervals, so that we can determine the time of arrival of the first P wave and the time of
arrival of the first S wave.
One seismograph station , having three different pendulums sensitive to the north-
south , east-west, and vertical motions of the ground , will record seismograms that allow
scientists to estimate the distance, direction , Richter Magnitude, and type of faulting of
the earthquake . Seismologists use networks of seismograph stations to determine the
location of an earthquake.
2.6 Locating Earthquakes :
Focus and Epicenter : The location of earthquake cab be described by the
latitude , longitude, and depth of the zone of rupture. The focus (or hypocenter ) is the
actual “point” 9relativel small volume) within the Earth where the earthquake energy is
released. The Epicenter is the point on Earth’s surface directly above the focus . The
Focal Depth is the distance from the epicenter to the focus.
Earthquake magnitude :
The size of the earthquake should be measured in terms of the amount of energy
released at the focus. This is independent of the damage caused. For this concept of
earthquake magnitude was introduced , by K. Wadati and C.f Richter in 1930.
Magnitude scales are based on two simple assumptions. The first is that given the
same source – receiver geometry and two earthquakes of different size, the “larger” event
will on average produce larger amplitude arrivals. The second is that the 333amplitudes
of arrivals behave in a “ predictable” fashion. All the magnitude scales are logarithmic
scales. Thus, magnitude of an earthquake is a quantitative measure of an earthquake.
There are four types magnitude scales used :
3.1 Introduction
The properties of lode stone and the magnetism of the earth have been known
from a very long time. An ordinary compass needle gets deflected in the neighbourhood
of iron ore deposits rich in magnetite. There are a few other minerals like pyrrhotite, and
franklinite which are strongly magnetic; there are many others so strongly magnetic;
there are many others like limonite and chromite which are not so strongly magnetic; and
few minerals like rock salt and quartz, which are diamagnetic.
Magnetic method is the oldest method of locating both hidden ores and structures
associated with deposits of oil and gas. A mineral deposit having considerable quantities
of magnetite disturbs in its vicinity the normal value of Earth’s magnetic field intensity at
that place. By measuring the intensities of the Earth’s magnetic field at a number of
points in the area, we can ascertain the spots at which there is an anomaly in the normal
intensity, and thus locate the hidden body which causes the disturbance.
In magnetic prospecting, we apply the simple laws of magnetism governing
polarity, attraction, induction, and distribution of magnetic fields. A magnet has two
poles which are the foci of maximum attraction or repulsion. The magnetic field has both
direction and intensity, and extends into the surrounding air The intensity of the field
varies inversely as the square of the distance from a pole. The magnetic field is
graphically presented by lined of force by the trend of the lines, and the intensity by
density of the lines per unit area. Although a group of lines, and the lines per unit area.
Although a group of lines of force filing a magnetic field is a convential representation,
its use is indispensable for practical application of magnetic, and also electromagnetic
methods.
Magnetic surveying has a wide range of applications from small scale engineering
or archaeological surveys to detect buried metallic objects, to large scale surveys carried
out to investigate regional geological structures. Magnetic surveys can be carried out on
land, at sea and in air.
The magnetic field observed at Earth’s surface considerably n both strength and
direction. Unlike gravitational acceleration, which is directed nearly perpendicular to
Earth’s surface , magnetic field directions change from early horizontal at the equator, to
nearly vertical at the poles. The variation in strength of the gravity field is only about
0.5% (nearly 978000 mGal at the equator, 983000 mGal at the poles), comared to
doubling of magnetic field (nearly 30000 nT at the equator , 6000 nT at he poles).
The magnetic method has many important applications. Anomalies induced by
Earth’s natural field give clues to the geometry of magnetized bodies in the crust, and the
depth to sources of the anomalies. The depth to he deepest sources of retain strong
magnetization (curie Depth) illustrates the depth below which rocks are too hot to retain
strong magnetization (Curie Temperature). Studies of rocks that have been permanently
magnetized (paleomagnetism) give clues to the ages of the rocks, the latitudes at which
they formed , and to the relative positios of continents in the past.
3.2 Earth Magnetic Field
About 98% of Earth’s magnetic field is of internal origin, thought to be caused by
motions of liquid metal in the core; the remaining 2 % is external , of solar origin. Unlike
the gravitational field , which is essentially fixed, the magnetic field has secular
variations. Measurements in Europe since the 1600’s show that the direction of the
magnetic field has gradually drifted westward at rates up to 0.2 per year. The overall
strength of the field has also degreased by about 8 % in the last 150 years. In addition
several factors result in daily, monthly, seasonal, yearly, and longer period variations in
the magnetic field. There are also sporadic variations (“magnetic storms” ) which
momentarily disrupt the field.
3.3 GEOMAGNETIC FIELD
The magnetic field of the Earth is known as the ‘Geomagnetic field’.
The geomagnetic field is a vector and it is more complex than the gravitational
field of the Earth and exhibits irregular variation I both orientation and magnitude with
latitude, longitude and time.
When a magnetic needle is feely suspended at any point on the Earth’s surface ,
then it aligns itself in the direction of the geomagnetic field. This will generally be at an
angle to both vertical and geographic north.
3.4 Geomagnetic Elements
The magnetic field of the Earth can be completely described in terms of 7
components, called Geomagnetic Elements.
These are :
1. Total magnetic field, ‘F’
2. Vertical component of total magnetic field, ‘Z;
3. Horizontal component of total magnetic field. ‘H’
4. Component of ‘H’ along the Geographic North direction, ‘X’
5. Component of ‘H’ along the Geographic East direction, ‘Y’
6. Declination (D) of the field is the horizontal angle between the
Geographic North and the Magnetic North.
7. Inclination (I) of the field is the angle which the total field ‘F’ makes
with the horizontal.
These geomagnetic elements are related to each other as :
Since, ‘H’ and ‘Z’ are the components of ‘F’ , hence
H= F cost (I) and Z= F sin(I) ….(3.1)
F
By knowing any 3 elements we can determine the remaining 4 elements using the
above relations.
3.5 Earth’s Magnetic field is composed of three parts:
1. Main Magnetic field.
2. External Magnetic field
3. Crustal Magnetic field or anomalous magnetic field, usually but not always much
smaller than main field, relatively constant in time and space and caused by local
magnetic anomalies I the near surface crust of the earth; these are targets in magnetic
prospecting.
3.5.1 Main magnetic field
About 90% of the Earth’s magnetic field is of internal origin. There are two main
theories regarding the origin of main magnetic field:
(1) Dipolar theory
(2) Dynamo theory
1. Dipolar theory: The Earth’s magnetic field can be explained by placing a small
bar magnet at the center of the Earth which is inclined at an angel 11.5 with the
Earth’s axis of rotation. This fictitious magnet is called ‘ Centered Geomagnetic
Dipole’. The points where an extension of this imaginary dipole intersects with
the Earth’s surface are referred to as the ‘Geomagnetic Poles’.
However, this theory cannot explain all the observations regarding the main
magnetic field. The major limitations of this theory are:
• No bar magnet can exist the center of the Earth, as the core of is very hot.
All the magnetism is lost at such a high temperature.
• Dipolar theory does not account for the polarity reversals in th main
magnetic field.
2. Dynamo theory : It was proposed by W. M Elasasser and E.C Bullard. This
theory combines the principles of fluid mechanics and the electro mechanical
dynamo.
According to Michael Faraday, if a metal disk is rotating on it’s axis in an external
magnetic field, such that the axis is parallel to the external field, then a positive
charge is developed bear the rim of the disk and a negative charge is developed at the
center of the disk. Hence, if a conducting wire is connected between its rim and its
center , then a current flows through it. Now if this conducting wire is wound into a
coil surrounding the disk, then the current in the coil produces a magnetic field. By
adjusting the speed of rotation of the disk, we can make a self generated magnetism
that is just sufficient to maintain the current in the coil and so the external field can be
eliminated. This explains how the magnetic field might be maintained indefinitely.
But, it does not explain the spontaneous polarity reversals.
The polarity reversals cab be explained by considering a combination of two disk
dynamos, such that wire connected between the rim and the center of each disk is
wound into a coil around the other disk. This combination is also a self sustained
dynamo, but the effects of the two spinning disks are very delicately balanced. Slight
disturnance in this balance causes polarity reversal of the magnetic field generated by
this system.
Thus, main magnetic field is generated due to the currents produced within the Earth
due to the rotation of the core.
3.5 The magnetic field of external
The magnetic field of the Earth in space has been measured form satellites and
spacecraft. The external field has a quite complicated appearance . It is strongly affected
by the solar wind, a stream of electrically charged particles (consisting mainly of
electrons, protons and helium nuclei) that is constantly emitted b the Sun. the solar wind
is a plasma. This is the physical term for an ionized gas of low particle density made up
of nearly equal concentrations of oppositely charged ions. At the distance of the Earth
form the Sun (1 AU ) the density of the solar wind is about 7 ions per cm3 ,and it
produces a magnetic field of about 6 nT. The solar wind interacts with the magnetic field
of the Earth to form a region called the magnetosphere. At distances greater than a few
Earth radii the interaction greatly alters the magnetic field from that of simple dipole.
The velocity of the solar wind relative to the Earth is abot 450 kms-1. At a great
distance (about 15 Earth radii ) from the Earth, on the day side , The supersonic solar
wind collides with the thin upper atmosphere.
This produces and effect similar to the build up of a shock wave in front of supersonic
aircraft. The shock front is called the bow shock region; it marks the outer boundary of
the magnetosphere. Within the bow shock region the solar wind is slowed down and
heated up. After passing through the shock front the solar wind is diverted around the
Earth in a region of turbulent motion called the magnetosheath. The moving charged
particles of the solar with constitute electrical currents, They produce and interplanetary
magnetic field, which extends to great distances downwind from the Earth. The Moon’s
distance from the Earth is about 60 Earth radii and so its monthly orbit about the Earth
brings it in and out of the magnetotil on each circuit. The transition between the deformed
magnetic field and the magnetosheath is called magnetopause.
3.6 Basic Concepts
Magnetic poles
Within the vicinity of a bar magnet a magnetic flux is developed which flows
from one end of the magnet to the other. This flux can be mapped from the directions
given by a small compass needle. The points within the magnet where the flux converges
are know as the ‘Poles’ of the magnet.
Free magnetic poles do not exist. Thus each positive pole must be paired with a
corresponding negative pole.
Coulom’s Law of Magnetic force
Accoridng to it, the force between two magnetic poles of strengths ‘m1’and ‘m2 ,
separated by a distance ‘r’ is given by
F=(m1m2/ u r2 ) r1 …(2.8)
Where, u= Magnetic Permaeability of the medium surrounding the magnets, it is the
dimensionless quantity whose value is precisely 1 in vacuum, and r1 is the unit vector
directed from m1 to m2 . This force ‘force ‘F’ is attractive if the poles are of different
signs and repulsive if they are of same sign.
Magnetic field strength
The ‘Magnetic field strength’ due to a pole of strength ‘m’ at a distance ‘r’ from
the pole is defined as the force exerted on a unit positive pole at that point. It is
represented by ‘H’.
H= F/m = (m/ur2 ….(3.9)
Magnetic potential
The ‘magnetic potential’ (V) at a distance ‘r’ from a pole of strength ‘m’ is the
amount of work done to move a unit pole from distance ‘r’ to infinity.
V= (m/ur) r1 …(3.10)
Intensity of magnetization
It represents the extent to which a specimen is magnetized, when placed in a
magnetic field. The Intensity of magnetization is proportional to the strength of the field
and its direction is in the direction of that field. It is defined as the magnetic moment per
unit volume,i.e
I= M / v …(3.11)
If a = uniform area of cross section of the magnetized specimen
2l = magnetic length of specimen
m = strength of each pole, then
I= m x 2l /a x 2l
= m/a …(3.12)
Hence intensity of magnetization of a magnetic material is also defined as the pole
Per unit area of cross section of the material.
Magnetic susceptibility
The degree to which the body is magnetized is determined by its magnetic susceptibility,
defined as
K=I/H …(3.13)
Magnetic Induction
When a magnetic material , is placed within a magnetic field, H, the magnetic material
will produce its own magnetization. This phenomenon is called induced agnetization. In
practice, the induced magnetic field (that is, the one produced by the magnetic dipoles
located within the magnetic material and oriented parallel to the direction of the inducing
field, H. The strength of the magnetic field induced buy the magnetic material due to the
inducing field is called the intensity of magnetization, I .
5.1 Introduction
According to the law enunciated by Isaac Newton, two particles of masses m1 and m2
separated by a distance d attract each other with a force F,. which is directly proportional
to the square of the distance between them. This law may be expressed in the form of the
following equation:
F=-G m1 m2 r …(5.1)
r2
Principle
The basic principle of a gravimeter is simple. Suppose that a mass ‘m’ is attached to a
spring (as shown above). The length ‘x’ that a spring stretches depends on the force
pulling that spring. Here the force ‘mg’ depends on the gravitational attraction of the
Earth. It is balanced by an upward supporting force ‘kx’ exerted by the spring (where, k =
spring constant).
Now if this system is moved to a different place, then the change in the gravity ‘gΔ’
should produce a proportional change ‘Δx’ in the stretch of the spring, i.e.
k. Δx =m. Δg …(5.6)
‘Δx’ must be measured precisely. The instrument based on this principle must be portable
and easy to operate. It must be sensitive to gravity difference of 0.1 to 0.01 mGal.
Obviously the mass should not be too heavy and the spring cannot be too long, if the
instrument is to be portable.
The sensitivity of early gravimeters called ‘Stable’ or ‘Static gravimeters was restricted,
because the spring had to serve a dual function:
• To support the mass
• To act as a measuring device
The problem was overcome in modern instruments called ‘Unstable’or ‘Astatic
gravimeters’ which employ an additional force that acts in the same sense as the
extension or contraction of the spring and thus amplifies the movement directly. These
are the different types of gravimeters used:
» La Coste – Romberg gravimeter
» Worden gravimeter
» Sodin gravimeter
The sensitivity of the instrument can be significantly increased by using a ‘Zero length
spring’. A zero length spring is defined as the one in which the tension is proportional to
the length of the spring, i.e. if all the external forces are removed then the spring will
collapse to zero length.
5.12 Gravity reduction
Before the results of a gravity survey can be interpreted it is necessary to
correct for all variations in the Earth’s gravitational field which do not result from the
differences of density in the underlying rocks. This process is known as gravity reduction
or reduction to the geoid, as sea-level is usually the most convenient datum level.
We know that gravity readings obtained in the field are influenced by
instrumental drift also. But we look for variations only due to density changes in the
subsurface. So these field observations must be corrected for the variations in latitude,
elevation, topography, earth’s tide, etc. so that they are reduced to values they would
have on some datum surface. The various corrections applied are :
1. Drift correction
The changes in the reading that would occur throughout the day with the gravimeter
kept at the same place are called ‘Drift’. This change mainly arises due to slow creep
of the spring. The drift is measured by periodically returning the gravimeter to the
base station to take a reading, drawing a curve and interpreting the changes for the
times when readings were taken at each station.
2 Latitude correction
Gravity varies with latitude, because to two factors-
a) The shape of earth
b) The variation of the angular velocity from equator to poles
The net effect of these two factors is that the gravity at the poles exceeds the gravity
at the equator by 5200 mgals. As both the factors vary with latitude ‘Ф’ of the gravity
station, hence they can be combined in one formula called the ‘International Gravity’,
given by :
gN = 978031.85(1+0.005278895 sin2 Ф+0.000023462sin4 Ф) ..(5.7)
Where ‘gN is the gravity (in mgals ) at the latitude ‘Ф’. This value gives the predicted
values of the gravity at the sea level at any point on the Earth’s surface and is
subtracted from observed gravity to correct for latitude variation.
2. Free Air Correction
It removes the effect of elevation. If the gravimeter is at an elevation , then the
gravity values so measured will decrease, due to increased distance from the
earth’s center. Thus free air correction corrects for the decrease in gravity with
height. To reduce an observation taken at a height ‘h’, to the datum, we apply the
free air correction (FAC), given by :
FAC = 0.3086h mGals
Where, ‘h’ is in meters. Thus, we can say that gravity decreases by 0.3086 mGals
per meter rise in elevation.
3. Bouguer Correction
The free air correction accounts for the effect of elevation only and it does not
account for gravitational effect of the rock present between the observation point
and the datum. The bouguer correction removes this effect, by approximating the
rock layer beneath the observation point to an infinite slab or sheet having
thickness equal to the elevation of the observation point from datum plane. If ‘p’
is the density of the rock layer below , then the bouguer correction (B.C.) is given
by :
B.C. = 2 πGph = 0.04192ph mGals …(5.9)
3
Where, ‘h’ is in meters and ‘p’ is in kg/m
Now as both B.C and FAC depends upon ‘h’ hence, they can be replaced by a
combined correction called ‘Elevation Correction’ (E.C.), such that :
E.C = (0.3086 – 0.04192p) h mGals
5. Terrain Correction :
The bouguer correction assumes that the topography around the gravity station is flat.
This is rarely the case, and so a correction myst be appklied to account for the
topographic relief near the vicinity of the gravity station.
This correction is called ‘Terrain Correction’ and it is always positive The bouguer
correction has overcorrected the data for the areas which do not consist of rock and
this effect is removed by a positive terrain correction.
A terrain correction template placed over a topographic map with the center at a
gravity observation site.
6. Tidal Correction
Gravity measured at a fixed location varies with time because of the periodical
variation in the gravitational attraction of the Sun and the Moon associated with their
orbital motions. Corrections so applied for this variation are called ‘Tidal
Corrections’. Also gravitational attraction of the Moon is larger than that of the sun
due to its proximity. These effects cause the shape of the Earth Tides’, which causes
the elvation of an observation point to be altered by a few centimeters. Such periodic
gravity variations caused by the combined effe3cts of the Sun and the Moon are
called ‘Tidal Variations’. These effects are predictable and published every year.
7. Eotvos Correction
This correction is needed only if gravity is measured on a moving vehicle like a
ship or an aircraft. Depending on the direction of motion a centripetal acceleration is
generated which either reinforces or opposes gravity. The Eotvos correction is given
by :
Where, V= velocity vehicle in k,/hr
Ф = Latitude
Ά = Direction of motion
Only East to West motion matters. The correction is positive for motion from East to
West and vice-versa.
8. Isostatic Correction
In 18th and 19th surveys were set out to measure the shape of the earth. The
deflection of plumb bob toward the mountains was not up to the expectation. It was
assumed that the observed deflection could be explained if the excess mountain mass
was matched by an equal deficiency beneath.
Although not applied in small surveys but is very important in regional studies.
Bouguer anomaly:
Bouguer anomaly forms the basis for the interpretation of gravity data. It is
calculated as :
B.A= gobs -g Ф+FAC =EC
5.13 REGIONAL AND RESIDUAL ANOMALIES
A gravity anomaly results from the inhomogeneous distribution of density in the earth.
The appearance of a gravity anomaly is affected by the dimensions, density contrast and
the depth of anomalous body. The Bouguer anomaly fields are often characterized by a
broad and gently varying, regional anomaly which may be superimposed a number of
local anomalies. Usually in gravity surveying we are interested in local anomalies. Thus,
the first step in interpretation is the removal of regional anomaly.
Chapter 6
Gas Hydrate (“The Resource of Future Fuel”)
6.1 Introduction:
» The ever increasing demand of fossil fuels resources and depletion of
global energy reserves have necessitated looking for possible alternate
resources. Among all the resources ‘GAS HYDRATES’ are being given
much attention in the present scenario.
» Gas hydrates are the solid substances composed of water and low
molecular weight hydrocarbons (mainly methane) and are also known as
METHANE CLATHRATES.
» They are found worldwide, in the polar and oceanic sediments, where
temperature is low enough and pressure is sufficiently high to crystallize the
methane into gas hydrates.
» The study of gas hydrates has attracted the attention of scientific
community worldwide because of their widespread occurrence, potential as
future energy resources, possible role in climate change and submarine
geohazards.
» Methane stored within and trapped below the hydrated sediments has large
energy potential. It is estimated to be twice the amount of the total fossil
fuel energy reserves in the world.
6.2 What is Gas Hydrate ?
Gas Hydrates also called as gas Clathrates are naturally occurring an ice-
like crystalline solids composed of water molecules forming a rigid lattice
of cages with most of the cages each containing a molecule of natural gas,
mainly methane (other gases may be either of carbon dioxide, hydrogen
sulphide or any low number hydrocarbons). So gas molecules are trapped
within the framework of the cages of water molecules form at low
temperature and high pressure.
6.3 What is Clathrate ?
(or alternatively gas clathrates, gas hydrates, clathrates, hydrates etc):-
are a class of solids in which gas molecules occupy “cages” made
up of hydrogen-bonded water molecules. These “Cages” are unstable
when empty, collapsing into conventional ice crystal structure, but they are
stabilized by the inclusion of appropriately sized molecules within them.
Most low molecular weight gases (including O2, N2, CO2, CH2, H2S, Ar,
etc.).
6.4 Necessary Conditions For the Hydrate Formation :
Hydrates are ice like solids that form when-
There are 4 necessary conditions for the hydrate formation and stability :
i) Adequate supplies of water
Given appropriate temperature and pressure conditions, hydrates will only
form if sufficient amount of water is present.
ii) Excessive availability of methane, more that its solubility in water.
At a given appropriate temperature and pressure conditions, hydrate will
only form in adequate supplies of water and sufficient methane, such that a
necessary minimal percentage (roughly 70% or more) of the structural
cavities within the hydrate lattice are filled.
iii) Suitable temperature and pressure conditions:
Given adequate supplies of water and methane, curve representing the
stability of Gas Hydrate in sea water. This shows the combination of
temperature and pressures that marks the transition from a system of
coexisting free methane gas and water/ice solid methane hydrate. Temp. and
pressure are two of the major factors controlling where the hydrate (solid )
or methane gas will be stable.
When conditions move to the left across the boundary, Hydrate formation
will occur. Moving the right across the boundary results in the dissociation
of the hydrate structure and release of free water and methane.
iv) Geo-chemical effects:-
In addition to temperatures and pressure the composition of both the water
and the gas are critically important for the stability of gas hydrates in
specific settings. Experimental data collected so far have included both
freshwater and seawater. However, natural subsurface environments exhibit
significant variations in the chemistry of formation water, and these changes
shift the pressure/temperature phase boundary. Similarly, the presence of
small amounts of other natural gases, such as carbon dioxide (CO2),
hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and hydrocarbons such as ethane (C2H6) will
increase the stability of the hydrate.
6.6 Mechanism of Hydrate formation
Methane is formed in two ways:
» Biogenic
» Thermogenic
1. Biogenic methane is the common byproduct of the bacterial ingestion of
organic matter governed by the equation:
(CH2O)106 (NH3)16 (H2PO4) 53CO2+16NH3+H2PO4
The above reaction shows how methane is produced in the shallow
subsurface environments through biological alterations of organic matter.
The equation summarizes successive stages of oxidation and reduction by
nitrates, sulphates and carbonates. The same process produces methane in
swamps, landfills and rice paddies. The digestive tracts of mammals occur
continually within buried sediments in geological environments all around
methane and are considered to be the primary source of methane trapped
below the hydrated sediments within shallow seafloor sediments.
2. Second Thermogenic methane is produced by the combined action of
heat, pressure and time on buried organic material. In the geological past,
conditions have periodically recurred in which vast amounts of organic
matter were preserved within the sediment of shallow, inland seas. Over
time and with deep burial, these organic rich source beds are literally
pressure cooked with the output being the production of large quantities of
oil and natural goes along with the oil, the gas slowly migrates upwards due
to its buoyancy. If sufficient quantities reach the zone of hydrate stability,
the gas will combine with local formation water to form hydrate.
6.7 Physical properties of Gas Hydrates:
Summary of published values for acoustic properties in pure hydrates, water-
saturated sediment, gas-hydrated sediments, and gas-bearing sediments
(modified from Anderson, 1992).
6.8 Detection of Gas Hydrates :-
Fig. Simple synthetic seismogram that reproduces the main features of the
BSRs. The seafloor reflection results from the density contrast and the BSR
mainly from the velocity contrast. Although gas hydrate has been recognized
in drilled cores, its presence over large areas can be detected much more
efficiently by acoustical methods, using seismic-reflection profiles. Hydrate
has a very strong effect on acoustic reflections because it has a high acoustic
velocity (approximately 3.3 km/s – about twice that of sea-floor sediments),
and thus grains cemented with hydrate produce a high-velocity deposit due
to the mixing of hydrate with the sediment.
6.9 Interpreted Seismic Profile:
6.9.1 The BSR:
The contrasts in velocity created by the hydrate-cemented zone
produces a strong reflection called the “bottom simulating reflection”
Lower velocities below the hydrates occur because underlying water
saturated sediments have lower velocities (water velocity is about 1.5 km/s)
and often contain gas trapped by the overlying, less porous hydrate-
cemented sediments. This contrast produces a strong reflection. Because the
base of the gas-hydrate stable zone occurs at an approximately uniform sub-
bottom depth throughout any small area, the well-defined seismic reflection
from the base of the zone roughly parallels the sea (hence “bottom
simulating”).
6.9.2 Blanking
A second significant seismic characteristic of hydrate cementation is called
“blanking”. Blanking is the reduction of the amplitude(strength) of seismic
reflections that apparently is caused by cementation by hydrate of the strata
that form reflectors. The blanking effect occurs throughout the entire
hydrate-cemented zone and can be quantified to estimate the amount of gas
hydrate that is present.
6.10 Classification of Gas Hydrates
Hydrates are mainly of three types :-
I) Structure -I
II) Structure -II
III) Structure –H
Other types are also known and proposed, but they are not so common. The
crystal structures of hydrates are three- dimensional and are very
complicated.
6.10 Structure – I:
Smaller guest molecules form the Structure –I hydrates, Structure – 1
hydrates formers include :
Methane (CH4)
Ethane (C2H6)
Carbondioxide (CO2)
Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S)
Structure – I hydrates are made up of 8 polyhedral cages- 6 larger & 2
Smaller ones. They are made up of 46 water molecules and thus have a
theoretical; composition of 8X.4H2O. Where X is guest molecules.
Fig. Structure – I hydrate crystals form cages that can only hold small
hydrocarbon molecules inside. These commonly hold a single molecule of
methane (CH4)
6.10.2 Structure – II:
Relatively larger larger guest molecules form Structure – II hydrates.
Structure – II hydrates formers include :
Propane
Isobutane
However Nitrogen – a relatively smaller molecules may also form a
Structure- II hydrates. They are made up of 24 Polyhedral cages-8 larger
and 16 smaller ones. They are made up of 136 water molecules and thus
have a theoretical composition of 24X.136H2O.
Fig. Crystal with more complex structures can contain larger hydrocarbon
molecules. We predicted Structure II hydrates would exist based on
laboratory experiments, then discovered them in nature at Jolliet Field in the
Gulf of Mexico.
6.10.3 Structure – H :
Structure – H hydrates are formed only in the presence of both large and
small molecules. Structure- H hydrates are made up of 6 polyhedral
cages. 1 larger, 3 medium and 2 smaller ones. The larger molecules
occupies the small and medium cages. They are made up of 34 water
molecules and have a theoretical composition of X.5Y.34H2O. Where X is
large molecule and Y is small. Fig. Structure – H crystal cages can contain
iso- pentane, a relatively large, branched –chain hydrocarbon.
» The worldwide amount of methane in gas hydrates is considered to contain
at least 1x104 gigatons of carbon in a very conservative estimate). This is
about twice the amount of carbon held in all fossil fuels on earth.
» Locations of known and inferred gas hydrate occurrences in oceanic
sediments of outer continental margins and permafrost regions. Only a
limited number of gas hydrate deposits have been examined in any detail.
6.11 Important of Gas Hydrates :
(Gas Hydrate : Why do we study it?
Gas hydrate is an important topic for study for following three reasons :
1) It contains a great volume of methane, which indicates a potential as a future
energy resources:
When hydrate fills the pore space of sediment, it can reduce permeability and
create a gas trap. Such trapping of gas beneath may cause the formation of the most
concentrated hydrate deposits, due to the presence of a reservoir of gas below the hydrate
zone. The gas can continually migrate upwards to fill any open pore spaces. This process,
in turn, causes the trap to become more effective, producing highly concentrated
methane and methane hydrate reservoirs.
Gas from hydrate might become a major energy resource if economically profitable
techniques could be devised to extract its methane.
2) It may function as a source or sink for atmospheric methane, which may
influence global climate:
Methane from the hydrate reservoir might significantly modify the global
greenhouse, because methane is ~20 times as effective a greenhouse gas as carbon
dioxide, and gas hydrate may contain three orders of magnitude more methane than exists
in the present-day atmosphere. Because hydrate breakdown, causing release of methane
to the atmosphere can be related to pressure changes caused by glacial sea-level
fluctuations, gas hydrate may play a role in controlling long –term global climate change.
3) It can affect sediment strength, which can initiate landslides on the slope and
rise :
Gas hydrate apparently cements sediment, and therefore, it can have a significant effect
on sediment strength; its formation and breakdown may influence the occurrence and
location of submarine landslides. Such landslides may release methane into the
atmosphere, which may affect global climate.
Changes in water pressure due to sea level changes may generate landslides by
converting the hydrate to gas plus water, causing significant weakening of the sediments,
and generating a rise of pore pressure, Conversely, sea-floor landslides can cause
breakdown of hydrate by reducing the pressure in sediments. These interacting processes
may cause cascading slides, which would result in breakdown of hydrate and release of
methane to the atmosphere.
6.12 Gas Storage Capacity :
The structure of methane hydrate comprises methane molecules into a very dense
and compact arrangement. When dissociated at normal surface temperature and
pressures, a exist volume of solid methane hydrate with 100 percent void occupancy by
methane will release roughly 104 volume of methane gas at STP, It is to be stated that the
methane occupancy typically ranges to 70%. The maximum amount of methane that can
occur in methane hydrate is fined by the clathrates or lattice- structure geometry.
6.13 Fire in the Ice:
It’s fun to light gas hydrates with a match and watch the hydrocarbons burn like a
candle, leaving behind slightly salty water . Watching gas hydrate burn and produce heat
shows its value as an energy source. Rightly now there is worldwide interest in
exploiting energy from hydrates.
Z = k (p/f)1/2 …(7.1)
Where ‘pa’ is the apparent resistivity, E is the electric field intensity and H is
magnetic field intensity. Thus, apparent resistivity varies inversely with
frequency. The calculation of ‘pa’ for a number of decreasing frequencies
thus provides resistivity information at progressively increasing depths and
is a kind of vertical sounding. Hence, this method yields conductivity
information from much greater depths.
7.4 Interpretation
The end result of an MT survey is a paper and/or magnetic tape
record of electric and magnetic field variations. The recorded magnetic
fields consist of an external part from the ionosphere and internal part
related to the induced current distribution. These components must be
separated analytically. The electric and magnetic records contain numerous
frequencies, of which some are simply noise and some are of geophysical
interest. As a result, sophisticated data processing is required, involving
power spectrum analysis and filtering.
Hydrology Chapter 8
The movement of water around, over, and through the Earth is called
the water cycle.
Description
The water cycle has no starting or ending point. The sun, which drives
the water cycle, heats water in the oceans. Some of it evaporates as vapor
into the air, Ice and snow can sublimate directly into water vapor. Rising air
currents takes the vapor up into the atmosphere, along with water from
evapotranspiration which is water transpired from plants and evaporated
from the soil. The vapor rises into the air where cooler temperatures cause it
to condense into clouds. Air currents move clouds around the globe, cloud
particles collide, grow, and fall out of the sky as precipitation. Some
precipitation falls as snow and can accumulate as ice caps and glaciers,
which can store frozen water for thousand of years. Snow packs in warmer
climates often thaw and melt when spring arrives, and the melted water
flows overland as snowmelt. Most precipitation falls back into the oceans or
onto land, where, due to gravity, the precipitation flows over the ground as
surface runoff. A portion of runoff enters rivers in valleys in the landscape ,
with streamflow moving water towards the oceans. Runoff, and ground-
water seepage, accumulate and are stored as freshwater in lakes. Not all
runoff flows into rivers, much of it soaks into the ground as infiltration.
Some water infiltrates deep into the ground and replenishes faquifers
(saturated subsurface rock), which store huge amounts of freshwater for long
periods of time . some infiltration stays close to the land surface and can
seep back into surface-water bodies (and the ocean) as ground-water
discharge, and some ground water finds openings in the land surface and
emerges as freshwater springs. Over time, the water continues flowing, some
to reenter the ocean, where the water cycle renews itself.
» Runoff includes the variety of ways by which water moves across the
land. This includes both surface runoff and channel runoff. As it flows the
water may infiltrate into the ground, evaporate into the air, become stored in
lakes or reservoirs, or be extracted for agricultural or other human uses.
» Infiltration is the flow of water from the ground surface into the ground.
Once infiltrated, the water becomes soil moisture or groundwater.
» Subsurface flow is the flow of water underground, in the vadose zone and
aquifers. Subsurface water may return to the surface (eg. As a spring or by
being pumped) or eventually seep into the oceans. Water returns to the land
surface at lower elevation than where it infiltrated, under the force of gravity
or gravity induced pressures. Groundwater tends to move slowly, and is
replenished slowly, so it can remain in aquifers for thousands of years.
» Sublimation is the state change directly from soid water (snow or ice) to
water vapor.
» Reservoirs
Most rock or soil near the earth’s surface is composed of solids and
voids. The voids are spaces between grains of sand, or cracks in dense rock.
All water beneath the land surface occurs within such void spaces and is
referred to as underground or subsurface water, Subsurface water occurs in
two different zones. One zone, located immediately beneath the land
surface4 in most areas, contains both water and air in the voids. This zone is
referred to as the unsaturated zone. Other names for the unsaturated zone
are zone of aeration and vadose zone.
Water table is often misused as a synonym for ground water. However the
water table is actually the boundary between the unsaturated and saturated
zones. It represents the upper surface of the ground water. Technically
speaking, it is the level at which the hydraulic pressure is equal to
atmospheric pressure. The water level found in unused wells is ofter the
same level as the water table, as shown in Figure 2.2.
All geologic material beneath the earth’s surface is either a potential aquifer
or a confining bed. An aquifer is a saturated geologic formation that will
yield a usable quantity of water to a well or spring. A confining bed is a
geologic unit which is relatively impermeable and does not yield usable
quantities of water. Confining beds, also referred to as aquitards, restrict the
movement of ground water into and out of adjacent aquifers.
Unconfined aquifers are often shallow and frequently overlie one or more
confined aquifers. They are recharged through permeable soils and
subsurface materials above the aquifer. Because they are usually the
uppermost aquifer, unconfined aquifers are also called water table aquifers.
Confined aquifers usually occur at considerable depth and may overlie other
confined aquifers. They are often recharged through cracks or openings in
impermeable layers above or below them. Confined aquifers in complex
geological formations may be exposed at the land surface and can be directly
recharged from infiltrating precipitation. Confined aquifers can also receive
recharge from an adjacent highland area such as a mountain range. Water
infiltrating fractured rock in the mountains may flow downward and then
move laterally into confined aquifers.
The water level in a confined aquifer does not rise and fall freely because it
is bounded by the confining bed—like a lid. Being bounded causes the water
to become pressurized. In some cases, the pressure in a confined aquifer is
sufficient for a well to spout water several feet above the ground. Such wells
are called flowing artesian wells. Confined aquifers are also sometimes
called artesian aquifers.
When a well is drilled into an unconfined aquifer, its water level is generally
at the same level as the upper surface of the aquifer. This is, in most cases,
the water table. By contrast, when a well is drilled into a confined aquifer, its
water level will be at some height above the top of the aquifer and perhaps
above the surface of the land –depending on how much the water is
pressurized. If a number of wells are drilled into a confined aquifer, the
water level will rise in each well to a certain level. These well levels form an
imaginary surface called the potentiometric surface. The potentiometric
surface is to a confined aquifer what the water table is to an unconfined
aquifer. It describes at what level the upper surface of a confined aquifer
would occur if the confining bed were removed.
Discharge areas are the opposite of recharge areas, They are the
locations at which ground water leaves the aquifer and flows to the surface.
Ground water discharge occurs where the water table or potentiometric
surface intersects the land surface. Where this happens, springs or seeps are
found. Springs and seeps may flow into fresh water bodies, such as lakes or
streams, or they may flow into saltwater bodies.
Under the force of gravity, ground water generally flows from high
areas to low areas. Consequently, high areas-such as hills or plateaus-are
typically where aquifers are recharged and low areas-such as river valleys-
are where they discharge. However, in many instances aquifers occur
beneath rover valleys, so river valleys can also be important recharge areas.
Typically recharge and discharge areas are depicted in Figure 2.4.
Gravity is the force that moves ground water which generally means it
moves downward. However, ground water can also move upwards if the
pressure in a deeper aquifer is higher than that of the aquifer above it .This
often occurs where pressurized beneath unconfined aquifers.
A ground water divide, like a surface water divide, indicates distinct ground
water flow regions within an aquifer. A divide is defined by a line on the
either side of which ground water moves in opposite directions. Ground
water divides often occur in highland areas, and in some geologic
environments coincide with surface water divides. This is common where
aquifers are shallow and strongly influenced by surface water flow. Where
there are deep aquifers, surface and ground water flows may have little or no
relationship.
In general, course-grained sands and gravels readily transmit water and have
high hydraulic conductivities (in the range of 50-1000 m/day). Fine grained
silts and clays transmit water poorly and have low hydraulic conductivities
(in the range of .001-0.1 m/day).
The porosity of an aquifer also has a bearing on its ability to transmit water.
Porosity is a measure of the amount of open space in an aquifer. Both clays
and gravels typically have high porosities, while silts, sands and mixtures of
different grain sizes tend to have low porosities.
The velocity at which water travels through an aquifer is proportional to the
hydraulic conductivity and hydraulic gradient, and inversely proportional to
the porosity. Of these three factors, hydraulic conductivity generally has the
most effect on velocity. Thus, aquifers with high hydraulic conductivities,
such as sand and gravel deposits, will generally transmit water faster than
aquifers with lower hydraulic conductivities, such as silt or clay beds.
Ground water velocities are typically very slow, ranging from around a
centimeter per day to almost a meter per day. However, some very rapid
flow can occur in rock with solution cavities or in fractured rock. Very high
flow rates (more than 15 m/day) are associated, for example, with some
parts of the Columbia River basalt in eastern Washington.
When water is withdrawn from a well, its water level drops. When the water
level falls below the water level of the surrounding aquifer, ground water
flows into the well. The rate of inflow increases until it equals the rate of
withdrawal.
The movement of water from an aquifer into a well alters the surface of the
aquifer around the well. It forms what is called a cone of depression. A
cone of depression a funnel-shaped drop in the aquifer’s surface. The well
itself penetrates the bottom of the cone. Within a cone of depression, all
ground water flows to the well. The outer limits of the cone define the well’s
area of influence.
ø= Vp
Vm (8.1)
Where Vp is the non solid volume (pores and liquid) and Vm is the
total volume of
Porosity is a fraction between 0 and 1, typically ranging from less than 0.01
forsolid granite to more than 0.5 for peat and clay, although it may also be
represented in percent terms by multiplying the fraction by 100%.
There are mainly three types of porosity which are described below –
Secondary porosity – The porosity which occur after the rock forming
process complete. This can be a result of chemical leeching of minerals or
the generation of a fracture system. This can replace the primary porosity or
coexist with it.
8.8 PERMEABILITY
In geology, permeability is a measure of the ability of a material to transmit
fluids through it. It is of great importance in determining the flow
characteristics of hydrocarbons in oil and gas reservoirs, and of groundwater
in aquifers. The usual unit for permeability is the darcy, or more commonly
the milli-darcy or md (1 darcy ≈ 10 -12 m2 ).
Permeability is part of the proportionality constant in Darcy’s law
which relates discharge (flow rate) and fluid physical properties (e.g
viscosity), to a pressure gradient applied to the porous media. The
proportionality constant specifically for the flow of water through a porous
media is the hydraulic conductivity; permeability is a portion of this, and is a
property of the porous media only, not the fluid. In naturally occurring
materials, it ranges over many orders of magnitude.
High permeability often goes hand in hand with high porosity and
large grain size. Connections between pore spaces are wider in coarse-
grained sediment (sand, gravel ) and rock (sandstone, conglomerate ) and
are narrower in fine-grained materials (silt, clay, shale, and mudstone).
However, not all pore spaces may be connected while others may contain
clay minerals that can expand in the presence of water to block passageways
and reduce permeability. Surface water films in fine-grained materials may
fill the narrow connections between pore spaces blocking the passage of
fluid.
There are different types of permeability which are mention below-
Absolute permeability – is the permeability when one type of fluid is
present in the pores.
Effective permeability – is the permeability with more than one fluid is
present in the pore space and sit is less than the absolute permeability.
Relative permeability – is a ratio of the effective permeability of specific
fluid and the absolute permeability.
A thin layer of water will always be attracted to mineral grains due to the
unsatisfied ionic charge on the surface. This is called the force of molecular
attraction. If the size of interconnections is not as large as the zone of
molecular attraction, the water can’t move. Thus, coarse-grained rocks are
usually more permeable than fine-grained rocks, and sands are more
permeable than clays.
Water Quality Groundwater Contamination
Water quality refers to such things as the temperature of the water, he
amount of dissolved solids, and lack of toxic and biological pollutants.
Water that contains a high amount of dissolved material through the action
of chemical weathering can have a bitter taste, and is commonly referred to
as hard water. Hot water can occur if water comes from a deep source or
encounters a cooling magma body on its traverse through the groundmal
energy, but is not usually desirable for human consumption or agricultural
purpose. Most pollution of groundwater is the result of biological activity,
much of it human. Among the sources of contamination are :
• Sewers and septic tanks
• Waste dumps (both industrial and residential ).
• Gasoline Tanks (like occur beneath all service stations).
• Biological waste products – Biological contaminates can be removed
from the groundwater by natural processes if the aquifer has
interconnections between pores that are smaller than the microbes.
For example a sandy aquifer may act as a filter for biological
contaminates.
• Agricultural pollutants such as fertilizers and pesticides.
• Salt water contamination – results from excessive discharge of fresh
groundwater in coastal areas.
Paleomagnetism Chapter 9
9.1 Introduction
That science of palaeomagnetism is concerned with studies of the
magnetism that is retained in rocks. In the late 19th century geologists
discovered that rocks can carry a stable record of the geomagnetic field
direction of the time of their formation. From the magnetization direction it
is possible to calculate the position of the magnetic pole at that time.
Measurement of its direction can be used to determine the latitude at which
the rocks was created. If this latitude differs from the present latitude at
which rock found, s strong evidence of its movement can be made. In this
way Palaeomagnetism study provides the quantitative estimates of the
relative continental movements.
9.2 Remanent Magnetism in rocks
Palaeomagnetic technique is based on the phenomenon that certain
minerals are capable of retaining record of passed direction of the Earth’s
magnetic fields. In practice remanent often contributes to the total
magnetization in rocks , both in magnitude and direction. The effect is very
complicated because of dependence upon the magnetic history of the rocks.
The untreated remanence of a rock is called its natural remanent
magnetization (NRM). It may be made up of several components acquired in
different ways and at different times.
A remanence acquired at or close to the time of tis
formation of the rock (e.g. TRM ) is called a primary magnetization; a
remanence acquired at a later time is called secondary magnetization.
Various types of remanent magnetisms are :
1) Thermo remanent magnetization
At high temperature a ferromagnetic material exhibits paramagnetic
behavior. As rock cools below the curie temperature, some minerals
( perticulaly magnetite) changes from paramagnetic to the much stronger,
ferromagnetic behavior.
The rocks acquire a large, thermoremanant magnetization as magnetic
domains orient Themselvesto earth’s ambient field.
2) Detrital remanent magnetization
Tsunami Chapter 10
10.1 WHAT IS TSUNAMI ?
Tsunami is a Japanese word represented by two characters ‘tsu’
(meaning ‘harbor’) and ‘name’ (meaning ‘wave’). When major earthquake
occurs under the ocean , it can trigger a long period waves. These waves has
less amplitude in the deep oceans but amplitude grows as these head towards
the coastal areas and may become about 30 feer high on rhe coasts. Over the
open ocean velocity of these waves is around 800 km/hr and wavelength 200
km. Sometimes
10.2 Some facts about tsunami:
» tsunami is a serious of gravity waves formed in the sea as a result of a
large scale disturbance of sea level over a short duration of time. In the
process of sea level returning to equilibrium through a serious of
oscillations, waves are generated which propagate in all directions.
» Tsunami travel outward in all directions from the generating area,
with the direction of the main energy propagation being orthogonal to the
direction of earthquake fracture zone.
A tsunami is not one wave, but a series of waves. The time interval between
the passages of successive waves crests at a given point usually varies from
» Speed of tsunami = √ (g.h)
Where g: acceleration due to gravity,.
H: Water Depth
» As the rate of which a wave losses its energy is inversely proportional to
its wavelength, so tsunami cannot only propagate with high speeds, but they
can travel great distances with very little energy losses.
Shoaling Effect : In deep waters, tsunami will travel at high speeds with
little loss of energy. As s tsunami leaves deep water of open sea and arrives
at shallow waters near the coast, it under goes a transformation. Since the
speed of tsunami is related to water depth, so its speed decreases with
decrease in the depth of wate and also sue to friction. On the coast the speed
of the waves decreases of about 50 to 60 km/hr. When a tsunami ahs reached
the shore, successive waves pile up onto each other forming a pile of waves
due to which the tsunami waves get compressed near the coast. This result in
shortening of their wavelength and their wave energy is directed upwards.
As the total energy of the tsunami remains constant, hence, the height of
these waves grow tremendously. This is known as ‘Shoaling Effect’.
sin(i) = v1
sin(r) v2 ..(11.1)
from equation (12.1) two cases can arise :
Case (i) if V1 > V2 then from (12.1) we have
Sin (i) > sin (r)
Critical Refraction
Critical refraction requires an increase in velocity with depth. If not,
then there is no critical refraction. When the rays are incident on an interface
(V2 > V1 ) at such an angle ‘ic’ such that rays are refracted along the
interface, then the phenomenon is called ‘Critical Refraction’. Here , angle
‘ic’ is called ‘Critical Angle’. Thus ‘Critical Angle’ is that angle of
incidence at which the angle of refraction is 900 . For critical refraction, we
have
i=ic and = 900
Hence, equation (12.1) becomes
Sin(ic) = V1
Sin (900 ) V2
Sin(ic ) = V1 /V2 …(11.2)
This phenomenon is the basis of reflection surveying method.
The energy from the source travels directly through the upper layer and
also, it is critically refracted in the lower layer (as shown above ). Let, ‘x’ be
the distance the source ‘S’ and the receiver ‘G’. The direct ray travels
horizontally through the top of the upper layer from the source to receiver,
with velocity ‘V1’. Hence, the travel time for the direct waves is,
T direct = x/V1 …(11.3)
The equation (11.3) represents the equation of a straight line having slope,
m1 = 1/V1 and passes through the origin.
The critically refracted ray travels just below the interface, in the
lower layer with velocity ‘V2 and returns to the surface with velocity ‘V1 ‘ at
the geophone. Thus the total travel time for the refracted ray is,
trefracted = SA + AB + BG …(11.4)
V1 V2 V3
Applying the Snell’s Law, we finally get the travel time of the refracted ray
as,
V2 V1 V2
These equations (11.5) and (11.6) are called the ‘Travel Time
Equation’ for a single horizontal interface. This equation also represents a
straight line having slope, m2 = 1/ V2.
Now the travel time versus distance curve is obtained by plotting the
different travel times corresponding to the different between ‘S’ and ‘G’.
The time – distance curve for refraction are as shown below.
Intercept Time
By backward interpolation, the refraction T – x curve is found to
intersect the time axis at the ‘Intercept Time (ti ). Actually it has no physical
significance. This time represents the travel times for zero offset distance
(i.e., for x=0). Putting x=0 in the travel time equation, we get the
expression for the intercept time, as
ti = 2h(V22 – V12 )1/2 or ti = 2hcos(ic ) …(11.7)
V1 V2 V1 V2
As V1 ,V2 and ti are known ; hence we can calculate the thickness (h) of the
upper layer, from equation (11.7).
Critical Distance:
It is defined as the minimum distance from the energy source at which the
first critical refraction or reflection is received. It is denoted by ‘ x crit’
and is given by
x crit = 2htan (ic ) …(2.8)
Xco =
2h(V2 V1 )1/2
…(11.9)
V2 -V1
Assumption
• Subsurface composed of stack of layers, usually separated
• Seismic velocity is uniform in each layer
• Layer velocities increase in depth
• All ray paths are located in vertical plane, i.e. no 3-D
Effects with layers dipping out plane of profile
Figure (11.8)
Use a layer – stripping approach
1. Solve two - layer case using direct arrival and critical refraction from
second layer to get thickness of first layer.
2. Solve for thickness of second layer using all three velocities and
thickness of first layer using equation no. (11.11).
Layers may not be detected by first arrival analysis
(A) Velocity inversion produces no critical refraction from
second layer
(B) Insufficient velocity contrast refraction difficult to denitrify
(C) Refraction from thin layer does not become first arrival
(D) Geophone spacing too large to identify second refraction
Tomography Chapter 12
12.1 Introduction
‘Tomography’ means ‘representation in a cross section’. Any procedure
that allows constructing a 3- dimensional image of the object being
modeled is a called ‘Tomography’.
The use of computer – aided tomography (CAT ) in medical diagnosis
is a process of examining the internal organs for abnormal regions within
the human body. X- rays or ultrasonic waves are used for this purpose,
as they are absorbed unequally by different materials. Thus, CAT scan
consists of studying the attenuation of X-rays or ultrasonic waves that
pass through the body in planar sections. ‘Seismic Tomography’ is based
on the same principle. The difference is that here the travel times of the
signals are observed and not the attenuation of signals is observed. Also,
illumination is produced by earthquake rays (i.e., seismic waves) instead
of X- rays or ultrasonic waves.
Hence, seismic tomography is described as the 3- dimensional
modeling of velocity distribution of seismic waves in the Earth. This
technique requires powerful computational facilities. This method
constitutes a powerful approach in studying the internal structure of Earth
and various tectonic processes.
First step in seismic tomography consists of back-projecting the ray
from the recording station to its source so as to construct the path along
which an observed anomaly is to be distributed. Quantities investigated
are the travel times and amplitudes of some particular wave types. The
travel time of a seismic wave from an earthquake focus to a seismograph
is determined by the velocity distribution along its path. Also, seismic
body wave’s from distant earthquake reach the recording station at times
which are significantly different from those predicted for radially
symmetrical standard earth model. The difference between the observed
and the calculated travel times is called ‘Teleseismic Residual’.
These residual are found to be a function of geographic location of the
receiver, its distance from epicenter and azimuth from which seismic
waves arrive. Teleseismic record by a dense array of seismometers
located over the region of interest provides data for tomography. The
observed arrival times of first seismic phases (i.e. , P, PKP) are read
from the seismograms. While theoretical travel times are estimated from
the knowledge of hypocenter coordinates using a standard seismological
table.
Thus,
Travel Time Residual = Tij obs. - Tij th
…(12.1)
obs.
Tij = Observed travel time at station ‘i’ for event ‘j’
Tij th = Theoretical or computed travel time for the same event.
References